1412:(Gazdzinski et al., 2005; Yu et al., 2011). Studies examining nicotine use via DTI have found similarly conflicting results. In chronic nicotine users, heavy consumption has been associated with lower FA (Lin et al., 2013) and higher FA (Paul et al., 2008), as well has both lower RD (Wang et al., 2017) and higher RD (Lin et al., 2013). The results of studies examining non-chronic, regular nicotine use are similarly split. Regular nicotine use has been associated with lower FA (Huang et al., 2013; Liao et al., 2011; Zhang et al., 2011) and higher FA (Hudkins et al., 2012; Wang et al., 2017). These seemingly conflicting nicotine results may be partly accounted for by the developmental stage in which it is consumed, with higher FA more commonly observed in younger nicotine users (Hudkins et al., 2012; Jacobsen et al., 2007). Alternatively, it maybe that the association between nicotine use and higher FA in adolescents is temporary, eventually leading to microstructural declines with chronic use. Future longitudinal studies could formally address this theory.
554:
higher if different definitions of dependence were used. Recent data suggest that, in the United States, the rates of daily smoking and the number of cigarettes smoked per day are declining, suggesting a reduction in population-wide dependence among current smokers. However, there are different groups of people who are more likely to smoke than the average population, such as those with low education or low socio-economic status and those with mental illness. There is also evidence that among smokers, some subgroups may be more dependent than other groups. Men smoke at higher rates than do women and score higher on dependence indices; however, women may be less likely to be successful in
99:, "Greater nicotine dependence has been shown to be associated with lower motivation to quit, difficulty in trying to quit, and failure to quit, as well as with smoking the first cigarette earlier in the day and smoking more cigarettes per day." The WHO estimates that there are 1.1 billion smokers globally. Of the 34 million smokers in the US in 2018, 74.6% smoked every day, indicating the potential for some level of nicotine dependence. There is an increased frequency of nicotine dependence in people with anxiety disorders.
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1903:
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217:. Relapse should not frustrate the nicotine user from trying to quit again. A 2015 review found "Avoiding withdrawal symptoms is one of the causes of continued smoking or relapses during attempts at cessation, and the severity and duration of nicotine withdrawal symptoms predict relapse." Symptoms of nicotine dependence include irritability, anger, impatience, and problems in concentrating.
372:. Chronic nicotinic acetylcholine receptor activation from repeated nicotine exposure can induce strong effects on the brain, including changes in the brain's physiology, that result from the stimulation of regions of the brain associated with reward, pleasure, and anxiety. These complex effects of nicotine on the brain are still not well understood.
285:
558:, suggesting that women may be more dependent by that criterion. There is an increased frequency of nicotine dependence in people with anxiety disorders. 6% of smokers who want to quit smoking each year are successful at quitting. Nicotine withdrawal is the main factor hindering smoking cessation. A 2010
171:
242:
The
Fagerström Test for Nicotine Dependence focuses on measuring physical dependence which is defined "as a state produced by chronic drug administration, which is revealed by the occurrence of signs of physiological dysfunction when the drug is withdrawn; further, this dysfunction can be reversed by
201:
report states, "Tolerance" is another aspect of drug addiction whereby a given dose of a drug produces less effect or increasing doses are required to achieve a specified intensity of response. Physical dependence on the drug can also occur, and is characterized by a withdrawal syndrome that usually
544:
Psychosocial interventions delivered in-person (individually or in a group) or over the phone (including mobile phone interventions) have been shown to effectively treat nicotine dependence. These interventions focus on providing support for quitting and helping with smokers with problem-solving and
553:
First-time nicotine users develop a dependence about 32% of the time. There are approximately 976 million smokers in the world. Estimates are that half of smokers (and one-third of former smokers) are dependent based on DSM criteria, regardless of age, gender or country of origin, but this could be
1431:
Saccone, NL; Culverhouse, RC; Schwantes-An, TH; Cannon, DS; Chen, X; Cichon, S; Giegling, I; Han, S; Han, Y; Keskitalo-Vuokko, K; Kong, X; Landi, MT; Ma, JZ; Short, SE; Stephens, SH; Stevens, VL; Sun, L; Wang, Y; Wenzlaff, AS; Aggen, SH; Breslau, N; Broderick, P; Chatterjee, N; Chen, J; Heath, AC;
575:
263:
The
Cigarette Dependence Scale was developed "to index dependence outcomes and not dependence mechanisms". The Nicotine Dependence Syndrome Scale, "a 19-item self-report measure, was developed as a multidimensional scale to assess nicotine dependence". The Wisconsin Inventory of Smoking Dependence
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87:
craving to use the drug, despite social consequences, loss of control over drug intake, and emergence of withdrawal symptoms. Tolerance is another component of drug dependence. Nicotine dependence develops over time as a person continues to use nicotine. The most commonly used tobacco product is
580:
196:
Nicotine dependence is defined as a neurobiological adaptation to repeated drug exposure that is manifested by highly controlled or compulsive use, the development of tolerance, experiencing withdrawal symptoms upon cessation including cravings, and an inability to quit despite harmful effects.
562:
report states, "Greater nicotine dependence has been shown to be associated with lower motivation to quit, difficulty in trying to quit, and failure to quit, as well as with smoking the first cigarette earlier in the day and smoking more cigarettes per day." E-cigarettes may result in starting
382:
within the brain's reward system occurs as a result of long-term nicotine use, leading to nicotine dependence. There are genetic risk factors for developing dependence. For instance, genetic markers for a specific type of nicotinic receptor (the α5-α3-β4 nicotine receptors) have been linked to
1411:
Heavy nicotine use in the form of smoking tobacco has been linked to neuropathy (Brody, 2006), often manifesting as prefrontal gray matter atrophy (Gallinat et al., 2006; Zhang et al., 2011). Conversely, consumption of nicotine via smoking has been associated with higher white matter volume
596:
is concerned that e-cigarettes may escalate global nicotine dependence, particularly among adolescents who are attracted to many of the flavored e-cigarettes. There is strong evidence that vaping induces symptoms of dependence in users. Many organizations such the World Health
Organization,
505:(i.e., patch, lozenge, gum) are dosed based on how dependent a smoker is—people who smoke more cigarettes or who smoke earlier in the morning use higher doses of nicotine replacement treatments. There is no consensus for remedies for tobacco use disorder among pregnant smokers who also use
375:
When these receptors are not occupied by nicotine, they are believed to produce withdrawal symptoms. These symptoms can include cravings for nicotine, anger, irritability, anxiety, depression, impatience, trouble sleeping, restlessness, hunger, weight gain, and difficulty concentrating.
563:
nicotine dependence again. Greater nicotine dependence may result from dual use of traditional cigarettes and e-cigarettes. Like tobacco companies did in the last century, there is a possibility that e-cigarettes could result in a new form of dependency on nicotine across the world.
142:) is less clear. There are genetic risk factors for developing dependence. For instance, genetic markers for a specific type of nicotinic receptor (the α5-α3-β4 nicotine receptors) have been linked to increased risk for dependence. Evidence-based treatments, including medications (
1432:
Heliövaara, M; Hoft, NR; Hunter, DJ; Jensen, MK; Martin, NG; Montgomery, GW; Niu, T; Payne, TJ; Peltonen, L; Pergadia, ML; Rice, JP; Sherva, R; Spitz, MR; Sun, J; Wang, JC; Weiss, RB; Wheeler, W; Witt, SH; Yang, BZ; Caporaso, NE; Ehringer, MA; Eisen, T; Gapstur, SM; Gelernter, J;
577:
259:
there is no nicotine dependence diagnosis, but rather
Tobacco Use Disorder, which is defined as, "A problematic pattern of tobacco use leading to clinically significant impairment or distress, as manifested by at least 2 of the following , occurring within a 12-month period."
355:
occurs at least partially as a result of the development of new nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in the brain. After several months of nicotine abstinence, the number of receptors go back to normal. Nicotine also stimulates nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in the
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developing healthy responses for coping with cravings, negative moods, and other situations that typically lead to relapse. The combination of pharmacotherapy and psychosocial interventions has been shown to be especially effective.
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173:
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Pistillo, Francesco; Clementi, Francesco; Zoli, Michele; Gotti, Cecilia (2015). "Nicotinic, glutamatergic and dopaminergic synaptic transmission and plasticity in the mesocorticolimbic system: Focus on nicotine effects".
51:
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do not approve of vaping for quitting smoking in youth, making reference to concerns about their safety and the potential that experimenting with vaping may result in nicotine dependence and later tobacco use.
1018:. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control, Center for Health Promotion and Education, Office on Smoking and Health. DHHS Publication No. (CDC) 88-8406.
134:, including an increase in the number of nicotine receptors, occurs as a result of long-term nicotine use and leads to nicotine dependence. In contrast, the effect of nicotine on human brain structure (e.g.
176:
2993:
Yoong, Sze Lin; Stockings, Emily; Chai, Li Kheng; Tzelepis, Flora; Wiggers, John; Oldmeadow, Christopher; Paul, Christine; Peruga, Armando; Kingsland, Melanie; Attia, John; Wolfenden, Luke (2018).
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501:. These medications have been shown to significantly improve long-term (i.e., 6-months post-quit day) abstinence rates, especially when used in combination with psychosocial treatment. The
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There are treatments for nicotine dependence, although the majority of the evidence focuses on treatments for cigarette smokers rather than people who use other forms of tobacco (e.g.,
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are becoming more popular. Nicotine can also be delivered via other tobacco products such as chewing tobacco, snus, pipe tobacco, hookah, all of which can produce nicotine dependence.
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108:
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In addition to the specific neurological changes in nicotinic receptors, there are other changes that occur as dependence develops. Through various conditioning mechanisms (
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the administration of drug". The long use of
Fagerström Test for Nicotine Dependence is supported by the existence of significant preexisting research, and its conciseness.
383:
increased risk for dependence. The most well-known hereditary influence related to nicotine dependence is a mutation at rs16969968 in the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor
1436:; Kaprio, J; Kendler, KS; Kraft, P; Leppert, MF; Li, MD; Madden, PA; Nöthen, MM; Pillai, S; Rietschel, M; Rujescu, D; Schwartz, A; Amos, CI; Bierut, LJ (5 August 2010).
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problem because it leads to continued tobacco use, which is one of the leading preventable causes of death worldwide, causing more than 8 million deaths per year.
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Ng, M; Freeman, MK; Fleming, TD; Robinson, M; Dwyer-Lindgren, L; Thomson, B; Wollum, A; Sanman, E; Wulf, S; Lopez, AD; Murray, CJ; Gakidou, E (8 January 2014).
2443:
Hartmann-Boyce, J; Stead, LF; Cahill, K; Lancaster, T (October 2013). "Efficacy of interventions to combat tobacco addiction: Cochrane update of 2012 reviews".
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230:
103:
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Jankowski, Mateusz; Krzystanek, Marek; Zejda, Jan
Eugeniusz; Majek, Paulina; Lubanski, Jakub; Lawson, Joshua Allan; Brozek, Grzegorz (2019-06-27).
54:
2995:"Prevalence of electronic nicotine delivery systems (ENDS) use among youth globally: a systematic review and meta-analysis of country level data"
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had a nicotine dependence diagnosis which was defines as "...a cluster of cognitive, behavioral, and physiological symptoms..." In the updated
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1994:
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112:, the Cigarette Dependence Scale, the Nicotine Dependence Syndrome Scale, and the Wisconsin Inventory of Smoking Dependence Motives (WISDM).
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nicotinic acetylcholine receptors are also correlated with nicotine dependence in certain ethnic groups. There is a relationship between
339:. Repeated exposure to nicotine can cause an increase in the number of nicotinic receptors, which is believed to be a result of receptor
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Piper, Megan; McCarthy, Danielle; Baker, Timothy (2006). "Assessing tobacco dependence: A guide to measure evaluation and selection".
239:, the Cigarette Dependence Scale, the Nicotine Dependence Syndrome Scale, and the Wisconsin Inventory of Smoking Dependence Motives.
4661:
1438:"Multiple independent loci at chromosome 15q25.1 affect smoking quantity: a meta-analysis and comparison with lung cancer and COPD"
2478:
884:"Treating Tobacco Use Disorder in Pregnant Women in Medication-Assisted Treatment for an Opioid Use Disorder: A Systematic Review"
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2325:"Crucial roles of the CHRNB3–CHRNA6 gene cluster on chromosome 8 in nicotine dependence: update and subjects for future research"
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1224:"Cigarette smoking, nicotine dependence and anxiety disorders: a systematic review of population-based, epidemiological studies"
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Nicotine dependence results in substantial mortality, morbidity, and socio-economic impacts. Nicotine dependence is a serious
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Pre-existing cognitive and mood disorders may influence the development and maintenance of nicotine dependence. Nicotine is a
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390:
364:. Its physiological effects stem from the stimulation of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, which are located throughout the
102:
There are different ways of measuring nicotine dependence. Common dependence assessment scales for cigarette smokers are the
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WHO global report on trends in prevalence of tobacco smoking 2000–2025, second edition. Geneva: World Health
Organization.
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nicotinic acetylcholine receptors and complete smoking cessation. Increasing evidence indicates that the genetic variant
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756:"Neuronal mechanisms underlying development of nicotine dependence: implications for novel smoking-cessation treatments"
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347:. This upregulation or increase in the number of nicotinic receptors significantly alters the functioning of the brain
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Falcone, Mary; Lee, Bridgin; Lerman, Caryn; Blendy, Julie A. (2015). "Translational
Research on Nicotine Dependence".
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Lushniak, Boris D.; Samet, Jonathan M.; Pechacek, Terry F.; Norman, Leslie A.; Taylor, Peter A. (2014). "Nicotine".
1373:"[Substance Abuse and White Matter: Findings, Limitations, and Future of Diffusion Tensor Imaging Research]"
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cigarettes, but all forms of tobacco use and e-cigarette use can cause dependence. Nicotine dependence is a serious
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Akerman, Sarah C.; Brunette, Mary F.; Green, Alan I.; Goodman, Daisy J.; Blunt, Heather B.; Heil, Sarah H. (2015).
340:
433:), smoking comes to be associated with different mood and cognitive states as well as external contexts and cues.
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2015:"Neuroadaptive Changes Associated with Smoking: Structural and Functional Neural Changes in Nicotine Dependence"
1852:"Cognitive Dysfunction, Affective States, and Vulnerability to Nicotine Addiction: A Multifactorial Perspective"
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2932:"Electronic cigarettes and vaping: a new challenge in clinical medicine and public health. A literature review"
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Hughes, JR; Helzer, JE; Lindberg, SA (8 November 2006). "Prevalence of DSM/ICD-defined nicotine dependence".
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1516:. Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, U.S. Public Health Service. Archived from
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Rachid, Fady (2016). "Neurostimulation techniques in the treatment of nicotine dependence: A review".
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1058:"E-Cigarettes are More Addictive than Traditional Cigarettes-A Study in Highly Educated Young People"
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accompanies drug abstinence. After cessation of drug use, there is a strong tendency to relapse."
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and relapse back to smoking. Nicotine dependence develops over time as a person continues to use
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2818:"E-cigarettes: Impact of E-Liquid Components and Device Characteristics on Nicotine Exposure"
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379:
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127:
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2230:"Association of the CHRNA5-A3-B4 gene cluster with heaviness of smoking: a meta-analysis"
197:
Nicotine dependence has also been conceptualized as a chronic, relapsing disease. A 1988
2075:
The Health
Consequences of Smoking—50 Years of Progress: A Report of the Surgeon General
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2014:
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1753:"Exploring The Prevalence Of Smoking In The UK | News | Vaping Guides | IndeJuice (UK)"
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The health consequences of smoking: Nicotine addiction: A report of the
Surgeon General
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Motives "is a 68-item measure developed to assess dependence as a motivational state".
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concern due to it being one of the leading causes of avoidable deaths worldwide. The
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are highly correlated with nicotine dependence. Many other known variants within the
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89:
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There are eight major evidence-based medications for treating nicotine dependence:
450:
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139:
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Traditional cigarettes are the most common delivery device for nicotine. However,
2400:
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Payne, JD; Orellana-Barrios, M; Medrano-Juarez, R; Buscemi, D; Nugent, K (2016).
1726:
1456:
1158:"Tobacco Product Use and Cessation Indicators Among Adults — United States, 2018"
17:
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3463:
3217:
3167:
2645:"Stability of smoking status in the US population: a longitudinal investigation"
498:
151:
135:
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Nicotine Dependence Syndrome Scale (NDSS; Shiffman, Waters & Hickcox, 2004)
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1945:
899:
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3998:
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943:. Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences. Vol. 28. pp. 121–150.
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389:, resulting in an amino acid alteration from aspartic acid to asparagine. The
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http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/272694/9789241514170-eng.pdf
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There are different ways of measuring nicotine dependence. The five common
5140:
2890:
2546:"Smoking prevalence and cigarette consumption in 187 countries, 1980-2012"
2277:
Yu, Cassie; McClellan, Jon (2016). "Genetics of Substance Use Disorders".
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Drug Therapeutics, Bulletin (2014). "Republished: Nicotine and health".
158:) and behavioral counseling, can double or triple a smoker's chances of
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4753:
2710:
521:
3090:
Wisconsin Inventory of Smoking Dependence Motives (Piper et al., 2004)
2660:
2456:
2110:
American Journal of Physiology. Lung Cellular and Molecular Physiology
5152:
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3757:
3340:
2757:
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Stratton, Kathleen; Kwan, Leslie Y.; Eaton, David L. (January 2018).
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454:
385:
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Weinberger, AH; Pilver, CE; Mazure, CM; McKee, SA (September 2014).
284:
2626:"Current Cigarette Smoking Among Adults — United States, 2005–2013"
686:
83:. Nicotine dependence is a chronic, relapsing disease defined as a
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3736:
3729:
3722:
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2632:(63). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: 1108–1112. 2014.
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can double or triple a smoker's chances of quitting successfully.
255:
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International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
213:. Teenagers do not have to be daily or long-term smokers to show
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3046:
Fagerstrom Test of Nicotine Dependence (Heatherton et al., 1991)
2385:"Pathways to precision medicine in smoking cessation treatments"
446:
4240:
3484:
3098:
3063:
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders V (DSM-V)
1287:
Professional Paramedic, Volume I: Foundations of Paramedic Care
3710:
1728:
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5®)
2505:"WHY NOT POT?: A Review of the Brain-based Risks of Cannabis"
1910: by Morgane Besson and Benoît Forget available under the
251:
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorder (DSM-IV)
205:
Nicotine dependence leads to heavy smoking and causes severe
477:(not approved for use in some countries, including the US),
2811:
2809:
2279:
Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America
1565:
Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America
679:
National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine
303:
in the brain, which subsequently causes the release of
2438:
2436:
1009:
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (1988).
877:
875:
536:
in the human body so that it is no longer effective.
417:
predicts the response to smoking cessation medicine.
236:
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
109:
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
5130:
3961:
Community reinforcement approach and family training
3051:
Heaviness of Smoking Index (Heatherton et al., 1989)
2008:
2006:
1507:
Fiore, MC; Jaen, CR; Baker, TB; et al. (2008).
823:
5134:
5097:
5051:
5012:
4921:
4864:
4820:
4791:
4752:
4697:
4649:
4623:
4596:
4518:
4487:
4468:
4431:
4407:
4400:
4391:
4357:
4277:
4146:
4072:
4051:
3989:
3934:
3913:
3900:
3825:
3794:
3785:
3654:
3581:
3535:
3526:
3409:
3303:
3193:
3138:
3068:
Tobacco Dependence Screener (Kawakami et al., 1999)
2999:
Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health
2816:DeVito, Elise E.; Krishnan-Sarin, Suchitra (2017).
2383:Chen, Li-Shiun; Horton, Amy; Bierut, Laura (2018).
821:
819:
817:
815:
813:
811:
809:
807:
805:
803:
40:
35:
3204:
2106:"Will Chronic E-Cigarette Use Cause Lung Disease?"
1983:Atta-ur- Rahman; Allen B. Reitz (1 January 2005).
1213:
1211:
360:, resulting in increased levels of adrenaline and
2795:. World Health Organization. 2010. Archived from
2378:
2376:
1670:"Tobacco Use Cessation and Prevention – A Review"
1279:
1277:
749:
747:
745:
743:
4804:Acute intoxication from hallucinogens (bad trip)
1725:American Psychiatric Association (22 May 2013).
1510:Treating tobacco use and dependence: 2008 update
3085:Cigarette Dependence Scale (Etter et al., 2003)
2875:"Electronic Cigarettes: Vulnerability of Youth"
2228:Ware, JJ; van den Bree, MB; Munafò, MR (2011).
1116:"WHO | Gender, women, and the tobacco epidemic"
2879:Pediatric Allergy, Immunology, and Pulmonology
2318:
2316:
1559:Camenga, Deepa R.; Klein, Jonathan D. (2016).
1426:
1424:
1422:
1420:
797:, p. Dependence and Abuse Liability, 256.
4252:
3496:
3110:
2692:
2690:
2688:
2104:Rowell, Temperance R; Tarran, Robert (2015).
2099:
2097:
1989:. Bentham Science Publishers. pp. 279–.
1318:"Electronic Cigarettes for Smoking Cessation"
1311:
1309:
1307:
528:but being used to create human anti-nicotine
8:
1502:
1500:
1498:
1496:
1494:
1492:
4809:Hallucinogen persisting perception disorder
2742:"Nicotine Replacement Therapy: An Overview"
1674:Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research
1162:MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report
5131:
4404:
4397:
4259:
4245:
4237:
3910:
3791:
3532:
3503:
3489:
3481:
3420:
3314:
3274:
3174:
3117:
3103:
3095:
2479:"CelticPharma: TA-NIC Nicotine Dependence"
1927:
1925:
1923:
1921:
1284:Richard Beebe; Jeff Myers (19 July 2012).
671:Public Health Consequences of E-Cigarettes
49:
32:
3010:
2957:
2947:
2906:
2849:
2790:"Gender, women, and the tobacco epidemic"
2765:
2668:
2620:
2618:
2616:
2561:
2520:
2416:
2356:
2323:Wen, L; Yang, Z; Cui, W; Li, M D (2016).
2253:
2186:
2137:
2048:
2030:
1885:
1867:
1801:
1731:. American Psychiatric Pub. p. 571.
1701:
1592:
1465:
1455:
1396:
1257:
1239:
1191:
1173:
1091:
1073:
974:
915:
771:
2980:
2746:International Journal of Health Sciences
1850:Besson, Morgane; Forget, Benoît (2016).
1827:"Breaking free from nicotine dependence"
1222:; Pasco, Julie A; Berk, Michael (2012).
1004:
1002:
1000:
998:
996:
994:
794:
283:
44:tobacco dependence; tobacco use disorder
4939:Kindling (sedative–hypnotic withdrawal)
2930:Palazzolo, Dominic L. (November 2013).
739:
632:
231:Fagerström Test for Nicotine Dependence
104:Fagerström Test for Nicotine Dependence
5082:Chronic solvent-induced encephalopathy
1371:Hampton WH, Hanik I, Olson IR (2019).
721:
710:
4606:Alcohol-induced respiratory reactions
2630:Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report
2503:MacDonald, K; Pappa, K (April 2016).
1542:"Anyone Can Become Addicted to Drugs"
941:Translational Neuropsychopharmacology
7:
2080:Surgeon General of the United States
1778:"Electronic cigarettes in the media"
1027:
1025:
888:Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment
4174:Discrimination against drug addicts
2167:The New England Journal of Medicine
1290:. Cengage Learning. pp. 640–.
393:(SNPs) rs6474413 and rs10958726 in
190:Anyone Can Become Addicted to Drugs
5113:Anabolic-androgenic steroids abuse
4742:Synthetic cannabinoid use disorder
4036:Tobacco cessation clinics in India
2699:The American Journal on Addictions
25:
4662:Caffeine-induced anxiety disorder
2834:10.2174/1570159X15666171016164430
351:. With constant use of nicotine,
301:nicotinic acetylcholine receptors
124:nicotinic acetylcholine receptors
4715:Cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome
4221:
4220:
4099:Low-threshold treatment programs
3966:Motivational enhancement therapy
3377:Hydromorphone (extended-release)
2599:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2006.04.004
1986:Frontiers in Medicinal Chemistry
1906: This article incorporates
1901:
1546:National Institute on Drug Abuse
1481:
1389:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2019.02.005
248:American Psychiatric Association
186:National Institute on Drug Abuse
4672:Caffeine-induced sleep disorder
4564:Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder
4179:Dopamine dysregulation syndrome
4169:Category:Vaccines against drugs
2234:Nicotine & Tobacco Research
2013:Martin-Soelch, Chantal (2013).
1631:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2014.10.002
830:Nicotine & Tobacco Research
503:nicotine replacement treatments
391:single-nucleotide polymorphisms
5066:Sudden sniffing death syndrome
4721:Intravenous marijuana syndrome
4315:Post-acute-withdrawal syndrome
2873:Schraufnagel, Dean E. (2015).
2740:Wadgave, U; Nagesh, L (2016).
1794:10.1080/08998280.2016.11929436
1668:Shaik, Sabiha Shaheen (2016).
603:Australian Medical Association
1:
4893:Opioid-induced endocrinopathy
3802:Adverse childhood experiences
2161:Benowitz, NL (17 June 2010).
754:D'Souza MS, Markou A (2011).
487:nicotine lozenge/mini-lozenge
5106:Anabolic-androgenic steroids
4633:(alcohol use disorder (AUD))
4575:Positional alcohol nystagmus
4540:Alcohol-related brain damage
4031:Nicotine replacement therapy
4016:Intensive outpatient program
4004:Residential treatment center
3944:Cognitive behavioral therapy
2401:10.1016/j.neulet.2016.05.033
1825:Publishing, Harvard Health.
1686:10.7860/JCDR/2016/19321.7803
1457:10.1371/journal.pgen.1001053
1316:Bullen, Christopher (2014).
299:that binds to and activates
144:nicotine replacement therapy
4970:Benzodiazepine use disorder
4899:Opioid-induced constipation
4887:Opioid-induced hyperalgesia
4581:Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome
4545:Alcohol withdrawal syndrome
4334:Substance-related disorders
4299:Substance-induced psychosis
4271:substance-related disorders
3629:Internet addiction disorder
3382:Morphine (extended-release)
2587:Drug and Alcohol Dependence
1940:(nov26 9): 2014.7.0264rep.
1377:Drug and Alcohol Dependence
1156:Creamer, MeLisa R. (2019).
642:is also variously known as
584:Nicotine use and addiction.
5260:
4667:Caffeine-induced psychosis
4598:Respiratory tract diseases
4583:(WKS, Korsakoff psychosis)
4380:Combined drug intoxication
4064:List of twelve-step groups
3425:Tooltip Adrenergic agonist
3319:Tooltip Adrenergic agonist
3279:Tooltip Adrenergic agonist
3179:Tooltip Adrenergic agonist
2936:Frontiers in Public Health
2122:10.1152/ajplung.00272.2015
1946:10.1136/bmj.2014.7.0264rep
1322:Current Cardiology Reports
900:10.1016/j.jsat.2014.12.002
524:in development similar to
370:peripheral nervous systems
229:assessment scales are the
5239:Health effects of tobacco
4976:Benzodiazepine dependence
4960:Benzodiazepine withdrawal
4770:Prenatal cocaine exposure
4433:Gastrointestinal diseases
4216:
4129:Supervised injection site
4059:Addiction recovery groups
4011:Heroin-assisted treatment
3971:Motivational interviewing
3411:Benzodiazepine dependence
2822:Current Neuropharmacology
2291:10.1016/j.chc.2016.02.002
1782:Proc (Bayl Univ Med Cent)
1577:10.1016/j.chc.2016.02.003
1334:10.1007/s11886-014-0538-8
842:10.1080/14622200600672765
599:American Lung Association
560:World Health Organization
97:World Health Organization
65:
48:
4535:Alcoholic polyneuropathy
4499:Alcohol-related dementia
4417:Alcoholic cardiomyopathy
4370:Polysubstance dependence
4343:Psychological dependence
3812:Psychological dependence
3646:Digital media addictions
2949:10.3389/fpubh.2013.00056
2563:10.1001/jama.2013.284692
2329:Translational Psychiatry
1869:10.3389/fpsyt.2016.00160
1619:Progress in Neurobiology
1241:10.1186/1741-7015-10-123
343:and subsequent receptor
4955:Benzodiazepine overdose
4587:Wernicke encephalopathy
4441:Alcoholic liver disease
4409:Cardiovascular diseases
4114:Needle exchange program
4104:Managed alcohol program
4082:Category:Harm reduction
3012:10.1111/1753-6405.12777
2983:, p. Chapter 8-52.
2032:10.3390/brainsci3010159
1856:Frontiers in Psychiatry
1561:"Tobacco Use Disorders"
532:in a person to destroy
459:Evidence-based medicine
325:gamma-aminobutyric acid
246:The 4th edition of the
5041:Amphetamine dependence
5002:Barbiturate dependence
4833:Green Tobacco Sickness
4731:Amotivational syndrome
4611:Alcoholic lung disease
4551:Alcoholic hallucinosis
4530:Alcoholic hallucinosis
4478:Alcoholic ketoacidosis
4422:Alcohol flush reaction
4290:Substance intoxication
4134:Tobacco harm reduction
3954:Contingency management
3921:Alcohol detoxification
3634:Internet sex addiction
2211:"Nicotine and Tobacco"
1175:10.15585/mmwr.mm6845a2
1075:10.3390/ijerph16132279
949:10.1007/7854_2015_5005
585:
289:
193:
4736:Cannabis use disorder
4459:Auto-brewery syndrome
4196:Motivational salience
4124:Stimulant maintenance
4109:Moderation Management
4021:Methadone maintenance
2891:10.1089/ped.2015.0490
2179:10.1056/NEJMra0809890
760:Addict Sci Clin Pract
583:
287:
274:electronic cigarettes
183:
5234:Substance dependence
4992:Barbiturate overdose
4765:Cocaine intoxication
4505:Alcohol intoxication
4347:Substance dependence
4119:Responsible drug use
3976:Motivational therapy
3641:Video game addiction
2802:on October 30, 2013.
2389:Neuroscience Letters
2163:"Nicotine addiction"
2082:. pp. 107–138.
652:tobacco use disorder
644:cigarette dependence
491:nicotine nasal spray
5025:Stimulant psychosis
4910:Opioid use disorder
4854:Nicotine dependence
4844:Nicotine withdrawal
4687:Caffeine dependence
4447:Alcoholic hepatitis
4339:Physical dependence
4310:Neonatal withdrawal
4043:Twelve-step program
3926:Drug detoxification
3807:Physical dependence
3236:General anesthetics
3140:Nicotine dependence
2509:Innov Clin Neurosci
2341:10.1038/tp.2016.103
2116:(12): L1398–L1409.
640:Nicotine dependence
621:Nicotine withdrawal
294:parasympathomimetic
215:withdrawal symptoms
207:withdrawal symptoms
130:within the brain's
117:parasympathomimetic
73:Nicotine dependence
36:Nicotine dependence
4839:Nicotine poisoning
4781:Cocaine dependence
4710:Cannabis arteritis
4570:Korsakoff syndrome
4470:Endocrine diseases
4201:Incentive salience
4189:Inhibitory control
4164:Category:Addiction
4154:Addiction medicine
3949:Relapse prevention
3886:Tanning dependence
3390:Opioid antagonists
3250:Opioid antagonists
3228:Hydrogen cyanamide
3195:Alcohol dependence
3073:2016-09-27 at the
3056:2017-02-02 at the
2711:10.1111/ajad.12405
2246:10.1093/ntr/ntr118
720:Unknown parameter
681:. pp. 1–774.
648:tobacco dependence
616:Nicotine poisoning
586:
290:
194:
5221:
5220:
5128:
5127:
4882:Opioid withdrawal
4645:
4644:
4619:
4618:
4234:
4233:
4184:Cognitive control
4142:
4141:
4026:Smoking cessation
3981:Physical exercise
3896:
3895:
3882:Non-drug stimuli
3781:
3780:
3625:Internet-related
3478:
3477:
3357:Levacetylmethadol
3305:Opioid dependence
3223:Calcium carbimide
2661:10.1111/add.12647
2457:10.1111/add.12291
1996:978-1-60805-205-9
1738:978-0-89042-557-2
1297:978-1-133-71465-1
1168:(45): 1013–1019.
958:978-3-319-33911-5
696:978-0-309-46834-3
594:medical community
581:
520:is a proprietary
457:, e-cigarettes).
309:neurotransmitters
181:
122:that attaches to
95:According to the
70:
69:
66:Video explanation
59:
30:Medical condition
18:Nicotine addition
16:(Redirected from
5251:
5132:
5072:Toluene toxicity
4556:Delirium tremens
4452:Zieve's syndrome
4405:
4398:
4261:
4254:
4247:
4238:
4224:
4223:
3911:
3792:
3717:G9a-like protein
3533:
3505:
3498:
3491:
3482:
3452:Chlordiazepoxide
3426:
3422:
3372:Dihydroetorphine
3320:
3316:
3280:
3276:
3206:
3180:
3176:
3119:
3112:
3105:
3096:
3033:
3032:
3014:
2990:
2984:
2978:
2972:
2971:
2961:
2951:
2927:
2921:
2920:
2910:
2870:
2864:
2863:
2853:
2813:
2804:
2803:
2801:
2794:
2786:
2780:
2779:
2769:
2758:10.12816/0048737
2737:
2731:
2730:
2694:
2683:
2682:
2672:
2640:
2634:
2633:
2622:
2611:
2610:
2582:
2576:
2575:
2565:
2541:
2535:
2534:
2524:
2500:
2494:
2493:
2491:
2490:
2481:. Archived from
2475:
2469:
2468:
2440:
2431:
2430:
2420:
2380:
2371:
2370:
2360:
2320:
2311:
2310:
2274:
2268:
2267:
2257:
2225:
2219:
2218:
2207:
2201:
2200:
2190:
2173:(24): 2295–303.
2158:
2152:
2151:
2141:
2101:
2092:
2091:
2069:
2063:
2062:
2052:
2034:
2010:
2001:
2000:
1980:
1974:
1973:
1929:
1916:
1905:
1899:
1889:
1871:
1847:
1841:
1840:
1838:
1837:
1822:
1816:
1815:
1805:
1773:
1767:
1766:
1764:
1763:
1749:
1743:
1742:
1722:
1716:
1715:
1705:
1665:
1659:
1658:
1613:
1607:
1606:
1596:
1556:
1550:
1549:
1538:
1532:
1531:
1529:
1528:
1522:
1515:
1504:
1487:
1486:
1485:
1479:
1469:
1459:
1428:
1415:
1414:
1400:
1368:
1362:
1361:
1313:
1302:
1301:
1281:
1272:
1271:
1261:
1243:
1218:Moylan, Steven;
1215:
1206:
1205:
1195:
1177:
1153:
1147:
1141:
1135:
1134:
1132:
1131:
1122:. Archived from
1112:
1106:
1105:
1095:
1077:
1053:
1047:
1046:
1044:
1043:
1029:
1020:
1019:
1017:
1006:
989:
988:
978:
936:
930:
929:
919:
879:
870:
869:
825:
798:
792:
786:
785:
775:
751:
729:
723:
718:
716:
708:
676:
655:
637:
582:
509:and stimulants.
483:nicotine inhaler
182:
61:
60:
33:
21:
5259:
5258:
5254:
5253:
5252:
5250:
5249:
5248:
5224:
5223:
5222:
5217:
5216:
5143:
5129:
5124:
5093:
5054:
5047:
5008:
4926:
4917:
4877:Opioid overdose
4860:
4816:
4787:
4748:
4693:
4641:
4615:
4592:
4521:
4514:
4491:system diseases
4490:
4483:
4464:
4427:
4387:
4359:
4353:
4330:Substance abuse
4273:
4265:
4235:
4230:
4212:
4208:Sober companion
4138:
4092:Reagent testing
4068:
4047:
3991:
3985:
3936:
3930:
3905:
3903:
3892:
3821:
3777:
3664:Transcriptional
3656:
3650:
3577:
3563:Methylphenidate
3558:Methamphetamine
3522:
3509:
3479:
3474:
3437:Benzodiazepines
3424:
3405:
3318:
3299:
3278:
3189:
3178:
3134:
3127:drug dependence
3123:
3075:Wayback Machine
3058:Wayback Machine
3042:
3037:
3036:
2992:
2991:
2987:
2979:
2975:
2929:
2928:
2924:
2872:
2871:
2867:
2815:
2814:
2807:
2799:
2792:
2788:
2787:
2783:
2739:
2738:
2734:
2696:
2695:
2686:
2642:
2641:
2637:
2624:
2623:
2614:
2584:
2583:
2579:
2543:
2542:
2538:
2502:
2501:
2497:
2488:
2486:
2477:
2476:
2472:
2451:(10): 1711–21.
2442:
2441:
2434:
2382:
2381:
2374:
2322:
2321:
2314:
2276:
2275:
2271:
2240:(12): 1167–75.
2227:
2226:
2222:
2209:
2208:
2204:
2160:
2159:
2155:
2103:
2102:
2095:
2071:
2070:
2066:
2012:
2011:
2004:
1997:
1982:
1981:
1977:
1931:
1930:
1919:
1849:
1848:
1844:
1835:
1833:
1824:
1823:
1819:
1775:
1774:
1770:
1761:
1759:
1751:
1750:
1746:
1739:
1724:
1723:
1719:
1667:
1666:
1662:
1615:
1614:
1610:
1558:
1557:
1553:
1540:
1539:
1535:
1526:
1524:
1520:
1513:
1506:
1505:
1490:
1480:
1450:(8): e1001053.
1430:
1429:
1418:
1370:
1369:
1365:
1315:
1314:
1305:
1298:
1283:
1282:
1275:
1220:Jacka, Felice N
1217:
1216:
1209:
1155:
1154:
1150:
1142:
1138:
1129:
1127:
1126:on June 4, 2014
1114:
1113:
1109:
1055:
1054:
1050:
1041:
1039:
1031:
1030:
1023:
1015:
1008:
1007:
992:
959:
938:
937:
933:
881:
880:
873:
827:
826:
801:
793:
789:
753:
752:
741:
736:
719:
709:
697:
674:
667:
664:
659:
658:
638:
634:
629:
612:
571:
569:
551:
542:
515:
467:
439:
423:
380:Neuroplasticity
358:adrenal medulla
341:desensitization
282:
270:
223:
199:Surgeon General
188:video entitled
170:
168:
128:Neuroplasticity
50:
31:
28:
27:Chronic disease
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5257:
5255:
5247:
5246:
5241:
5236:
5226:
5225:
5219:
5218:
5215:
5214:
5203:
5192:
5176:
5161:
5144:
5139:
5138:
5136:
5135:Classification
5126:
5125:
5123:
5122:
5117:
5116:
5115:
5101:
5099:
5095:
5094:
5092:
5091:
5090:
5089:
5087:Inhalant abuse
5084:
5076:
5075:
5074:
5069:
5059:
5057:
5049:
5048:
5046:
5045:
5044:
5043:
5029:
5028:
5027:
5018:
5016:
5010:
5009:
5007:
5006:
5005:
5004:
4996:
4995:
4994:
4980:
4979:
4978:
4973:
4964:
4963:
4962:
4957:
4947:benzodiazepine
4943:
4942:
4941:
4932:
4930:
4919:
4918:
4916:
4915:
4914:
4913:
4904:
4903:
4902:
4896:
4890:
4884:
4879:
4870:
4868:
4862:
4861:
4859:
4858:
4857:
4856:
4848:
4847:
4846:
4841:
4836:
4826:
4824:
4818:
4817:
4815:
4814:
4813:
4812:
4806:
4797:
4795:
4789:
4788:
4786:
4785:
4784:
4783:
4775:
4774:
4773:
4767:
4758:
4756:
4750:
4749:
4747:
4746:
4745:
4744:
4739:
4733:
4725:
4724:
4723:
4718:
4712:
4703:
4701:
4695:
4694:
4692:
4691:
4690:
4689:
4681:
4680:
4679:
4674:
4669:
4664:
4655:
4653:
4647:
4646:
4643:
4642:
4640:
4639:
4637:Binge drinking
4634:
4627:
4625:
4621:
4620:
4617:
4616:
4614:
4613:
4608:
4602:
4600:
4594:
4593:
4591:
4590:
4584:
4578:
4572:
4567:
4561:
4560:
4559:
4553:
4542:
4537:
4532:
4526:
4524:
4516:
4515:
4513:
4512:
4507:
4502:
4495:
4493:
4485:
4484:
4482:
4481:
4474:
4472:
4466:
4465:
4463:
4462:
4456:
4455:
4454:
4449:
4437:
4435:
4429:
4428:
4426:
4425:
4419:
4413:
4411:
4402:
4395:
4389:
4388:
4386:
4385:
4384:
4383:
4374:
4373:
4372:
4363:
4361:
4355:
4354:
4352:
4351:
4350:
4349:
4336:
4322:
4321:
4320:
4319:
4318:
4312:
4301:
4296:
4281:
4279:
4275:
4274:
4266:
4264:
4263:
4256:
4249:
4241:
4232:
4231:
4229:
4228:
4217:
4214:
4213:
4211:
4210:
4205:
4204:
4203:
4193:
4192:
4191:
4181:
4176:
4171:
4166:
4161:
4156:
4150:
4148:
4144:
4143:
4140:
4139:
4137:
4136:
4131:
4126:
4121:
4116:
4111:
4106:
4101:
4096:
4095:
4094:
4084:
4078:
4076:
4074:Harm reduction
4070:
4069:
4067:
4066:
4061:
4055:
4053:
4052:Support groups
4049:
4048:
4046:
4045:
4040:
4039:
4038:
4033:
4023:
4018:
4013:
4008:
4007:
4006:
3995:
3993:
3987:
3986:
3984:
3983:
3978:
3973:
3968:
3963:
3958:
3957:
3956:
3951:
3940:
3938:
3932:
3931:
3929:
3928:
3923:
3917:
3915:
3914:Detoxification
3908:
3898:
3897:
3894:
3893:
3891:
3890:
3889:
3888:
3880:
3879:
3878:
3873:
3868:
3863:
3858:
3853:
3851:Benzodiazepine
3848:
3843:
3838:
3829:
3827:
3823:
3822:
3820:
3819:
3814:
3809:
3804:
3798:
3796:
3789:
3783:
3782:
3779:
3778:
3776:
3775:
3774:
3773:
3770:
3765:
3760:
3755:
3750:
3745:
3740:
3733:
3726:
3719:
3714:
3701:
3700:
3699:
3698:
3693:
3688:
3683:
3678:
3673:
3660:
3658:
3652:
3651:
3649:
3648:
3643:
3638:
3637:
3636:
3631:
3623:
3622:
3621:
3616:
3608:
3606:Palatable food
3603:
3602:
3601:
3596:
3587:
3585:
3579:
3578:
3576:
3575:
3570:
3565:
3560:
3555:
3550:
3545:
3539:
3537:
3530:
3524:
3523:
3510:
3508:
3507:
3500:
3493:
3485:
3476:
3475:
3473:
3472:
3460:
3454:
3449:
3444:
3433:
3415:
3413:
3407:
3406:
3404:
3403:
3397:
3386:
3385:
3384:
3379:
3374:
3369:
3367:Dihydrocodeine
3364:
3359:
3354:
3337:
3332:
3326:
3309:
3307:
3301:
3300:
3298:
3297:
3292:
3287:
3270:
3265:
3264:
3263:
3258:
3246:
3245:
3244:
3232:
3231:
3230:
3225:
3220:
3215:
3199:
3197:
3191:
3190:
3188:
3187:
3170:
3165:
3160:
3155:
3150:
3144:
3142:
3136:
3135:
3124:
3122:
3121:
3114:
3107:
3099:
3093:
3092:
3087:
3082:
3077:
3065:
3060:
3048:
3041:
3040:External links
3038:
3035:
3034:
3005:(3): 303–308.
2985:
2973:
2922:
2865:
2828:(4): 438–459.
2805:
2781:
2752:(3): 425–435.
2732:
2705:(6): 436–451.
2684:
2655:(9): 1541–53.
2635:
2612:
2577:
2536:
2515:(3–4): 13–22.
2495:
2470:
2432:
2372:
2312:
2285:(3): 377–385.
2269:
2220:
2217:. 7 June 2016.
2202:
2153:
2093:
2064:
2025:(1): 159–176.
2019:Brain Sciences
2002:
1995:
1975:
1917:
1842:
1831:Harvard Health
1817:
1768:
1744:
1737:
1717:
1660:
1608:
1571:(3): 445–460.
1551:
1533:
1488:
1416:
1383:(4): 288–298.
1363:
1303:
1296:
1273:
1207:
1148:
1136:
1107:
1048:
1021:
990:
957:
931:
871:
836:(3): 339–351.
799:
787:
738:
737:
735:
732:
731:
730:
695:
687:10.17226/24952
663:
660:
657:
656:
631:
630:
628:
625:
624:
623:
618:
611:
608:
568:
565:
550:
547:
541:
538:
514:
511:
495:nicotine patch
466:
463:
438:
435:
422:
419:
362:beta-endorphin
335:, and several
313:norepinephrine
281:
278:
269:
266:
222:
219:
167:
164:
162:successfully.
126:in the brain.
115:Nicotine is a
75:is a state of
68:
67:
63:
62:
46:
45:
42:
38:
37:
29:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5256:
5245:
5242:
5240:
5237:
5235:
5232:
5231:
5229:
5213:
5209:
5208:
5204:
5202:
5198:
5197:
5193:
5190:
5186:
5185:
5181:
5177:
5175:
5171:
5170:
5166:
5162:
5159:
5155:
5154:
5150:
5146:
5145:
5142:
5137:
5133:
5121:
5118:
5114:
5111:
5110:
5108:
5107:
5103:
5102:
5100:
5096:
5088:
5085:
5083:
5080:
5079:
5077:
5073:
5070:
5067:
5064:
5063:
5061:
5060:
5058:
5056:
5050:
5042:
5039:
5038:
5036:
5034:
5030:
5026:
5023:
5022:
5020:
5019:
5017:
5015:
5011:
5003:
5000:
4999:
4997:
4993:
4990:
4989:
4987:
4985:
4981:
4977:
4974:
4971:
4968:
4967:
4965:
4961:
4958:
4956:
4953:
4952:
4950:
4948:
4944:
4940:
4937:
4936:
4934:
4933:
4931:
4929:
4924:
4920:
4911:
4908:
4907:
4905:
4900:
4897:
4894:
4891:
4888:
4885:
4883:
4880:
4878:
4875:
4874:
4872:
4871:
4869:
4867:
4863:
4855:
4852:
4851:
4849:
4845:
4842:
4840:
4837:
4834:
4831:
4830:
4828:
4827:
4825:
4823:
4819:
4810:
4807:
4805:
4802:
4801:
4799:
4798:
4796:
4794:
4790:
4782:
4779:
4778:
4776:
4771:
4768:
4766:
4763:
4762:
4760:
4759:
4757:
4755:
4751:
4743:
4740:
4737:
4734:
4732:
4729:
4728:
4726:
4722:
4719:
4716:
4713:
4711:
4708:
4707:
4705:
4704:
4702:
4700:
4696:
4688:
4685:
4684:
4682:
4678:
4675:
4673:
4670:
4668:
4665:
4663:
4660:
4659:
4657:
4656:
4654:
4652:
4648:
4638:
4635:
4632:
4629:
4628:
4626:
4622:
4612:
4609:
4607:
4604:
4603:
4601:
4599:
4595:
4588:
4585:
4582:
4579:
4576:
4573:
4571:
4568:
4565:
4562:
4557:
4554:
4552:
4549:
4548:
4546:
4543:
4541:
4538:
4536:
4533:
4531:
4528:
4527:
4525:
4523:
4517:
4511:
4508:
4506:
4503:
4500:
4497:
4496:
4494:
4492:
4486:
4479:
4476:
4475:
4473:
4471:
4467:
4460:
4457:
4453:
4450:
4448:
4445:
4444:
4442:
4439:
4438:
4436:
4434:
4430:
4423:
4420:
4418:
4415:
4414:
4412:
4410:
4406:
4403:
4399:
4396:
4394:
4390:
4381:
4378:
4377:
4375:
4371:
4368:
4367:
4365:
4364:
4362:
4360:substance use
4356:
4348:
4344:
4340:
4337:
4335:
4331:
4328:
4327:
4326:
4323:
4316:
4313:
4311:
4308:
4307:
4305:
4302:
4300:
4297:
4295:
4294:Drug overdose
4291:
4288:
4287:
4286:
4283:
4282:
4280:
4276:
4272:
4269:
4262:
4257:
4255:
4250:
4248:
4243:
4242:
4239:
4227:
4219:
4218:
4215:
4209:
4206:
4202:
4199:
4198:
4197:
4194:
4190:
4187:
4186:
4185:
4182:
4180:
4177:
4175:
4172:
4170:
4167:
4165:
4162:
4160:
4157:
4155:
4152:
4151:
4149:
4145:
4135:
4132:
4130:
4127:
4125:
4122:
4120:
4117:
4115:
4112:
4110:
4107:
4105:
4102:
4100:
4097:
4093:
4090:
4089:
4088:
4087:Drug checking
4085:
4083:
4080:
4079:
4077:
4075:
4071:
4065:
4062:
4060:
4057:
4056:
4054:
4050:
4044:
4041:
4037:
4034:
4032:
4029:
4028:
4027:
4024:
4022:
4019:
4017:
4014:
4012:
4009:
4005:
4002:
4001:
4000:
3997:
3996:
3994:
3988:
3982:
3979:
3977:
3974:
3972:
3969:
3967:
3964:
3962:
3959:
3955:
3952:
3950:
3947:
3946:
3945:
3942:
3941:
3939:
3933:
3927:
3924:
3922:
3919:
3918:
3916:
3912:
3909:
3907:
3899:
3887:
3884:
3883:
3881:
3877:
3874:
3872:
3869:
3867:
3864:
3862:
3859:
3857:
3854:
3852:
3849:
3847:
3844:
3842:
3839:
3837:
3834:
3833:
3831:
3830:
3828:
3824:
3818:
3815:
3813:
3810:
3808:
3805:
3803:
3800:
3799:
3797:
3793:
3790:
3788:
3784:
3771:
3769:
3766:
3764:
3761:
3759:
3756:
3754:
3751:
3749:
3746:
3744:
3741:
3739:
3738:
3734:
3732:
3731:
3727:
3725:
3724:
3720:
3718:
3715:
3713:
3712:
3708:
3707:
3706:
3703:
3702:
3697:
3694:
3692:
3689:
3687:
3684:
3682:
3679:
3677:
3674:
3672:
3671:
3667:
3666:
3665:
3662:
3661:
3659:
3653:
3647:
3644:
3642:
3639:
3635:
3632:
3630:
3627:
3626:
3624:
3620:
3617:
3615:
3612:
3611:
3609:
3607:
3604:
3600:
3597:
3595:
3592:
3591:
3589:
3588:
3586:
3584:
3580:
3574:
3571:
3569:
3566:
3564:
3561:
3559:
3556:
3554:
3551:
3549:
3546:
3544:
3541:
3540:
3538:
3534:
3531:
3529:
3525:
3521:
3517:
3513:
3512:Reinforcement
3506:
3501:
3499:
3494:
3492:
3487:
3486:
3483:
3470:
3469:Phenobarbital
3466:
3465:
3461:
3458:
3455:
3453:
3450:
3448:
3445:
3443:
3439:
3438:
3434:
3431:
3427:
3423:
3417:
3416:
3414:
3412:
3408:
3401:
3398:
3396:
3392:
3391:
3387:
3383:
3380:
3378:
3375:
3373:
3370:
3368:
3365:
3363:
3360:
3358:
3355:
3352:
3348:
3347:Buprenorphine
3345:
3344:
3343:
3342:
3338:
3336:
3333:
3330:
3327:
3325:
3321:
3317:
3311:
3310:
3308:
3306:
3302:
3296:
3293:
3291:
3288:
3285:
3281:
3277:
3271:
3269:
3266:
3262:
3259:
3257:
3254:
3253:
3252:
3251:
3247:
3243:
3242:Nitrous oxide
3240:
3239:
3238:
3237:
3233:
3229:
3226:
3224:
3221:
3219:
3216:
3214:
3211:
3210:
3209:
3208:
3201:
3200:
3198:
3196:
3192:
3185:
3181:
3177:
3171:
3169:
3166:
3164:
3161:
3159:
3156:
3154:
3151:
3149:
3146:
3145:
3143:
3141:
3137:
3132:
3128:
3125:Treatment of
3120:
3115:
3113:
3108:
3106:
3101:
3100:
3097:
3091:
3088:
3086:
3083:
3081:
3078:
3076:
3072:
3069:
3066:
3064:
3061:
3059:
3055:
3052:
3049:
3047:
3044:
3043:
3039:
3030:
3026:
3022:
3018:
3013:
3008:
3004:
3000:
2996:
2989:
2986:
2982:
2981:Stratton 2018
2977:
2974:
2969:
2965:
2960:
2955:
2950:
2945:
2941:
2937:
2933:
2926:
2923:
2918:
2914:
2909:
2904:
2900:
2896:
2892:
2888:
2884:
2880:
2876:
2869:
2866:
2861:
2857:
2852:
2847:
2843:
2839:
2835:
2831:
2827:
2823:
2819:
2812:
2810:
2806:
2798:
2791:
2785:
2782:
2777:
2773:
2768:
2763:
2759:
2755:
2751:
2747:
2743:
2736:
2733:
2728:
2724:
2720:
2716:
2712:
2708:
2704:
2700:
2693:
2691:
2689:
2685:
2680:
2676:
2671:
2666:
2662:
2658:
2654:
2650:
2646:
2639:
2636:
2631:
2627:
2621:
2619:
2617:
2613:
2608:
2604:
2600:
2596:
2593:(2): 91–102.
2592:
2588:
2581:
2578:
2573:
2569:
2564:
2559:
2556:(2): 183–92.
2555:
2551:
2547:
2540:
2537:
2532:
2528:
2523:
2518:
2514:
2510:
2506:
2499:
2496:
2485:on 2009-12-06
2484:
2480:
2474:
2471:
2466:
2462:
2458:
2454:
2450:
2446:
2439:
2437:
2433:
2428:
2424:
2419:
2414:
2410:
2406:
2402:
2398:
2394:
2390:
2386:
2379:
2377:
2373:
2368:
2364:
2359:
2354:
2350:
2346:
2342:
2338:
2334:
2330:
2326:
2319:
2317:
2313:
2308:
2304:
2300:
2296:
2292:
2288:
2284:
2280:
2273:
2270:
2265:
2261:
2256:
2251:
2247:
2243:
2239:
2235:
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3464:Barbiturates
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662:Bibliography
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549:Epidemiology
543:
540:Psychosocial
516:
479:nicotine gum
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140:white matter
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5033:amphetamine
4984:barbiturate
3935:Behavioral
3846:Barbiturate
3841:Amphetamine
3619:Pornography
3614:Intercourse
3548:Amphetamine
3514:disorders:
3218:Acamprosate
3168:Varenicline
2335:(6): e843.
1434:Houlston, R
1328:(11): 538.
1037:www.who.int
766:(1): 4–16.
499:varenicline
152:varenicline
136:grey matter
41:Other names
5228:Categories
5014:Stimulants
4677:Caffeinism
4631:Alcoholism
4304:Withdrawal
4159:Allen Carr
3999:Drug rehab
3990:Treatment
3906:management
3902:Treatment
3836:Alcoholism
3817:Withdrawal
3787:Dependence
3705:Epigenetic
3657:mechanisms
3590:Financial
3583:Behavioral
3520:dependence
3395:Naltrexone
3329:Lofexidine
3268:Topiramate
3256:Naltrexone
3213:Disulfiram
2942:(56): 56.
2885:(1): 2–6.
2489:2009-10-27
1836:2021-05-08
1762:2021-05-08
1527:2016-09-02
1234:(1): 123.
1130:2021-04-17
1042:2021-04-17
734:References
530:antibodies
465:Medication
333:endorphins
311:, such as
307:and other
268:Mechanisms
227:dependence
166:Definition
85:compulsive
77:dependence
5207:SNOMED CT
5120:Chocolate
4522:disorders
3937:therapies
3826:Disorders
3528:Addiction
3516:addiction
3447:Lorazepam
3430:Clonidine
3400:Nalmefene
3362:Methadone
3351:+naloxone
3324:Clonidine
3284:Clonidine
3261:Nalmefene
3207:inhibitor
3184:Clonidine
3148:Bupropion
3021:1326-0200
2899:2151-321X
2842:1570-159X
2719:1055-0496
2649:Addiction
2445:Addiction
2409:0304-3940
2395:: 83–92.
2349:2158-3188
2299:1056-4993
2130:1040-0605
2041:2076-3425
1954:1756-1833
1912:CC BY 4.0
1878:1664-0640
1694:2249-782X
1655:207407218
1639:0301-0082
1585:1056-4993
1342:1523-3782
1250:1741-7015
1184:0149-2195
1084:1660-4601
1033:"Tobacco"
967:1866-3370
908:0740-5472
894:: 40–47.
850:1462-2203
724:ignored (
713:cite book
471:bupropion
437:Treatment
353:tolerance
329:glutamate
321:serotonin
297:stimulant
221:Diagnosis
148:bupropion
120:stimulant
5212:56294008
5053:Volatile
4928:hypnotic
4923:Sedative
4822:Nicotine
4699:Cannabis
4651:Caffeine
4510:Hangover
4358:Combined
4226:Category
4147:See also
3992:programs
3871:Nicotine
3861:Cannabis
3856:Caffeine
3795:Concepts
3655:Cellular
3599:Shopping
3594:Gambling
3568:Nicotine
3457:Oxazepam
3442:Diazepam
3335:Ibogaine
3295:Phenibut
3290:Baclofen
3158:Lobeline
3153:Cytisine
3071:Archived
3054:Archived
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610:See also
567:Concerns
556:quitting
534:nicotine
475:cytisine
305:dopamine
288:Dopamine
211:nicotine
160:quitting
156:cytisine
81:nicotine
5244:Smoking
5098:Related
5055:solvent
4866:Opioids
4754:Cocaine
4547:(AWS):
4489:Nervous
4443:(ALD):
4393:Alcohol
4278:General
3866:Cocaine
3553:Cocaine
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513:Vaccine
507:alcohol
427:operant
366:central
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3832:Drugs
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395:CHRNB3
386:CHRNA5
233:, the
106:, the
5174:F17.2
5169:10-CM
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4901:(OIC)
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4889:(OIH)
4835:(GTS)
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4577:(PAN)
4558:(DTs)
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4424:(AFR)
4382:(CDI)
3768:SIRT2
3763:SIRT1
3753:HDAC9
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3730:HDAC2
3723:HDAC1
3696:NF-ÎşB
3691:GluR2
3676:c-Fos
3670:ΔFosB
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1966:S2CID
1651:S2CID
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1514:(PDF)
1354:S2CID
1016:(PDF)
862:S2CID
675:(PDF)
650:, or
627:Notes
526:TA-CD
451:pipes
256:DSM-5
154:, or
79:upon
5196:OMIM
5184:9-CM
5078:SUD
5062:SID
5037:SUD
5021:SID
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4951:SID
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