622:. The stability of long-term memory can persist for many years; nevertheless, synapses, the neurological basis of memory, are very dynamic. The formation of synaptic connections significantly depends on activity-dependent synaptic plasticity observed in various synaptic pathways. Indeed, the connection between memory formation and alterations in synaptic efficacy enables the reinforcement of neuronal interactions between neurons. As neurotransmitters activate receptors across the synaptic cleft, the connection between the two neurons is strengthened when both neurons are active at the same time, as a result of the receptor's signaling mechanisms. The strength of two connected neural pathways is thought to result in the storage of information, resulting in memory. This process of synaptic strengthening is known as
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diseases, synaptopathy is thought to be the inevitable end-result of an ongoing pathophysiological cascade. These diseases are identified by a gradual loss in cognitive and behavioral function and a steady loss of brain tissue. Moreover, these deteriorations have been mostly linked to the gradual build-up of protein aggregates in neurons, the composition of which may vary based on the pathology; all have the same deleterious effects on neuronal integrity. Furthermore, the high number of mutations linked to synaptic structure and function, as well as dendritic spine alterations in post-mortem tissue, has led to the association between synaptic defects and neurodevelopmental disorders, such as ASD and SCZ, characterized by abnormal behavioral or cognitive phenotypes.
334:. Opening Cl- channels tends to buffer the membrane potential, but this effect is countered when the membrane starts to depolarize, allowing more negatively charged Cl- ions to enter the cell. Consequently, it becomes more difficult to depolarize the membrane and excite the cell when Cl- channels are open. Similar effects result from the opening of K+ channels. The significance of inhibitory neurotransmitters is evident from the effects of toxins that impede their activity. For instance, strychnine binds to glycine receptors, blocking the action of glycine and leading to muscle spasms, convulsions, and death.
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reducing firing. Depending on their release location, the receptors they bind to, and the ionic circumstances they encounter, various transmitters can be either excitatory or inhibitory. For instance, acetylcholine can either excite or inhibit depending on the type of receptors it binds to. For example, glutamate serves as an excitatory neurotransmitter, in contrast to GABA, which acts as an inhibitory neurotransmitter. Additionally, dopamine is a neurotransmitter that exerts dual effects, displaying both excitatory and inhibitory impacts through binding to distinct receptors.
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114:. Synapses (at least chemical synapses) are stabilized in position by synaptic adhesion molecules (SAMs) projecting from both the pre- and post-synaptic neuron and sticking together where they overlap; SAMs may also assist in the generation and functioning of synapses. Moreover, SAMs coordinate the formation of synapses, with various types working together to achieve the remarkable specificity of synapses. In essence, SAMs function in both excitatory and inhibitory synapses, likely serving as devices for signal transmission.
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molecule binding, causing a momentary alteration in the membrane's permeability. Additionally, transmitter-gated channels are comparatively less sensitive to the membrane potential than voltage-gated channels, which is why they are unable to generate self-amplifying excitement on their own. However, they result in graded variations in membrane potential due to local permeability, influenced by the amount and duration of neurotransmitter released at the synapse.
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an electrical alteration in the postsynaptic cell and rapidly diffuses across the synaptic cleft. Once released, the neurotransmitter is swiftly eliminated, either by being absorbed by the nerve terminal that produced it, taken up by nearby glial cells, or broken down by specific enzymes in the synaptic cleft. Numerous Na+-dependent neurotransmitter carrier proteins recycle the neurotransmitters and enable the cells to maintain rapid rates of release.
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to environmental biochemical processes can lead to synaptic dysfunction. The synapse is the primary unit of information transfer in the nervous system, and correct synaptic contact creation during development is essential for normal brain function. In addition, several mutations have been connected to neurodevelopmental disorders, and that compromised function at different synapse locations is a hallmark of neurodegenerative diseases.
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that are capable of passing an electric current, causing voltage changes in the presynaptic cell to induce voltage changes in the postsynaptic cell. In fact, gap junctions facilitate the direct flow of electrical current without the need for neurotransmitters, as well as small molecules like calcium.
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Synapses are essential to the transmission of nervous impulses from one neuron to another, playing a key role in enabling rapid and direct communication by creating circuits. In addition, a synapse serves as a junction where both the transmission and processing of information occur, making it a vital
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Nevertheless, due to limited access to human tissue at late stages and a lack of thorough assessment of the essential components of human diseases in the available experimental animal models, it has been difficult to fully grasp the origin and role of synaptic dysfunction in neurological disorders.
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Synaptic defects are causally associated with early appearing neurological diseases, including autism spectrum disorders (ASD), schizophrenia (SCZ), and bipolar disorder (BP). On the other hand, in late-onset degenerative pathologies, such as
Alzheimer's (AD), Parkinson's (PD), and Huntington's (HD)
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Synapses function as ensembles within particular brain networks to control the amount of neuronal activity, which is essential for memory, learning, and behavior. Consequently, synaptic disruptions might have negative effects. In fact, alterations in cell-intrinsic molecular systems or modifications
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Moreover, Ca2+/calmodulin (CaM)-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) is best recognized for its roles in the brain, particularly in the neocortex and hippocampal regions because it serves as a ubiquitous mediator of cellular Ca2+ signals. CaMKII is abundant in the nervous system, mainly concentrated
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In nerve terminals, synaptic vesicles are produced quickly to compensate for their rapid depletion during neurotransmitter release. Their biogenesis involves segregating synaptic vesicle membrane proteins from other cellular proteins and packaging those distinct proteins into vesicles of appropriate
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At chemical synapses, transmitter-gated ion channels play a vital role in rapidly converting extracellular chemical impulses into electrical signals. These channels are located in the postsynaptic cell's plasma membrane at the synapse region, and they temporarily open in response to neurotransmitter
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Neurotransmitters are tiny signal molecules stored in membrane-enclosed synaptic vesicles and released via exocytosis. Indeed, a change in electrical potential in the presynaptic cell triggers the release of these molecules. By attaching to transmitter-gated ion channels, the neurotransmitter causes
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Drugs have long been considered crucial targets for transmitter-gated ion channels. The majority of medications utilized to treat schizophrenia, anxiety, depression, and sleeplessness work at chemical synapses, and many of these pharmaceuticals function by binding to transmitter-gated channels. For
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Synapses can be classified by the type of cellular structures serving as the pre- and post-synaptic components. The vast majority of synapses in the mammalian nervous system are classical axo-dendritic synapses (axon synapsing upon a dendrite), however, a variety of other arrangements exist. These
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However, while the synaptic gap remained a theoretical construct, and was sometimes reported as a discontinuity between contiguous axonal terminations and dendrites or cell bodies, histological methods using the best light microscopes of the day could not visually resolve their separation which is
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While Ca2+/CaM binding stimulates CaMKII activity, Ca2+-independent autonomous CaMKII activity can also be produced by a number of other processes. CaMKII becomes active by autophosphorylating itself upon Ca2+/calmodulin binding. CaMKII is still active and phosphorylates itself even after Ca2+ is
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to travel directionally (from dendrites to cell body down the axon), and for these signals to then be received and carried on by post-synaptic neurons or received by effector cells. Nerve cells have long been used as models for cellular polarization, and of particular interest are the mechanisms
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process, in which these compounds are synthesized in and released from postsynaptic neuronal elements and travel back to the presynaptic terminal to act on the CB1 receptor for short-term or long-term synaptic depression, that causes a short or long lasting decrease in neurotransmitter release.
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An influx of Na+ driven by excitatory neurotransmitters opens cation channels, depolarizing the postsynaptic membrane toward the action potential threshold. In contrast, inhibitory neurotransmitters cause the postsynaptic membrane to become less depolarized by opening either Cl- or K+ channels,
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Neurotransmitters bind to ionotropic receptors on postsynaptic neurons, either causing their opening or closing. The variations in the quantities of neurotransmitters released from the presynaptic neuron may play a role in regulating the effectiveness of synaptic transmission. In fact, the
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Furthermore, psychoactive drugs could potentially target many other synaptic signalling machinery components. In fact, numerous neurotransmitters are released by Na+-driven carriers and are subsequently removed from the synaptic cleft. By inhibiting such carriers, synaptic transmission is
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strengthened as the action of the transmitter is prolonged. For example, Prozac is an antidepressant medication that works by preventing the absorption of serotonin neurotransmitter. Also, other antidepressants operate by inhibiting the reabsorption of both serotonin and norepinephrine.
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cleaved; as a result, the brain stores long-term memories using this mechanism. Nevertheless, when the CaMKII enzyme is dephosphorylated by a phosphatase enzyme, it becomes inactive, and memories are lost. Hence, CaMKII plays a vital role in both the induction and maintenance of LTP.
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located in the plasma membrane of the postsynaptic cell. The neurotransmitter may initiate an electrical response or a secondary messenger pathway that may either excite or inhibit the postsynaptic neuron. Chemical synapses can be classified according to the neurotransmitter released:
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in the synapses in the nerve cells. Indeed, CaMKII has been definitively identified as a key regulator of cognitive processes, such as learning, and neural plasticity. The first concrete experimental evidence for the long-assumed function of CaMKII in memory storage was demonstrated
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By altering the release of neurotransmitters, the plasticity of synapses can be controlled in the presynaptic cell. The postsynaptic cell can be regulated by altering the function and number of its receptors. Changes in postsynaptic signaling are most commonly associated with a
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The formation of neural circuits in nervous systems appears to heavily depend on the crucial interactions between chemical and electrical synapses. Thus these interactions govern the generation of synaptic transmission. Synaptic communication is distinct from an
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now known to be about 20 nm. It needed the electron microscope in the 1950s to show the finer structure of the synapse with its separate, parallel pre- and postsynaptic membranes and processes, and the cleft between the two.
67:, neurons are coupled bidirectionally in continuous-time to each other and are known to produce synchronous network activity in the brain. As such, signal directionality cannot always be defined across electrical synapses.
599:, which conceptualizes Alzheimer's as an imbalance between these processes. As of October 2023, studies concerning this protocol remain small and few results have been obtained within a standardized control framework.
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genes demonstrated behavioral and localization defects, which were rescued by expression of IMPase. This led to the conclusion that IMPase is required for the correct localization of synaptic protein components. The
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instance, some drugs like barbiturates and tranquilizers bind to GABA receptors and enhance the inhibitory effect of GABA neurotransmitter. Thus, reduced concentration of GABA enables the opening of Cl- channels.
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Mixed chemical electrical synapses are synaptic sites that feature both a gap junction and neurotransmitter release. This combination allows a signal to have both a fast component (electrical) and a slow component
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In fact, the axon can synapse onto a dendrite, onto a cell body, or onto another axon or axon terminal, as well as into the bloodstream or diffusely into the adjacent nervous tissue.
516:. The activation of GPCRs located at the presynaptic terminal, can decrease the probability of neurotransmitter release. This presynaptic depression involves activation of
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Recently, mechanical tension, a phenomenon never thought relevant to synapse function has been found to be required for those on hippocampal neurons to fire.
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means of communication between neurons. Neurons are specialized to pass signals to individual target cells, and synapses are the means by which they do so.
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gene were largely reversed. These results suggest that PIP2 signaling establishes polarized localization of synaptic components in living neurons.
2517:"Synaptic dysfunction in neurodegenerative and neurodevelopmental diseases: an overview of induced pluripotent stem-cell-based disease models"
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refer to synapse-producing and synapse-removing activities within the biochemical signalling chain. This terminology is associated with the
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638:(LTD) due to the influx of calcium into the post-synaptic cell, which are the most analyzed forms of plasticity at excitatory synapses.
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Inhibitory synapse: Diminishes the probability of depolarization in postsynaptic neurons and the initiation of an action potential.
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that link the two membranes together and carry out the signaling process. In many synapses, the presynaptic part is located on an
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2099:"Synaptic polarity depends on phosphatidylinositol signaling regulated by myo-inositol monophosphatase in Caenorhabditis elegans"
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Excitatory synapse: Enhances the probability of depolarization in postsynaptic neurons and the initiation of an action potential.
2152:"Inositol monophosphatase regulates localization of synaptic components and behavior in the mature nervous system of C. elegans"
1713:
Sotelo C, Palay SL (February 1970). "The fine structure of the later vestibular nucleus in the rat. II. Synaptic organization".
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Perea G, Navarrete M, Araque A (August 2009). "Tripartite synapses: astrocytes process and control synaptic information".
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concentration of cytoplasmic calcium is involved in regulating the release of neurotransmitters from presynaptic neurons.
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proposed that neurons are not continuous throughout the body, yet still communicate with each other, an idea known as the
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is a chemical or electrical synapse that forms when the axon of one neuron synapses onto dendrites of the same neuron.
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Stanley EF (1992). "The calyx-type synapse of the chick ciliary ganglion as a model of fast cholinergic transmission".
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700:. These synapses are small, but their pre- and postsynaptic neurons are well separated (CA3 and CA1, respectively).
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also exchange information with the synaptic neurons, responding to synaptic activity and, in turn, regulating
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Thus, the main advantage of an electrical synapse is the rapid transfer of signals from one cell to the next.
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size. Besides, it entails the endocytosis of synaptic vesicle membrane proteins from the plasma membrane.
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258:
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Strausfeld NJ, Bassemir UK (December 1983). "Cobalt-coupled neurons of a giant fibre system in
Diptera".
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For technical reasons, synaptic structure and function have been historically studied at unusually large
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prevents Cl- from entering the cell, even when its concentration is much higher outside than inside. The
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2207:. Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology. Vol. 184. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. pp. 435–477.
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to another neuron or to the target effector cell. Synapses can be chemical or electrical. In case of
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Joy MS, Nall DL, Emon B, Lee KY, Barishman A, Ahmed M, Rahman S, Selvin PR, Saif MT (2023-12-26).
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Lovinger DM (2008). "Presynaptic
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1848:"A serotonergic axon-cilium synapse drives nuclear signaling to alter chromatin accessibility"
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351:, axo-secretory, axo-ciliary, somato-dendritic, dendro-somatic, and somato-somatic synapses.
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280:, the presynaptic and postsynaptic cell membranes are connected by special channels called
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elements, and the actual term "synapse" was suggested by the
English classical scholar
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60:
48:
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Sheu SH, Upadhyayula S, Dupuy V, Pang S, Deng F, Wan J, et al. (September 2022).
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1929:"Synapses without tension fail to fire in an in vitro network of hippocampal neurons"
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The word synapse first appeared in 1897, in the seventh edition of
Michael Foster's
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232:, electrical activity in the presynaptic neuron is converted (via the activation of
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281:
1435:"Some features of the submicroscopic morphology of synapses in frog and earthworm"
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Tansey EM (1997). "Not committing barbarisms: Sherrington and the synapse, 1897".
298:, in which communication between neurons occurs via indirect electric fields. An
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141:. Sherrington struggled to find a good term that emphasized a union between two
90:) cell. Both the presynaptic and postsynaptic sites contain extensive arrays of
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Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
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2345:"Changes of synaptic structures associated with learning, memory and diseases"
1633:"Electrical synapses and their functional interactions with chemical synapses"
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83:
17:
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1960:
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129:. The word "synapse" was introduced in 1897 by the English neurophysiologist
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It is widely accepted that the synapse plays a key role in the formation of
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39:
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2378:"Regulation of excitatory synapses and fearful memories by stress hormones"
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Tanizawa Y, Kuhara A, Inada H, Kodama E, Mizuno T, Mori I (December 2006).
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located at the presynaptic terminal, are involved in this modulation by a
446:) are molecules that have been shown to affect neuronal polarity. A gene (
30:
This article is about synapses of the nervous system. For other uses, see
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966:"Electrical Coupling and Neuronal Synchronization in the Mammalian Brain"
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224:
Chemical and electrical synapses are two ways of synaptic transmission.
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that mediate different inhibitory mechanisms, including inhibition of
273:, chemical synapses can have complex effects on the postsynaptic cell.
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675:(NMJ), a cholinergic synapse in vertebrates, glutamatergic in insects
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543:
400:
Controlling the release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft.
56:
2493:
2097:
Kimata T, Tanizawa Y, Can Y, Ikeda S, Kuhara A, Mori I (June 2012).
2031:. In Siegel GJ, Agranoff BW, Albers RW, Fisher SK, Uhler MD (eds.).
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Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P (2002).
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The chemical transmission involves several sequential processes:
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1901:"Scientists discover new kind of synapse in neurons' tiny hairs"
631:
95:
2571:
512:(GPCRs) is a prominent presynaptic mechanism for regulation of
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for Cl- in many neurons is quite negative, nearly equal to the
854:. Vol. 3 (7th ed.). London: Macmillan. p. 929.
2033:
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underlying the polarized localization of synaptic molecules.
394:
Synthesizing neurotransmitters within the presynaptic neuron.
187:
177:
167:
157:
2515:
Taoufik E, Kouroupi G, Zygogianni O, Matsas R (2018-09-05).
460:-inositol monophosphatase (IMPase), an enzyme that produces
1197:"Engineered adhesion molecules drive synapse organization"
2376:
Krugers HJ, Zhou M, Joëls M, Kindt M (October 11, 2011).
1800:"Ion Channels and the Electrical Properties of Membranes"
406:
Ceasing the activity of the released neurotransmitters.
403:
Binding of neurotransmitters to postsynaptic receptors.
1254:
943:(3rd ed.). Sunderland, Mass: Sinauer Associates.
397:
Loading the neurotransmitters into secretory vesicles.
1992:
Pitman RM (September 1984). "The versatile synapse".
162:), meaning "conjunction", which in turn derives from
149:, a friend of Foster. The word was derived from the
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3003:
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The
Journal of Biophysical and Biochemical Cytology
1488:
The
Journal of Biophysical and Biochemical Cytology
1439:
The Journal of Biophysical and Biochemical Cytology
2244:Desnos C, Clift-o'Grady L, Kelly RB (1995-09-01).
419:. The distinctive structure of nerve cells allows
59:(or nerve cell) to pass an electrical or chemical
27:Structure connecting neurons in the nervous system
208:An example of chemical synapse by the release of
1295:
1293:
775:Major elements in chemical synaptic transmission
542:, synthesized in and released from postsynaptic
2482:Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology
1933:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1829:"Excitatory and Inhibitory Synaptic Signalling"
1688:. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing.
1195:Hale WD, Südhof TC, Huganir RL (January 2023).
1146:Missler M, Südhof TC, Biederer T (April 2012).
678:Ciliary calyx in the ciliary ganglion of chicks
1626:
1624:
366:Conversion of chemical into electrical signals
2583:
1092:
1090:
1088:
845:
843:
563:Effects of drugs on ligand-gated ion channels
432:plays an integral role in synaptic polarity.
8:
1905:Howard Hughes Medical Institute via phys.org
1040:
1038:
1005:"ELECTRICAL SYNAPSES IN THE MAMMALIAN BRAIN"
484:β (PLCβ), an enzyme that cleaves PIP2. When
1433:De Robertis ED, Bennett HS (January 1955).
3262:
2982:
2975:
2786:
2681:
2611:
2590:
2576:
2568:
2246:"Biogenesis of synaptic vesicles in vitro"
1152:Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology
881:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
236:) into the release of a chemical called a
98:and the postsynaptic part is located on a
43:Diagram of a chemical synaptic connection.
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2126:
2070:
1968:
1873:
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1556:
1507:
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1228:
1171:
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269:). Because of the complexity of receptor
2205:Pharmacology of Neurotransmitter Release
1585:Human Physiology: An Integrated Approach
1533:"Synapses in the central nervous system"
751:A typical central nervous system synapse
2053:Arimura N, Kaibuchi K (December 2005).
1680:Caire MJ, Reddy V, Varacallo M (2023).
1099:"The cell biology of synapse formation"
918:(5th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
877:"PHYSIOLOGY OF ELECTROTONIC JUNCTIONS*"
839:
725:
492:gene, the defects caused by the faulty
1021:10.1146/annurev.neuro.26.041002.131128
763:The synapse and synaptic vesicle cycle
2343:Yang Y, Lu J, Zuo Y (December 2018).
2299:
2297:
2055:"Key regulators in neuronal polarity"
1822:
1820:
1793:
1791:
1789:
1787:
415:The function of neurons depends upon
7:
2431:Bayer KU, Schulman H (August 2019).
2382:Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience
1482:Palay SL, Palade GE (January 1955).
939:Purves D, Williams SM, eds. (2004).
2433:"CaM Kinase: Still Inspiring at 40"
2306:"Long-term potentiation and memory"
2164:Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press
1994:The Journal of Experimental Biology
735:Diagram of the synapse. Please see
634:receptor (NMDAR)-dependent LTP and
1003:Connors BW, Long MA (2004-07-21).
893:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1966.tb50178.x
78:of the signal-passing neuron (the
25:
850:Foster M, Sherrington CS (1897).
86:with the membrane of the target (
2035:(6th ed.). Lippincott-Raven
768:
756:
744:
728:
2754:Oligodendrocyte progenitor cell
1806:(4th ed.). Garland Science
1587:(4th ed.). San Francisco:
1484:"The fine structure of neurons"
532:, and direct inhibition of the
343:include but are not limited to
2362:10.26599/BSA.2018.2018.9050012
526:voltage-gated calcium channels
234:voltage-gated calcium channels
55:is a structure that permits a
1:
1804:Molecular Biology of the Cell
1339:10.1016/S0361-9230(97)00312-2
1252:Elias LJ, Saucier DM (2006).
1009:Annual Review of Neuroscience
982:10.1016/s0896-6273(04)00043-1
798:Cooperative synapse formation
2449:10.1016/j.neuron.2019.05.033
2213:10.1007/978-3-540-74805-2_14
2072:10.1016/j.neuron.2005.11.007
1727:10.1016/0006-8993(70)90459-2
1637:Nature Reviews. Neuroscience
964:Bennett MV, Zukin R (2004).
916:Principles of neural science
624:long-term potentiation (LTP)
382:Release of neurotransmitters
2864:Postganglionic nerve fibers
2250:The Journal of Cell Biology
2119:10.1534/genetics.111.137844
2111:Genetics Society of America
2027:Holz RW, Fisher SK (1999).
1827:Lasica A, Brewer C (2023).
1307:Online Etymology Dictionary
1164:10.1101/cshperspect.a005694
1103:The Journal of Cell Biology
642:Mechanism of protein kinase
614:Potentiation and depression
546:elements and their cognate
510:G-protein-coupled receptors
361:Different types of synapses
3430:
2859:Preganglionic nerve fibers
2322:10.1152/physrev.00014.2003
2065:(6). Cell Press: 881–884.
1898:University press release:
1865:10.1016/j.cell.2022.07.026
1400:
1392:
1384:
1376:
1063:10.1016/j.tins.2009.05.001
606:
488:mutants also had a mutant
480:gene encodes a homolog of
188:
178:
168:
158:
29:
3369:Olfactory receptor neuron
3033:Neurofibril/neurofilament
2304:Lynch MA (January 2004).
1589:Pearson/Benjamin Cummings
1258:Pearson/Allyn & Bacon
306:Excitatory and inhibitory
82:neuron) comes into close
2399:10.3389/fnbeh.2011.00062
1750:Journal of Neurocytology
1631:Pereda AE (April 2014).
1148:"Synaptic cell adhesion"
813:Neurotransmitter vesicle
632:N-methyl-d-aspartic acid
471:. Organisms with mutant
32:Synapse (disambiguation)
2156:Genes & Development
2029:"Synaptic Transmission"
1953:10.1073/pnas.2311995120
1583:Silverthorn DU (2007).
1416:A Greek–English Lexicon
1323:Brain Research Bulletin
1221:10.1073/pnas.2215905120
1097:Südhof TC (July 2021).
1047:Trends in Neurosciences
914:Kandel ER, ed. (2013).
739:for interactive version
663:synapses, for example:
550:, including the (GPCR)
428:signaling regulated by
147:Arthur Woollgar Verrall
3316:Neuromuscular junction
3179:III or Aδ or fast pain
2349:Brain Science Advances
2262:10.1083/jcb.130.5.1041
1531:Palay SL (July 1956).
1361:Textbook of Physiology
852:Textbook of Physiology
673:Neuromuscular junction
500:Presynaptic modulation
453:Caenorhabditis elegans
362:
259:neuromuscular junction
221:
139:Textbook of Physiology
123:Santiago Ramón y Cajal
44:
2310:Physiological Reviews
2006:10.1242/jeb.112.1.199
1858:(18): 3390–3407.e18.
1682:"Physiology, Synapse"
1407:Liddell, Henry George
1115:10.1083/jcb.202103052
808:Immunological synapse
705:Synapses and Diseases
514:synaptic transmission
411:Synaptic polarization
360:
207:
42:
3334:Meissner's corpuscle
3299:Postsynaptic density
3196:Efferent nerve fiber
3184:IV or C or slow pain
3126:Afferent nerve fiber
2952:Satellite glial cell
1543:(4 Suppl): 193–202.
823:Postsynaptic density
636:long-term depression
556:retrograde signaling
450:) was identified in
253:(often inhibitory),
249:(often excitatory),
3409:Signal transduction
3339:Merkel nerve ending
2533:10.1098/rsob.180138
2172:10.1101/gad.1497806
1945:2023PNAS..12011995J
1939:(52): e2311995120.
1549:10.1083/jcb.2.4.193
1213:2023PNAS..12015905H
875:Bennett MV (1966).
694:Schaffer collateral
668:Squid giant synapse
655:Experimental models
597:Alzheimer's disease
271:signal transduction
131:Charles Sherrington
92:molecular machinery
65:electrical synapses
3374:Photoreceptor cell
3344:Pacinian corpuscle
3275:Electrical synapse
3229:Lower motor neuron
3224:Upper motor neuron
2945:Internodal segment
2885:Connective tissues
2855:Autonomic ganglion
2488:(Suppl): S73–S77.
2390:Frontiers Media SA
1762:10.1007/BF01153345
1500:10.1083/jcb.1.1.69
1451:10.1083/jcb.1.1.47
1207:(3): e2215905120.
530:potassium channels
469:inositol phosphate
363:
328:reversal potential
324:membrane potential
278:electrical synapse
222:
74:At a synapse, the
45:
3396:
3395:
3392:
3391:
3359:Free nerve ending
3326:Sensory receptors
3254:
3253:
3169:Ib or Golgi or Aα
3077:
3076:
2960:
2959:
2837:Ramus communicans
2776:
2775:
2772:
2771:
2642:Commissural fiber
2637:Association fiber
2632:Projection fibers
1833:TeachMePhysiology
1598:978-0-8053-6851-2
1109:(7): e202103052.
950:978-0-87893-725-7
925:978-0-07-139011-8
861:978-1-4325-1085-5
722:Additional images
593:Bredesen Protocol
466:dephosphorylating
436:Phosphoinositides
421:action potentials
332:resting potential
296:ephaptic coupling
257:(e.g. vertebrate
210:neurotransmitters
182:) "together" and
112:neurotransmission
16:(Redirected from
3421:
3289:Synaptic vesicle
3284:Chemical synapse
3263:
2983:
2976:
2787:
2682:
2612:
2592:
2585:
2578:
2569:
2563:
2562:
2552:
2512:
2506:
2505:
2477:
2471:
2470:
2460:
2428:
2422:
2421:
2411:
2401:
2373:
2367:
2366:
2364:
2340:
2334:
2333:
2301:
2292:
2291:
2281:
2256:(5): 1041–1049.
2241:
2235:
2234:
2200:
2194:
2193:
2183:
2147:
2141:
2140:
2130:
2094:
2085:
2084:
2074:
2050:
2044:
2043:
2041:
2040:
2024:
2018:
2017:
1989:
1983:
1982:
1972:
1924:
1918:
1915:
1913:
1911:
1895:
1877:
1867:
1843:
1837:
1836:
1824:
1815:
1814:
1812:
1811:
1795:
1782:
1781:
1745:
1739:
1738:
1710:
1704:
1703:
1701:
1700:
1677:
1671:
1670:
1660:
1628:
1619:
1618:
1580:
1571:
1570:
1560:
1528:
1522:
1521:
1511:
1479:
1473:
1472:
1462:
1430:
1424:
1403:
1402:
1395:
1394:
1387:
1386:
1379:
1378:
1372:
1366:
1365:
1318:
1312:
1311:
1297:
1288:
1287:
1267:978-0-20534361-4
1249:
1243:
1242:
1232:
1192:
1186:
1185:
1175:
1143:
1137:
1136:
1126:
1094:
1083:
1082:
1042:
1033:
1032:
1000:
994:
993:
961:
955:
954:
936:
930:
929:
911:
905:
904:
872:
866:
865:
847:
772:
760:
748:
732:
696:synapses in the
684:in the brainstem
540:Endocannabinoids
528:, activation of
506:neurotransmitter
349:dendro-dendritic
238:neurotransmitter
230:chemical synapse
191:
190:
181:
180:
171:
170:
161:
160:
21:
3429:
3428:
3424:
3423:
3422:
3420:
3419:
3418:
3399:
3398:
3397:
3388:
3320:
3250:
3199:
3190:
3174:II or Aβ and Aγ
3129:
3120:
3073:
3063:Apical dendrite
3058:Dendritic spine
3037:
2999:
2969:
2956:
2940:Node of Ranvier
2935:Myelin incisure
2907:
2879:
2768:
2759:Oligodendrocyte
2742:Ependymal cells
2723:
2673:
2601:
2596:
2566:
2514:
2513:
2509:
2494:10.1139/y92-246
2479:
2478:
2474:
2430:
2429:
2425:
2375:
2374:
2370:
2342:
2341:
2337:
2303:
2302:
2295:
2243:
2242:
2238:
2223:
2202:
2201:
2197:
2149:
2148:
2144:
2096:
2095:
2088:
2052:
2051:
2047:
2038:
2036:
2026:
2025:
2021:
1991:
1990:
1986:
1926:
1925:
1921:
1909:
1907:
1899:
1845:
1844:
1840:
1826:
1825:
1818:
1809:
1807:
1797:
1796:
1785:
1747:
1746:
1742:
1712:
1711:
1707:
1698:
1696:
1679:
1678:
1674:
1649:10.1038/nrn3708
1630:
1629:
1622:
1599:
1591:. p. 271.
1582:
1581:
1574:
1530:
1529:
1525:
1481:
1480:
1476:
1432:
1431:
1427:
1421:Perseus Project
1373:
1369:
1320:
1319:
1315:
1299:
1298:
1291:
1268:
1251:
1250:
1246:
1194:
1193:
1189:
1145:
1144:
1140:
1096:
1095:
1086:
1044:
1043:
1036:
1002:
1001:
997:
963:
962:
958:
951:
938:
937:
933:
926:
913:
912:
908:
874:
873:
869:
862:
849:
848:
841:
837:
832:
783:
776:
773:
764:
761:
752:
749:
740:
733:
724:
707:
657:
644:
616:
611:
605:
578:
565:
502:
482:phospholipase C
413:
384:
368:
340:
308:
202:
192:) "to fasten".
127:neuron doctrine
120:
76:plasma membrane
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3427:
3425:
3417:
3416:
3414:Neural synapse
3411:
3401:
3400:
3394:
3393:
3390:
3389:
3387:
3386:
3384:Taste receptor
3381:
3376:
3371:
3366:
3361:
3356:
3354:Muscle spindle
3351:
3349:Ruffini ending
3346:
3341:
3336:
3330:
3328:
3322:
3321:
3319:
3318:
3313:
3311:Ribbon synapse
3308:
3303:
3302:
3301:
3296:
3291:
3281:
3271:
3269:
3260:
3256:
3255:
3252:
3251:
3249:
3248:
3247:
3246:
3241:
3236:
3226:
3221:
3216:
3211:
3205:
3203:
3192:
3191:
3189:
3188:
3187:
3186:
3181:
3176:
3171:
3166:
3156:
3151:
3146:
3141:
3135:
3133:
3131:Sensory neuron
3122:
3121:
3119:
3118:
3117:
3116:
3106:
3101:
3099:Pseudounipolar
3096:
3091:
3085:
3083:
3079:
3078:
3075:
3074:
3072:
3071:
3070:
3069:
3067:Basal dendrite
3060:
3055:
3047:
3045:
3039:
3038:
3036:
3035:
3030:
3025:
3020:
3018:Axon terminals
3015:
3009:
3007:
3001:
3000:
2998:
2997:
2991:
2989:
2980:
2973:
2962:
2961:
2958:
2957:
2955:
2954:
2949:
2948:
2947:
2942:
2937:
2932:
2917:
2915:
2909:
2908:
2906:
2905:
2900:
2895:
2889:
2887:
2881:
2880:
2878:
2877:
2872:
2870:Nerve fascicle
2867:
2861:
2852:
2851:
2850:
2845:
2833:
2832:
2831:
2826:
2816:
2815:
2814:
2809:
2804:
2793:
2791:
2784:
2778:
2777:
2774:
2773:
2770:
2769:
2767:
2766:
2761:
2756:
2751:
2750:
2749:
2739:
2733:
2731:
2725:
2724:
2722:
2721:
2716:
2711:
2706:
2701:
2696:
2690:
2688:
2679:
2675:
2674:
2672:
2671:
2666:
2661:
2660:
2659:
2654:
2649:
2644:
2639:
2634:
2624:
2618:
2616:
2609:
2603:
2602:
2599:Nervous tissue
2597:
2595:
2594:
2587:
2580:
2572:
2565:
2564:
2507:
2472:
2443:(3): 380–394.
2423:
2368:
2335:
2293:
2236:
2221:
2195:
2142:
2086:
2045:
2019:
2000:(1): 199–224.
1984:
1919:
1917:
1916:
1838:
1816:
1783:
1740:
1715:Brain Research
1705:
1672:
1643:(4): 250–263.
1620:
1597:
1572:
1523:
1474:
1425:
1367:
1313:
1289:
1266:
1244:
1187:
1158:(4): a005694.
1138:
1084:
1034:
1015:(1): 393–418.
995:
976:(4): 495–511.
956:
949:
931:
924:
906:
887:(2): 509–539.
867:
860:
838:
836:
833:
831:
830:
825:
820:
815:
810:
805:
800:
795:
790:
784:
782:
779:
778:
777:
774:
767:
765:
762:
755:
753:
750:
743:
741:
734:
727:
723:
720:
706:
703:
702:
701:
691:
688:Ribbon synapse
685:
679:
676:
670:
656:
653:
643:
640:
615:
612:
609:Hebbian theory
607:Main article:
604:
603:Role in memory
601:
589:synaptoclastic
585:Synaptoblastic
577:
574:
564:
561:
534:vesicle fusion
504:Modulation of
501:
498:
412:
409:
408:
407:
404:
401:
398:
395:
383:
380:
367:
364:
339:
336:
316:
315:
312:
307:
304:
291:
290:
286:
274:
267:norepinephrine
240:that binds to
201:
198:
135:Michael Foster
119:
116:
49:nervous system
26:
24:
18:Neural synapse
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3426:
3415:
3412:
3410:
3407:
3406:
3404:
3385:
3382:
3380:
3377:
3375:
3372:
3370:
3367:
3365:
3362:
3360:
3357:
3355:
3352:
3350:
3347:
3345:
3342:
3340:
3337:
3335:
3332:
3331:
3329:
3327:
3323:
3317:
3314:
3312:
3309:
3307:
3304:
3300:
3297:
3295:
3292:
3290:
3287:
3286:
3285:
3282:
3280:
3276:
3273:
3272:
3270:
3268:
3264:
3261:
3257:
3245:
3244:γ motorneuron
3242:
3240:
3239:β motorneuron
3237:
3235:
3234:α motorneuron
3232:
3231:
3230:
3227:
3225:
3222:
3220:
3217:
3215:
3212:
3210:
3207:
3206:
3204:
3202:
3197:
3193:
3185:
3182:
3180:
3177:
3175:
3172:
3170:
3167:
3165:
3162:
3161:
3160:
3157:
3155:
3152:
3150:
3147:
3145:
3142:
3140:
3137:
3136:
3134:
3132:
3127:
3123:
3115:
3112:
3111:
3110:
3107:
3105:
3102:
3100:
3097:
3095:
3092:
3090:
3087:
3086:
3084:
3080:
3068:
3064:
3061:
3059:
3056:
3054:
3051:
3050:
3049:
3048:
3046:
3044:
3040:
3034:
3031:
3029:
3026:
3024:
3021:
3019:
3016:
3014:
3011:
3010:
3008:
3006:
3002:
2996:
2993:
2992:
2990:
2988:
2984:
2981:
2977:
2974:
2972:
2967:
2963:
2953:
2950:
2946:
2943:
2941:
2938:
2936:
2933:
2931:
2928:
2927:
2926:
2922:
2919:
2918:
2916:
2914:
2910:
2904:
2901:
2899:
2896:
2894:
2891:
2890:
2888:
2886:
2882:
2876:
2873:
2871:
2868:
2865:
2862:
2860:
2856:
2853:
2849:
2846:
2844:
2841:
2840:
2839:
2838:
2834:
2830:
2827:
2825:
2822:
2821:
2820:
2817:
2813:
2810:
2808:
2805:
2803:
2800:
2799:
2798:
2795:
2794:
2792:
2788:
2785:
2783:
2779:
2765:
2762:
2760:
2757:
2755:
2752:
2748:
2745:
2744:
2743:
2740:
2738:
2735:
2734:
2732:
2730:
2726:
2720:
2717:
2715:
2712:
2710:
2707:
2705:
2702:
2700:
2697:
2695:
2692:
2691:
2689:
2687:
2683:
2680:
2676:
2670:
2667:
2665:
2662:
2658:
2655:
2653:
2650:
2648:
2645:
2643:
2640:
2638:
2635:
2633:
2630:
2629:
2628:
2625:
2623:
2620:
2619:
2617:
2613:
2610:
2608:
2604:
2600:
2593:
2588:
2586:
2581:
2579:
2574:
2573:
2570:
2560:
2556:
2551:
2546:
2542:
2538:
2534:
2530:
2527:(9): 180138.
2526:
2522:
2518:
2511:
2508:
2503:
2499:
2495:
2491:
2487:
2483:
2476:
2473:
2468:
2464:
2459:
2454:
2450:
2446:
2442:
2438:
2434:
2427:
2424:
2419:
2415:
2410:
2405:
2400:
2395:
2391:
2387:
2383:
2379:
2372:
2369:
2363:
2358:
2355:(2): 99–117.
2354:
2350:
2346:
2339:
2336:
2331:
2327:
2323:
2319:
2316:(1): 87–136.
2315:
2311:
2307:
2300:
2298:
2294:
2289:
2285:
2280:
2275:
2271:
2267:
2263:
2259:
2255:
2251:
2247:
2240:
2237:
2232:
2228:
2224:
2222:9783540748052
2218:
2214:
2210:
2206:
2199:
2196:
2191:
2187:
2182:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2166:: 3296–3310.
2165:
2161:
2157:
2153:
2146:
2143:
2138:
2134:
2129:
2124:
2120:
2116:
2112:
2108:
2104:
2100:
2093:
2091:
2087:
2082:
2078:
2073:
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282:gap junctions
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247:glutamatergic
243:
239:
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215:
214:acetylcholine
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19:
3279:Gap junction
3266:
3201:Motor neuron
2995:Axon hillock
2971:nerve fibers
2925:Schwann cell
2835:
2818:
2796:
2714:Medium spiny
2627:White matter
2615:Tissue Types
2524:
2521:Open Biology
2520:
2510:
2485:
2481:
2475:
2440:
2436:
2426:
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828:Synaptopathy
737:learnbio.org
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321:
317:
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223:
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173:
163:
153:
142:
138:
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88:postsynaptic
87:
79:
73:
69:
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3294:Active zone
3259:Termination
3109:Interneuron
3013:Telodendron
2921:Myelination
2903:Endoneurium
2898:Perineurium
2719:Interneuron
2709:Von Economo
2657:Decussation
2652:Nerve tract
2622:Grey matter
2113:: 509–521.
1333:: 211–212.
1057:: 421–431.
788:Active zone
698:hippocampus
508:release by
289:(chemical).
265:(releasing
255:cholinergic
80:presynaptic
3403:Categories
3364:Nociceptor
3104:Multipolar
3053:Nissl body
2930:Neurilemma
2893:Epineurium
2678:Cell Types
2039:2024-01-04
1910:19 October
1810:2024-01-20
1699:2024-01-01
1686:StatPearls
1607:2005056517
1300:Harper D.
1276:2005051341
1256:. Boston:
1055:Cell Press
835:References
803:Exocytosis
576:Biogenesis
522:G-proteins
345:axo-axonic
338:Interfaces
263:adrenergic
108:Astrocytes
84:apposition
3379:Hair cell
2913:Neuroglia
2875:Funiculus
2764:Microglia
2737:Astrocyte
2694:Pyramidal
2647:Lemniscus
2541:2046-2441
2270:0021-9525
1961:0027-8424
1892:251958800
1385:συνάπτειν
1302:"synapse"
1029:0147-006X
990:0896-6273
901:0077-8923
548:receptors
536:process.
251:GABAergic
242:receptors
169:συνάπτειν
164:synaptein
3164:Ia or Aα
3094:Unipolar
3043:Dendrite
3028:Axolemma
3023:Axoplasm
2807:Ganglion
2747:Tanycyte
2699:Purkinje
2686:Neuronal
2669:Meninges
2664:Neuropil
2559:30185603
2467:31394063
2418:22013419
2330:14715912
2231:18064422
2190:17158747
2137:22446320
2103:Genetics
2081:16364893
1979:38113266
1970:10756289
1884:36055200
1778:19764983
1694:30252303
1667:24619342
1615:62742632
1567:13357542
1518:14381429
1469:14381427
1355:40333336
1331:Elsevier
1284:61131869
1239:36638214
1182:22278667
1133:34086051
1079:16355401
1071:19615761
818:Neurexin
781:See also
544:neuronal
462:inositol
172:), from
154:synapsis
143:separate
100:dendrite
3306:Autapse
3267:Synapse
3114:Renshaw
3089:Bipolar
2966:Neurons
2819:Ventral
2790:General
2704:Granule
2550:6170506
2502:1338300
2458:6688632
2409:3190121
2288:7544795
2279:2120557
2181:1686606
2128:3374314
2014:6150966
1941:Bibcode
1875:9789380
1770:6420522
1735:4313893
1658:4091911
1558:2229686
1509:2223597
1460:2223594
1419:at the
1377:σύναψις
1347:9323432
1230:9934208
1209:Bibcode
1173:3312681
1124:8186004
793:Autapse
300:autapse
261:), and
184:haptein
159:σύναψις
118:History
53:synapse
47:In the
3159:fibers
2797:Dorsal
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858:
620:memory
520:-type
430:IMPase
276:In an
189:ἅπτειν
61:signal
57:neuron
3082:Types
2979:Parts
2848:White
2829:Ramus
2812:Ramus
2729:Glial
2109:(2).
1888:S2CID
1774:S2CID
1351:S2CID
1329:(3).
1075:S2CID
1053:(8).
661:model
494:ttx-7
490:egl-8
486:ttx-7
478:egl-8
473:ttx-7
448:ttx-7
228:In a
212:like
200:Types
151:Greek
3005:Axon
2987:Soma
2843:Gray
2824:Root
2802:Root
2555:PMID
2537:ISSN
2498:PMID
2463:PMID
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2326:PMID
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2227:PMID
2217:ISBN
2186:PMID
2133:PMID
2077:PMID
2010:PMID
1975:PMID
1957:ISSN
1912:2022
1880:PMID
1852:Cell
1766:PMID
1731:PMID
1690:PMID
1663:PMID
1611:OCLC
1603:LCCN
1593:ISBN
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1514:PMID
1465:PMID
1343:PMID
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1272:LCCN
1262:ISBN
1235:PMID
1178:PMID
1129:PMID
1067:PMID
1025:ISSN
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920:ISBN
897:ISSN
856:ISBN
587:and
518:Gi/o
444:PIP3
426:PIP2
322:The
104:soma
96:axon
51:, a
3219:SVE
3214:GVE
3209:GSE
3154:SVA
3149:SSA
3144:GVA
3139:GSA
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2607:CNS
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