Night of the Long Knives

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1934 that as army officers they could not stand the exceedingly violent press attacks on Schleicher and Bredow that had been going on since July, which portrayed them as the vilest traitors, working against the Fatherland in the pay of France. In a speech given on 3 January 1935, at the Berlin State Opera, Hitler stated that Schleicher and Bredow had been shot "in error" on the basis of false information, and that their names were to be restored to the honour rolls of their regiments at once. Hitler's speech was not reported in the German press, but the army was appeased by the speech. However, despite the rehabilitation of the two murdered officers, the Nazis continued in private to accuse Schleicher of high treason. During a trip to Warsaw in January 1935, Göring told

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mourners had brought. Besides working for the rehabilitation of Schleicher and Bredow, Hammerstein and Mackensen sent a memo to Hindenburg on 18 July setting out in considerable detail the circumstances of the murders of the two generals and noted that Papen had barely escaped. The memo went on to demand that Hindenburg punish those responsible, and criticized Blomberg for his outspoken support of the murders of Schleicher and Bredow. Finally, Hammerstein and Mackensen asked that Hindenburg reorganize the government by firing Baron Konstantin von Neurath,

1141: 881: – without Hitler's knowledge – to ask Mussolini to tell Hitler that the SA was blackening Germany's good name. Neurath's manoeuvre to put pressure on Hitler paid off, with Mussolini agreeing to the request (Neurath was a former ambassador to Italy, and knew Mussolini well). During the summit in Venice, Mussolini upbraided Hitler for tolerating the violence, hooliganism and homosexuality of the SA, which Mussolini stated were ruining Hitler's good reputation all over the world. Mussolini used the affair occasioned by the murder of 692: 1088:

told the crowd that "undisciplined and disobedient characters and asocial or diseased elements" would be annihilated. The crowd, which included party members and many SA members fortunate enough to escape arrest, shouted its approval. Hess, present among the assembled, even volunteered to shoot the "traitors". Joseph Goebbels, who had been with Hitler at Bad Wiessee, set the final phase of the plan in motion. Upon returning to Berlin, Goebbels telephoned Göring at 10:00 with the codeword

1923:"But in origin the National Socialists had been a radical anti-capitalist party, and this part of the National Socialist programme was not only taken seriously by many loyal Party members but was of increasing importance in a period of economic depression. How seriously Hitler took the socialist character of National Socialism was to remain one of the main causes of disagreement and division within the Nazi party up to the summer of 1934." 1283: 4462: 4474: 832:

and Hitler. The loyalty of the SS men would prove useful to both when Hitler finally chose to move against Röhm and the SA. By May, lists of those to be "liquidated" started to circulate amongst Göring and Himmler's people, who engaged in a trade, adding enemies of one in exchange for sparing friends of the other. At the end of May Brüning and Schleicher, two former chancellors, received warnings from friends in the

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and I further gave the order to cauterise down to the raw flesh the ulcers of this poisoning of the wells in our domestic life. Let the nation know that its existence – which depends on its internal order and security – cannot be threatened with impunity by anyone! And let it be known for all time to come that if anyone raises his hand to strike the State, then certain death is his lot.

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in Germany with the authority to potentially depose the Nazi regime, put Hitler under pressure to act. He left Neudeck with the intention of both destroying Röhm and settling scores with old enemies. Both Himmler and Göring welcomed Hitler's decision, since both had much to gain by Röhm's downfall – the independence of the SS for Himmler and the removal of a rival for the future command of the army for Göring.

6389: 715:, an attempt by Hitler to seize power by force in 1923. A combat veteran of World War I, Röhm had recently boasted that he would execute 12 men in retaliation for the killing of any stormtrooper. Röhm saw violence as a means to political ends. He took seriously the socialist promise of National Socialism and demanded that Hitler and the other party leaders initiate wide-ranging socialist reform in Germany. 1060: 1056:, the chief of the Munich police, for failing to keep order in the city the previous night. Hitler shouted at Schneidhuber and accused him of treachery. Schneidhuber was executed later that day. As the stormtroopers were hustled off to prison, Hitler assembled a large group of SS and regular police, and departed for the Hanselbauer Hotel in Bad Wiessee, where Ernst Röhm and his followers were staying. 4519: 1473:, who decided that his future was aligned with the Nazis, may not have passed it along. It is noteworthy that even those officers who were most offended by the killings, like Hammerstein and Mackensen, did not blame the purge on Hitler, whom they wanted to see continue as Chancellor; they at most wanted a reorganization of the Cabinet to remove some of Hitler's more radical followers. 4450: 823:, who knew Schleicher and his circle well, wrote that Bredow displayed a "lack of discretion" that was "terrifying" as he went about showing the list of the proposed cabinet to anyone who was interested. Although Schleicher was in fact unimportant by 1934, increasingly wild rumours that he was scheming with Röhm to re-enter the corridors of power helped stoke the sense of crisis. 1512:, Netherlands, was horrified by the purge. He asked, "What would people have said if I had done such a thing?" Hearing of the murder of former Chancellor Kurt von Schleicher and his wife, he also commented, "We have ceased to live under the rule of law and everyone must be prepared for the possibility that the Nazis will push their way in and put them up against the wall!" 475: 458:

the Nazis, as the German courts and cabinet quickly swept aside centuries of legal prohibition against extrajudicial killings to demonstrate their loyalty to the regime. The Night of the Long Knives was a turning point for the German government. It established Hitler as the supreme administrator of justice of the German people, as he put it in his 13 July speech to the

1017: 4502: 1186:, the leader of Catholic Action, and a close Papen associate. Papen was unceremoniously arrested at the Vice-Chancellery, despite his insistent protests that he could not be arrested in his position as Vice-Chancellor. Although Hitler ordered him released days later, Papen no longer dared to criticize the regime and was sent off to Vienna as German ambassador. 1163: 759:

Reichswehr, not the other way around. After Hitler and most of the army officers had left, however, Röhm declared that he would not take instructions from "the ridiculous corporal" – a demeaning reference to Hitler. While Hitler did not take immediate action against Röhm for his intemperate outburst, it nonetheless deepened the rift between them.

623:. Also known as the "brownshirts" or "stormtroopers", the SA became notorious for their street battles with the Communists. The violent confrontations between the two contributed to the destabilization of the Weimar Republic. In June 1932, one of the worst months of political violence, there were more than 400 street battles, resulting in 82 deaths. 841: 1308:

prevent newspapers from publishing lists of the dead, but at the same time used a 2 July radio address to describe how Hitler had narrowly prevented Röhm from overthrowing the government and throwing the country into turmoil. Then, on 13 July 1934, Hitler justified the purge in a nationally broadcast speech to the Reichstag:

439:, the German military, who feared and despised the SA as a potential rival, in particular because of Röhm's ambition to merge the army and the SA under his own leadership. Additionally, Hitler was uncomfortable with Röhm's outspoken support for a "second revolution" to redistribute wealth. In Röhm's view, President 1274:

bare chest puffed out in a gesture of defiance. Eicke and Lippert then shot Röhm, killing him. In 1957, the German authorities tried Lippert in Munich for Röhm's murder. Until then, Lippert had been one of the few executioners of the purge to evade trial. Lippert was convicted and sentenced to 18 months in prison.

796:, positioning themselves against Röhm. While all of these men were veterans of the Nazi movement, only Röhm continued to demonstrate his independence from, rather than his loyalty to, Adolf Hitler. Röhm's contempt for the party's bureaucracy angered Hess. SA violence in Prussia gravely concerned Göring. 1688:

The Night of the Long Knives represented a triumph for Hitler, and a turning point for the German government. It established Hitler as "the supreme leader of the German people", as he put it in his 13 July speech to the Reichstag. Hitler formally adopted this title in April 1942, thus placing himself

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to replace Röhm as head of the SA. Hitler ordered him, as one prominent historian described it, to put an end to "homosexuality, debauchery, drunkenness, and high living" in the SA. Hitler expressly told him to stop SA funds from being spent on limousines and banquets, which he considered evidence of

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as Foreign Minister. The request that Neurath be replaced by Nadolny, the former Ambassador to the USSR, who had resigned earlier that year in protest against Hitler's anti-Soviet foreign policy, indicated that Hammerstein and Mackensen wanted a return to the "distant friendliness" towards the Soviet

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was set up for the relatives of the murdered, from which they were cared for at the expense of the state. The widows of the murdered SA leaders received between 1,000 and 1,600 marks a month, depending on the rank of the murdered person. Kurt von Schleicher's stepdaughter received 250 marks per month

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If anyone reproaches me and asks why I did not resort to the regular courts of justice, then all I can say is this. In this hour I was responsible for the fate of the German people, and thereby I became the supreme judge of the German people. I gave the order to shoot the ringleaders in this treason,

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Although Hitler presented no evidence of a plot by Röhm to overthrow the regime, he nevertheless denounced the leadership of the SA. Arriving back at party headquarters in Munich, Hitler addressed the assembled crowd. Consumed with rage, Hitler denounced "the worst treachery in world history". Hitler

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In response, Hitler met Blomberg and the leadership of the SA and SS on 28 February 1934. Under pressure from Hitler, Röhm reluctantly signed a pledge stating that he recognised the supremacy of the Reichswehr over the SA. Hitler announced to those present that the SA would act as an auxiliary to the

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The action Hitler took would not only defang Röhm and the SA as a potential threat to Hitler's personal control of the Nazi Party, but would also serve to strengthen his relationship with the Wehrmacht – the German armed forces – which had long considered the SA to be their primary rival,

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In late 1934–early 1935, Werner von Fritsch and Werner von Blomberg, who had been shamed into joining Hammerstein and Mackensen's rehabilitation campaign, successfully pressured Hitler into rehabilitating Generals von Schleicher and von Bredow. Fritsch and Blomberg suddenly now claimed at the end of

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to head the Gestapo on 22 April 1934. Himmler envied the independence and power of the SA, although by this time he and Heydrich had already begun restructuring the SS from a bodyguard formation for Nazi leaders (and a subset of the SA) into its own independent elite corps, one loyal to both himself

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died during the purge, although the final death toll may have been in the hundreds, with high estimates running from 700 to 1,000. More than 1,000 perceived opponents were arrested. The purge strengthened and consolidated the support of the military for Hitler. It also provided a legal grounding for

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Rumours about the Night of the Long Knives rapidly spread. Although many Germans approached the official news of the events as described by Joseph Goebbels with a great deal of scepticism, many others took the regime at its word, and believed that Hitler had saved Germany from a descent into chaos.

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The army almost unanimously applauded the Night of the Long Knives, even though the generals Kurt von Schleicher and Ferdinand von Bredow were among the victims. A telegram purportedly from the ailing Hindenburg, Germany's highly revered military hero, expressed his "profoundly felt gratitude", and

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if Hitler did not take immediate steps against Röhm and his brownshirts. Hitler had hesitated for months in moving against Röhm, in part due to Röhm's visibility as the leader of a national militia with millions of members. The threat of a declaration of martial law from Hindenburg, the only person

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Despite his earlier agreement with Hitler, Röhm still clung to his vision of a new German army with the SA at its core. By early 1934, this vision directly conflicted with Hitler's plan to consolidate power and expand the Reichswehr. Because their plans for the army conflicted, Röhm's success could

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Despite such hostility between the brownshirts and the regular army, Blomberg and others in the military saw the SA as a source of raw recruits for an enlarged and revitalized army. Röhm, however, wanted to eliminate the generalship of the Prussian aristocracy altogether, using the SA to become the

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The regime did not limit itself to a purge of the SA. Having earlier imprisoned or exiled prominent Social Democrats and Communists, Hitler used the occasion to move against conservatives he considered unreliable. This included Vice-Chancellor Papen and those in his immediate circle. In Berlin, on

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Hitler's appointment as chancellor, followed by the suppression of all political parties except the Nazis, did not end the violence of the stormtroopers. Deprived of Communist party meetings to disrupt, the stormtroopers would sometimes run riot in the streets after a night of drinking; they would

1704:. Centuries of jurisprudence proscribing extrajudicial killings were swept aside. Despite some initial efforts by local prosecutors to take legal action against those who carried out the murders, which the regime rapidly quashed, it appeared that no law would constrain Hitler in his use of power. 1429:

them.'" It did not escape Klemperer's notice that many of the victims had played a role in bringing Hitler to power. "A chancellor", he wrote, "sentences and shoots members of his own private army!" The extent of the massacre and the relative ubiquity of the Gestapo, however, meant that those who

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Given that the purge claimed the lives of so many prominent Germans, it could hardly be kept secret. At first, its architects seemed split on how to handle the event. Göring instructed police stations to burn "all documents concerning the action of the past two days". Meanwhile, Goebbels tried to

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loaded with a single cartridge and told him he had ten minutes to kill himself or they would do it for him. Röhm demurred, telling them, "If I am to be killed, let Adolf do it himself." Having heard nothing in the allotted time, they returned to Röhm's cell at 14:50 to find him standing, with his

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and Field Marshal August von Mackensen, who started a campaign to have Schleicher rehabilitated by Hitler. Hammerstein, who was a close friend of Schleicher, had been much offended at Schleicher's funeral when the SS refused to allow him to attend the service and confiscated the wreaths that the

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that the telegram was never seen by Hindenburg, and was actually written by the Nazis. General von Reichenau went so far as to publicly give credence to the lie that Schleicher had been plotting to overthrow the government. In his speech to the Reichstag on 13 July justifying his actions, Hitler

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promise of National Socialism and expected the Nazi regime to take more radical economic action, such as breaking up the vast landed estates of the aristocracy. When the Nazi regime did not take such steps, those who had expected an economic as well as a political revolution were disillusioned.

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come only at Hitler's expense. Moreover, it was not just the Reichswehr that viewed the SA as a threat. Several of Hitler's lieutenants feared Röhm's growing power and restlessness, as did Hitler. As a result, a political struggle within the party grew, with those closest to Hitler, including

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to one hundred thousand soldiers, its leaders watched anxiously as membership in the SA surpassed three million men by the beginning of 1934. In January 1934, Röhm presented Blomberg with a memorandum demanding that the SA replace the regular army as the nation's ground forces, and that the

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Hitler's speech signalled his intention to rein in the SA, whose ranks had grown rapidly in the early 1930s. Hitler's task would not be simple, however, as the SA made up a large part of Nazism's most devoted followers. The SA traced its dramatic rise in numbers in part to the onset of the

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The army's support for the purge, however, would have far-reaching consequences for the institution. The humbling of the SA ended the threat it had posed to the army, but, by standing by Hitler during the purge, the army bound itself more tightly to the Nazi regime. One retired captain,

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At the beginning of 1932 the Nazis seemed on the verge of a dictatorship, and the air was full of the stench of blood. By the end of it, Hitler's party had been shaken by a major crisis, and the long knives were put quietly back in their box while all the Führer kept out was a wary

1219:, Röhm's personal adjutant. He held the same position with Röhm as I held with Himmler. died with words "Heil Hitler" on his lips. We were close personal friends; we often dined together in Berlin. He lifted his arm in the Nazi salute and called out "Heil Hitler, I love Germany." 907:

with ties to army and industry, privately threatened to resign if Hitler did not act. While von Papen's resignation as vice-chancellor would not have threatened Hitler's position, it would have nonetheless been an embarrassing display of independence from a leading conservative.

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from the Cabinet. The memo asked that Hindenburg instead create a directorate to rule Germany, comprising the Chancellor (who was not named), General Werner von Fritsch as Vice-Chancellor, Hammerstein as Minister of Defense, the Minister for National Economy (also unnamed), and

1680:), the word used to command execution squads into action on 30 June. However, soon after the purge Hitler himself named the events the "Night of the long knives" in his public speech on 13 July 1934 defending the actions (despite the violence taking place over several days). 1501:." The statements that Schleicher had been killed because he wanted to partition Poland with the Soviet Union were later published in the Polish White Book of 1939, which was a collection of diplomatic documents detailing German–Polish relations up to the outbreak of the war. 1317:

Wanting to present the massacre as legally sanctioned, Hitler had the cabinet approve a measure on 3 July that declared, "The measures taken on June 30, July 1 and 2 to suppress treasonous assaults are legal as acts of self-defence by the State." Reich Justice Minister

1322:, a conservative who had been Bavarian Justice Minister in the years of the Weimar Republic, demonstrated his loyalty to the new regime by drafting the statute, which added a legal veneer to the purge. Signed into law by Hitler, Gürtner, and Minister of the Interior 746:, denounced the army to his fellow brownshirts, telling them, "Some of the officers of the army are swine. Most officers are too old and have to be replaced by young ones. We want to wait till Papa Hindenburg is dead, and then the SA will march against the army." 836:

that their lives were in danger and they should leave Germany at once. Brüning fled to the Netherlands while Schleicher dismissed the tip-off as a bad practical joke. By the beginning of June everything was set and all that was needed was permission from Hitler.

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under his direction and control. Hitler did not exercise absolute power, however, despite his swift consolidation of political authority. As chancellor, Hitler did not command the army, which remained under the formal leadership of Hindenburg, a highly respected

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that Schleicher had urged Hitler in January 1933 to reach an understanding with France and the Soviet Union, and partition Poland with the latter, and Hitler had Schleicher killed out of disgust with the alleged advice. During a meeting with Polish Ambassador

730:. Although nicknamed the "Rubber Lion" by some of his critics in the army for his devotion to Hitler, Blomberg was not a Nazi, and therefore represented a bridge between the army and the party. Blomberg and many of his fellow officers were recruited from the 609:

served as the liaison with the Bavarian Freikorps. Röhm was given the nickname "The Machine Gun King of Bavaria" in the early 1920s, since he was responsible for storing and issuing illegal machine guns to the Bavarian Freikorps units. Röhm left the

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in bed with an unidentified eighteen-year-old male SA senior troop leader. Hitler ordered both Heines and his partner taken outside the hotel and shot. Goebbels emphasised this aspect in subsequent propaganda justifying the purge as a crackdown on

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Desire of Ernst Röhm and the SA to continue "the National Socialist revolution" versus Hitler's need for relative social stability so that the economy could be refocused to rearmament and the German people acclimated to the need for expansion and

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had seized the reins of power in Germany, he said, it was time to consolidate its control. Hitler told the gathered officials, "The stream of revolution has been undammed, but it must be channelled into the secure bed of evolution."

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in 1923 and later became commander of the SA. During the 1920s and 1930s, the SA functioned as a private militia used by Hitler to intimidate rivals and disrupt the meetings of competing political parties, especially those of the

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With Hitler's arrival in Bad Wiessee between 06:00 and 07:00, the SA leadership, still in bed, were taken by surprise. SS men stormed the hotel, and Hitler personally placed Röhm and other high-ranking SA leaders under arrest.

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If the regular army showed contempt for the masses belonging to the SA, many stormtroopers returned the feeling, seeing the army as insufficiently committed to the National Socialist revolution. Max Heydebreck, an SA leader in

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also took part in the killings. Many of those killed in the purge were leaders of the SA, the best-known being Röhm himself, the SA's chief of staff and one of Hitler's longtime supporters and allies. Leading members of the

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Gürtner also declared in cabinet that the measure did not in fact create any new law, but simply confirmed the existing law. If that was indeed true then, as a legal matter, the law was entirely unnecessary and redundant.

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SA extravagance. Lutze did little to assert the SA's independence in the coming years, and the organization lost its power in Germany. Its membership plummeted from 2.9 million in August 1934 to 1.2 million in April 1938.

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As a means of isolating Röhm, on 20 April 1934, Göring transferred control of the Prussian political police (Gestapo) to Himmler, who, Göring believed, could be counted on to move against Röhm. Himmler named his deputy

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to meet with Hindenburg. Blomberg, who had been meeting with the president, uncharacteristically reproached Hitler for not having moved against Röhm earlier. He then told Hitler that Hindenburg was close to declaring

1612:) (first recorded around 1587) and in English as the "Treachery/Plot/Treason of the long knives" (recorded around 1604). This story would be popularized across western Europe in the 12th century as part of the 1640:) encourages the mass murder of Jews and the desecration of synagogues. The Nazi adoption of the phrase for an upcoming violent event was well known even to the foreign press, with the 2 August 1932 issue of 1386:, seemed to realize this: "If you look on without lifting a finger", he said to his friend, General Werner von Fritsch, "you will meet the same fate sooner or later." Another rare exception was Field Marshal 864:

did not endear him to conservatives, they were more concerned about his political ambitions. Hitler remained indecisive and uncertain about just what precisely he wanted to do when he left for Venice to meet

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Demands for Hitler to constrain the SA strengthened. Conservatives in the army, industry and politics placed Hitler under increasing pressure to reduce the influence of the SA and to move against Röhm. While

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Excellency, the gravity of the moment has compelled us to appeal to you as our Supreme Commander. The destiny of our country is at stake. Your Excellency has thrice before saved Germany from foundering, at

956:(EUR 29.1 million in 2024) by France to overthrow Hitler. Leading officers in the SS were shown falsified evidence on 24 June that Röhm planned to use the SA to launch a plot against the government ( 1532:, "the Right, represented by the President, the Minister of Justice, and the generals, lined up behind Hitler ... the strong left wing of the party, represented chiefly by the SA, was eliminated." 443:'s appointment of Hitler as chancellor on 30 January 1933 had brought the Nazi Party to power, but had left unfulfilled the party's larger goals. Finally, Hitler used the purge to attack or eliminate 1368:

denounced Schleicher for conspiring with Röhm to overthrow the government; Hitler alleged both were traitors working in the pay of France. Since Schleicher was a good friend of the French Ambassador

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Hitler and Himmler unleashed the Gestapo against old enemies, as well. Both Kurt von Schleicher, Hitler's predecessor as Chancellor, and his wife were murdered at their home. Others killed included

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as an example of the kind of trouble unruly followers could cause a dictator. While Mussolini's criticism did not win Hitler over to acting against the SA, it helped push him in that direction.

4403: 1372:, and because of his reputation for intrigue, the claim that Schleicher was working for France had enough surface plausibility for most Germans to accept it. François-Poncet was not declared 433:

Hitler saw the independence of the SA and the penchant of its members for street violence as a direct threat to his newly gained political power. He also wanted to appease leaders of the

318: 287: 49: 1826:"At least eighty-five people are known to have been summarily killed without any formal legal proceedings being taken against them. Göring alone had over a thousand people arrested." 1390:, who spoke about the murders of Schleicher and Bredow at the annual General Staff Society meeting in February 1935 after they had been rehabilitated by Hitler in early January 1935. 627:

attack passers-by and then attack the police who were called to stop them. Complaints of "overbearing and loutish" behaviour by stormtroopers became common by the middle of 1933. The

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President. Excellency, save Germany for the fourth time! The undersigned Generals and senior officers swear to preserve to the last breath their loyalty to you and the Fatherland.

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were in opposition to the new Weimar Republic, which was born as a result of the November Revolution, and whose founders were contemptuously called "November criminals". Captain

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In the years preceding the purge, the term "long knives" had become a popular description of treachery in Germany and was used as a criticism of Nazi actions and deceitfulness.

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in 1923. The murders of SA leaders were also intended to improve the image of the Hitler government with a German public that was increasingly critical of thuggish SA tactics.

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schoolteacher, echoed the sentiments of many Germans when she cited Hitler's "personal courage, decisiveness and effectiveness" in her private diary. She even compared him to

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Prominent Nazi leaders have played upon the imaginations of their followers..with such phrases as 'the night of the long knives' and 'a vengeance for every Nazi killed'.

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in his cell during the Nuremberg trials, Göring angrily justified the killings to Gilbert, "It's a damn good thing I wiped them out, or they would have wiped us out!"

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Others were appalled at the scale of the executions and at the relative complacency of many of their fellow Germans. "A very calm and easy going mailman," the diarist

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were also murdered in the purge. The Party had generally been aligned with the Social Democrats and Catholic Church during the rise of Nazism, being critical of

655:, when many German citizens lost both their jobs and their faith in traditional institutions. While Nazism was not exclusively – or even primarily – a 5207: 62: 5202: 4508: 1910:"The most general theory – that National Socialism was a revolution of the lower middle class – is defensible but inadequate." 6174: 1730: 1873:

won 196 seats in the Reichstag out of a possible 584. The Nazis were the largest party in the legislature but were still considerably short of a majority.

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Some SA members died saying "Heil Hitler" because they believed that an anti-Hitler SS plot had led to their execution. Several leaders of the disbanded

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In preparation for the purge, both Himmler and Heydrich assembled a dossier of manufactured evidence to suggest that Röhm had been paid 12 million

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organizations primarily composed of disaffected, disenchanted, and angry German combat veterans utilized by the government in January 1919 to deal with

2764:"An Inside View of the Nazis by a Former Party Member; Kurt Ludecke, Once Director of Propaganda--in the United States. Escaped the Famous Blood Purge" 6152: 3026: 659:

phenomenon, the SA fulfilled the yearning of many unemployed workers for class solidarity and nationalist fervour. Many stormtroopers believed in the

31: 2763: 1988:"After the 'Night of the Long Knives,' nipped in the bud the attempts of some local state prosecutors to initiate proceedings against the killers." 1045:

Interior Ministry, where they assembled the leaders of an SA rampage that had taken place in city streets the night before. Enraged, Hitler tore the

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the murders committed during the purge. Germany's legal establishment further capitulated to the regime when the country's leading legal scholar,

1197:, the former Bavarian state commissioner who had helped crush the Beer Hall Putsch in 1923. The murdered included at least one accidental victim: 1032: 454: 6466: 6461: 6252: 5330: 4256: 4220: 4194: 4167: 4148: 4097: 4078: 4044: 4018: 3996: 3977: 3951: 3932: 3906: 3887: 3865: 3846: 3822: 3803: 3784: 3754: 3726: 3660: 3641: 3615: 3593: 3574: 3539: 3348: 2876: 2030: 1866: 1839:"The names of eighty-five victims , only fifty of them SA men. Some estimates, however, put the total number killed at between 150 and 200." 364:

organization, known colloquially as "Brownshirts". Nazi propaganda presented the murders as a preventive measure against an alleged imminent

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Göring's personal orders, an armed SS unit stormed the Vice-Chancellery. Gestapo officers attached to the SS unit shot Papen's secretary

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Finally, in early 1934, the growing rift between Röhm and Hitler over the role of the SA in the Nazi state led former chancellor General

4490: 1553:, which showed Röhm frequently alongside Hitler. A copy of the original film, before Röhm was edited out, was found in the 1980s in the 803:

to start playing politics again. Schleicher criticized the current Hitler cabinet, while some of Schleicher's followers such as General

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However, the term was soon adopted by the Nazis themselves to invoke what they saw as justifiable and necessary measures taken by

5140: 563:(SA), a Nazi paramilitary organization, remained somewhat autonomous within the party. The SA evolved out of the remnants of the 986:, the army's liaison to the party, gave it to him by expelling Röhm from the German Officers' League. On 28 June Hitler went to 811:

started passing along lists of a new Hitler cabinet in which Schleicher would become vice-chancellor, Röhm minister of defence,

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on 22 May 1935, Hitler told Lipski that Schleicher was "rightfully murdered, if only because he had sought to maintain the

691: 6446: 5705: 5663: 3875: 1128: 847:, the conservative vice-chancellor who ran afoul of Hitler after denouncing the regime's failure to rein in the SA in his 1257:

Röhm was held briefly at Stadelheim Prison in Munich, while Hitler considered his future. On 1 July, at Hitler's behest,

1084:. Meanwhile, the SS arrested the other SA leaders as they left their train for the planned meeting with Röhm and Hitler. 6441: 6227: 5478: 901: 916: 5974: 4851: 1434: 519: 444: 6009: 1369: 1216: 1182:, the author of Papen's Marburg speech, and disposed of his body by dumping it in a ditch. The Gestapo also murdered 711:, put it) than Röhm himself. Röhm, as one of the earliest members of the Nazi Party, had participated in the Munich 6188: 6074: 5695: 5442: 5287: 4640: 4440: 4365: 1577: 1241:, a party associate of Röhm, was imprisoned but escaped after eight months in a concentration camp. He later wrote 1140: 620: 6456: 6436: 6431: 6118: 5675: 3776: 2060:

Topography of Terror: SS, Gestapo and Reichssichherheitshauptamt on the "Prinz-Albrecht-Terrain", A Documentation

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No one in the SA spoke more loudly for "a continuation of the German revolution" (as one prominent stormtrooper,

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executions intended to consolidate his power and alleviate the concerns of the German military about the role of

6416: 6331: 6275: 6059: 6045: 5575: 5412: 5316: 5282: 5080: 1975:"It was plain that there was wide acceptance of the deliberately misleading propaganda put out by the regime." 1775: 982:

on the highest level of alert. On 27 June, Hitler moved to secure the army's cooperation. Blomberg and General

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drew up lists of people in and outside the SA to be killed. One of the men Göring recruited to assist him was

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for about five weeks following the Nazis' disruption of an opposing party's political rally in January 1921.

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firing squad shot five SA generals and an SA colonel. Those not immediately executed were taken back to the

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Papen, nonetheless, remained in his position although people quite close to him were murdered, including

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congratulated Hitler for "nipping treason in the bud", although Hermann Göring later admitted during the

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without bothering to arrest him first. The Gestapo arrested and later executed Papen's close associate

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Hotel Lederer am See (former Kurheim Hanselbauer) in Bad Wiessee before its planned demolition in 2017

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newspaper, whose name was confused with one of the Gestapo's intended targets. As Himmler's adjutant

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Hitler abrogated the nation's legislative power and was thereafter effectively able to rule through

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Zwischen Kaiser und "Führer": Generalfeldmarschall August von Mackensen, eine politische Biographie

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up to the age of 21, and the son of General von Bredow received a monthly allowance of 150 marks.

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On 6 July 1933, at a gathering of high-ranking Nazi officials, Hitler declared the success of the

414:, were also killed, as were establishment conservatives and anti-Nazis, such as former Chancellor 6354: 6064: 5999: 5795: 5680: 5658: 5653: 5648: 5603: 5457: 5427: 5185: 4763: 4428: 4262: 3483:

Night of the Long Knives : Hitler's excision of Röhm's SA Brownshirts, 30 June - 2 July 1934

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as would have been usual if an ambassador were involved in a plot against his host government.

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and ordered SA leaders to meet with him on 30 June at 11:00. On 29 June, a signed article in

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The primary instruments of Hitler's action, which carried out most of the killings, were the

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On 17 June 1934, conservative demands for Hitler to act came to a head when Vice-Chancellor

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Political Violence and the Rise of Nazism: The Storm Troopers in Eastern Germany 1925–1934

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Hindenburg never responded to the memo, and it remains unclear whether he even saw it, as

1266: 1190: 1183: 1144: 1081: 889: 844: 816: 780: 535: 523: 514: 448: 411: 291: 255: 71: 4660: 3421:

The occult roots of Nazism : secret Aryan cults and their influence on Nazi ideology

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later explained, friendship and personal loyalty were not allowed to stand in the way:

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warning of the threat of a "second revolution". According to his memoirs, von Papen, a

893: 848: 559: 551: 356: 241: 87: 4525: 4473: 3563: 1604:(the infamous long knives) and massacre the unarmed Britons. It would become known in 6405: 6242: 5944: 5924: 5879: 5864: 5751: 5742: 5631: 5580: 5570: 5381: 5360: 5258: 5006: 4976: 4966: 4951: 4896: 4838: 4731: 4686: 4670: 4581: 4266: 3836: 3746: 2076: 1785: 1768: 1636:

against an enemy. In 1928, the popular Nazi song "Wetzt die langen Messer" (English:

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on 15 June. Before Hitler left, and at the request of Presidential State Secretary

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when it appeared that there was a lack of loyal troops. A very large number of the

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would use the term to describe the then unrealised plans for a violent uprising:

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Union that existed until 1933. Mackensen and Hammerstein ended their memo with:

1327: 1193:, a former Nazi who had angered Hitler by resigning from the party in 1932, and 995: 941: 793: 743: 597:

them when Germany was alleged to be on the verge of victory in 1918. Hence, the

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Zierenberg, Malte (2018). "Verrat und Volksgemeinschaft. Der Fall Ernst Röhm".

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Before its execution, the purge's instigators referred to the plans under the

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where certain SA leaders were being held. There in the prison courtyard, the

1094:

to let loose the execution squads on the rest of their unsuspecting victims.

738:

rabble that threatened the army's traditional high status in German society.

631:

even complained of instances where brownshirts manhandled foreign diplomats.

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The German Embassy in the United States – The Era of National Socialism

4160:

The Night of the Long Knives: 48 Hours that Changed the History of the World

3692: 2869:

Hitler's Gladiator: The Life and Wars of Panzer Army Commander Sepp Dietrich

1895: 1642: 1589: 1293: 1246: 840: 660: 565: 483: 4573: 3630: 1016: 4386:

The History Place – Triumph of Hitler – Night of the Long Knives

4303:(in German). Deutsches Historisches Museum (DHM), German Historical Museum 1004:

by Blomberg appeared in which Blomberg stated with great fervour that the

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In response to conservative pressure to constrain Röhm, Hitler left for

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Hitler's Social Revolution: Class and Status in Nazi Germany, 1933–1939

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Years later, in November 1945, while being interviewed by psychologist

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wrote, "who is not at all National Socialist, said, 'Well, he simply

1228: 1038: 3586:

Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler: Uniforms, Organization, & History

4396:

German Culture – The Third Reich – Consolidation of Power

2716: 1334:, wrote an article defending Hitler's 13 July speech. It was named 534:

in Germany, so that by the middle of 1933 the country had become a

6198: 4361:"Night of the Long Knives | Purge of Nazi leaders by Adolf Hitler" 4177:

Mau, Herman (1972). "The 'Second Revolution' – June 30, 1934". In

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Operation Hummingbird, Röhm Putsch (by the Nazis), The Blood Purge

3272: 3270: 3257: 3255: 3218: 3216: 3214: 3212: 3210: 3208: 3195: 3193: 3132: 3130: 3128: 3126: 3124: 2414: 2412: 2410: 2408: 2359: 2357: 2355: 2353: 2351: 1037:

At about 04:30 on 30 June 1934, Hitler and his entourage flew to

1601: 1358:

Law Relating to National Emergency Defense Measures 3 July 1934.

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I Knew Hitler: The Story of a Nazi Who Escaped the Blood-Purge,

3653:

National Socialist Rule in Germany: The Führer State 1933–1945

3458:

The Gravediggers : The last winter of the Weimar Republic

1461:, at the end of the War and at the moment of your election as 148:

Hitler's desire to consolidate his power and settle old scores

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of his new regime, especially those loyal to Vice-Chancellor

263:

Strengthening of relationship between Hitler and the military

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core of a new German military. With the army limited by the

4071:

The Nemesis of Power: The German Army in Politics 1918–1945

4059:

The Nemesis of Power: The German Army in Politics 1918–1945

2048:

The Nemesis of Power: The German Army in Politics 1918–1945

1759:, a 1934 nonfiction book about the Night of the Long Knives 1596:

leaders were invited to discuss peace and the Saxon leader

1442:, Hermann Göring, Werner von Blomberg, Joseph Goebbels and 3742:

Modern Times – the World from the Twenties to the Nineties

5118: 3299: 3297: 2573: 2571: 2569: 2011: 2009: 1584:. This event reputedly occurred during the fifth century 1576:

for treachery and violence had been used to describe the

1269:

visited Röhm. Once inside Röhm's cell, they handed him a

1120:, given one-minute "trials", and shot by a firing squad. 962:). At Hitler's direction, Göring, Himmler, Heydrich, and 4090:

Reinhard Heydrich: The Biography, Volume 1 – Road To War

2544: 2542: 2540: 2538: 1430:

disapproved of the purge generally kept quiet about it.

819:

minister of national economy. The British historian Sir

4348:. Gladiators of World War II. World Media Rights. 2002. 3796:

The "Hitler Myth": Image and Reality in the Third Reich

3719:

The Order of the Death's Head: The Story of Hitler's SS

1292:, reviewing the SA in 1935. In the car with him is the 718:

Not content solely with the leadership of the SA, Röhm

668:

the SA at times outnumbering the military in manpower.

162:

Hitler's need to bring the Reichswehr under his control

4229:

Wiskemann, Elizabeth, "The Night of the Long Knives",

2688: 2686: 2588: 2586: 2465: 2463: 1817:

Papen had given which was critical of the Nazi regime.

1136:, Hitler's predecessor as Chancellor, in uniform, 1932 4438: 2107: 2105: 1326:, the "Law Regarding Measures of State Self-Defence" 4183:

Republic to Reich: The Making of the Nazi Revolution

3838:

I Will Bear Witness: The Diaries of Victor Klemperer

3485:. Barnsley, South Yorkshire: Pen & Sword Books. 1580:

since this incident was recorded in the 9th century

6293: 6267: 6219: 6087: 6044: 5959: 5839: 5468: 5272: 5156: 5058: 5020: 4837: 4745: 4679: 4603: 4572: 2643:. New York: Harper & Brothers. pp. 51, 57. 990:to attend the wedding celebration and reception of 269: 222: 200: 169: 141: 131: 123: 113: 105: 95: 4032: 3965: 3920: 3768: 3629: 3562: 3082:The Nazi Germany Sourcebook: An Anthology of Texts 2798:"Kurt Ludecke and "I Knew Hitler": An Evaluation" 3899:The Development of the SA in Nürnberg, 1922–1934 3080:Stackelberg, Roderick; Winkle, Sally A. (2002), 1948:Coincidentally, Hitler had been incarcerated at 755:Reichswehr become a training adjunct to the SA. 260:Significant reduction in the regime's opposition 3276: 3261: 3246: 3234: 3222: 3199: 3136: 2529: 2493: 2454: 2418: 2399: 2363: 2342: 2330: 2291: 2255: 2062:Berlin: Verlag Willmuth Arenhovel, pp. 53, 223; 1454: 1310: 1213: 6164:National Socialist Movement in the Netherlands 2704: 2629: 2627: 2625: 2025:. New York: Broadway Paperbacks. p. 314. 726:, a position held by the conservative General 381:(SS) paramilitary force under Himmler and its 6427:Democratic backsliding in the interwar period 5134: 4550: 3172: 3148: 2315: 2099:Sag Harbor, New York: Permanent Press, p. 269 8: 6345: 6336: 6183:National Socialist Workers' Party of Denmark 5825: 5816: 5805: 5749: 5740: 5622: 5613: 5594: 5585: 5559: 5528: 5367: 5358: 5321: 5297: 5256: 5246: 5232: 5183: 5174: 5165: 4824: 4815: 4806: 4797: 4788: 4779: 4770: 4761: 4752: 3880:The German Army and the Nazi Party 1933–1939 1675: 1287: 1235:which granted Hitler dictatorial authority. 1202: 1089: 957: 451:, as well as to settle scores with enemies. 55: 4413:The Holocaust Museum – The Third Reich 3051:[Fear so far away, death so near]. 2505: 1729:"The Last Day of June 1934", 1974 song on 892:, confidant of the ailing Hindenburg, gave 275:Officially 85; estimates range up to 1,000. 5141: 5127: 5119: 5076:National Political Institutes of Education 4557: 4543: 4535: 2891:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 2677: 2616: 2604: 2083:New York: Robert M. McBride, pp. 252, 263; 1911: 1341:A special fund administered by SS General 994:; from there he called Röhm's adjutant at 426:, who had helped suppress Hitler's Munich 54: 6153:German National Movement in Liechtenstein 4319:. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum 3901:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 3588:. San Jose, CA: James Bender Publishing. 3561:Collier, Martin; Pedley, Phillip (2005). 3287: 3285: 3184: 2442: 2430: 2056:New York: Harper & Row, pp. 256, 258; 1726:, dramatizes the Night of the Long Knives 1169:, a mistaken victim of the purge, in 1930 518:, Hitler dispensed with the need for the 32:Night of the Long Knives (disambiguation) 4317:"The German Churches and the Nazi State" 3584:Cook, Stan; Bender, Roger James (1994). 2387: 1852:Johnson places the total at 150 killed. 1781:List of Nazi Party leaders and officials 486:with SA members in 1928. To his left is 334:from 30 June to 2 July 1934. Chancellor 4497: 4445: 4421:(2008–09 British documentary TV series) 3817:. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. 3505: 3443: 3343:. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. 3303: 3004: 2924:. Reynal & Hitchcock. p. 266. 2905: 2854: 2717:United States Holocaust Memorial Museum 2577: 2560: 2517: 2219: 2207: 2183: 2123: 2005: 1976: 1963: 1924: 1853: 1840: 1802: 1763:Victims of the Night of the Long Knives 1104:to form an "execution squad" and go to 1033:Victims of the Night of the Long Knives 944:and turning the government over to the 877:ordered the German Ambassador to Italy 4035:Adolf Hitler: The Definitive Biography 3858:The Last Kaiser: William the Impetuous 3359: 3357: 2956: 2884: 2548: 2267: 2159: 2147: 2135: 1608:as "twyll y cyllyll hirion" (English: 1433:Among the few exceptions were General 4092:. Church Stretton: Ulric Publishing. 3991:. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. 3860:. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. 3327: 3315: 3160: 3115: 3049:"Der Furcht so Fern, dem Tod so Nah'" 2992: 2842: 2692: 2665: 2653: 2592: 2481: 2469: 2375: 2303: 2279: 2243: 2195: 2171: 2111: 1989: 1867:November 1932 parliamentary elections 1827: 1124:Against conservatives and old enemies 1041:. From the airport they drove to the 851:. The photo was taken in 1946 at the 368:by the SA under Röhm – the so-called 7: 6170:National Socialist Movement of Chile 5103:Ranks and insignia of the Nazi Party 5045:National Democratic Party of Germany 4391:Shortly about "Night of Long Knives" 4273:from the original on 19 January 2022 4073:(2nd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan. 3968:The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich 3375:from the original on 21 January 2022 3103: 3084:, New York: Routledge, p. 173, 3057:(in German) (20/1957). 15 May 1957. 2980: 2968: 2231: 1936: 1098:received orders from Hitler for the 687:Conflict between the army and the SA 583:the threat of a Communist revolution 4243:. Böhlau Verlag. pp. 281–296. 3798:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 3655:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 3398:. Boston: Brill. pp. 467–468. 3396:A Companion to Geoffrey of Monmouth 2093:New York: Houghton Mifflin, p. 153; 109:30 June to 2 July 1934 (three days) 6209:World Union of National Socialists 5331:Adolf Hitler's cult of personality 5235:Nationalsozialistische Monatshefte 4011:Hitler and Nazi Germany: A History 3419:Goodrick-Clarke, Nicholas (2004). 3394:Smith, Joshua Byron Smith (2020). 2938:from the original on 2 August 2023 2762:Lengyel, Emil (28 November 1937). 2046:– Wheeler-Bennett, John W. (1953) 1027:, chief of the Munich police, 1930 927:, head of the Bavarian police and 399:Göring's personal police battalion 25: 6248:Last surviving war crime suspects 3061:from the original on 13 June 2020 3029:from the original on 1 March 2020 1586:Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain 1401:in 1932 (translation: "With him") 1231:, but voting nonetheless for the 1215:Among others, a charming fellow 254:faction and death of its leader, 6388: 6387: 6238:Nazi Party leaders and officials 4517: 4500: 4472: 4460: 4448: 4427:("Night of the Long Knives") on 3972:. New York: Simon and Schuster. 1600:commanded his men to draw their 1338:("The Führer Upholds the Law"). 683:of the Nazi Party at that time. 679:, formed one of the ideological 346:, ordered a series of political 61: 6360:Political views of Adolf Hitler 5108:Samoan branch of the Nazi Party 3882:. New York: James H. Heineman. 3365:"Release notes: the Long Knife" 3017:Schmitt, Carl (1 August 1934). 2058:– Rürup, Reinhard (ed.) (1996) 1622:, which introduced many of the 763:Growing pressure against the SA 6482:Terrorist incidents in Germany 6253:Speeches given by Adolf Hitler 3946:. Dtv (in German). Paderborn. 3927:. W. W. Norton & Company. 3699:. New York: Harper & Row. 1772:, or the Night of Broken Glass 1654:Also in 1932, the Nazi critic 490:, and standing beneath him is 244:as a threat along with leader 1: 6467:Political violence in Germany 6462:Political and cultural purges 6194:Ossewabrandwag (South Africa) 4233:(June 1964) 14#6, pp 371–380. 4162:. New York: The Lyons Press. 4141:The Coming of the Third Reich 3019:"The Führer Protects the Law" 508:on 30 January 1933. Over the 99: 6228:Bibliography of Adolf Hitler 5479:Aestheticization of politics 4611:Adolf Hitler's rise to power 3942:Schwarzmüller, Theo (1995). 3697:The Night of the Long Knives 2871:. London. pp. 204–205. 2054:The Night of the Long Knives 1572:The term "long knives" as a 1336:Der Führer schützt das Recht 1286:Hitler is triumphant as the 1249:of New York, United States. 237:Hitler's supremacy confirmed 6175:National Socialist Movement 6143:Arrow Cross Party (Hungary) 5071:Munich Documentation Centre 4852:Houston Stewart Chamberlain 4143:. New York: Penguin Group. 4013:. New York: Prentice Hall. 3721:. New York: Coward-McCann. 3610:. New York: Penguin Group. 3291:Macdonogh 2001, pp. 452–453 2867:Messenger, Charles (2005). 2095:– Metcalfe, Phillip (1988) 2050:, London: Macmillan p. 323; 1435:Kurt von Hammerstein-Equord 1414:, the 18th-century king of 1204:Münchner Neuste Nachrichten 6498: 6189:Nordic Resistance Movement 5288:National Socialist Program 4641:National Socialist Program 4433:IMDb page for that episode 3841:. New York: Random House. 3777:W. W. Norton & Company 3554:Hitler: A Study in Tyranny 2796:Layton, Roland V. (1979). 2079:and Stern, Michael (1943) 2073:– Evans (2005), pp. 34–36; 1715:In literature and the arts 1691:above the reach of the law 1578:Treason of the Long Knives 1564: 1555:German Democratic Republic 1201:, the music critic of the 1030: 29: 27:1934 purge in Nazi Germany 6385: 6158:Nasjonal Samling (Norway) 4722:Office of Foreign Affairs 4712:Office of Military Policy 4707:Office of Colonial Policy 4249:10.7788/9783412511920.281 3856:Macdonogh, Giles (2001). 3565:Hitler and the Nazi State 3369:Oxford English Dictionary 3149:Collier & Pedley 2005 2814:10.1017/S0008938900022470 2316:Collier & Pedley 2005 1732:Past, Present and Future 1637: 1610:Deceit of the long knives 1609: 1535:Röhm was purged from all 1263:Dachau concentration camp 974:spy. On 25 June, General 970:, a Gestapo official and 873:, Foreign Minister Baron 734:and regarded the SA as a 274: 60: 6412:Night of the Long Knives 6060:Nazi concentration camps 5576:Economic interventionism 5538:Jewish conspiracy theory 5340:Night of the Long Knives 5317:Religion in Nazi Germany 5081:Nazi concentration camps 4651:Night of the Long Knives 4487:Night of the Long Knives 4406:20 November 2015 at the 4209:Night of the Long Knives 3897:Reiche, Eric G. (2002). 3771:Hitler: 1889–1936 Hubris 3608:The Third Reich in Power 3481:Carradice, Phil (2018). 3423:. London: Tauris Parke. 3341:Leni Riefenstahl: A Life 3339:Trimborn, Jürgen (2008) 2802:Central European History 1776:Glossary of Nazi Germany 1565:Not to be confused with 557:To a lesser extent, the 550:, and a more aggressive 283:Night of the Long Knives 56:Night of the Long Knives 18:Night of the long knives 6204:Tsagaan Khas (Mongolia) 4782:Innviertler Heimatblatt 4717:Office of Racial Policy 4366:Encyclopædia Britannica 4039:. New York: Doubleday. 3456:Barth, Rüdiger (2019). 2022:In the Garden of Beasts 1756:White Book of the Purge 1638:Sharpen the long knives 1328:retroactively legalized 532:rival political parties 512:, during the so-called 410:, including its leader 301:Nacht der langen Messer 6346: 6337: 5826: 5817: 5806: 5781:Social interventionism 5750: 5741: 5623: 5614: 5609:Greater Germanic Reich 5595: 5586: 5560: 5529: 5368: 5359: 5322: 5298: 5293:Hitler's rise to power 5257: 5247: 5233: 5198:League of German Girls 5184: 5175: 5166: 4962:Joachim von Ribbentrop 4957:Konstantin von Neurath 4825: 4816: 4807: 4798: 4789: 4780: 4771: 4762: 4753: 4702:Nazi Party Chancellery 4158:Maracin, Paul (2004). 4088:Williams, Max (2001). 4007:Spielvogel, Jackson J. 3989:Inside the Third Reich 3987:Speer, Albert (1995). 3651:Frei, Norbert (1987). 3636:. New York: Harcourt. 3569:. New York: Harcourt. 2918:Hitler, Adolf (1941). 2617:Cook & Bender 1994 2605:Cook & Bender 1994 1739:A Night of Long Knives 1676: 1665: 1652: 1615:History of the Britons 1508:, who was in exile in 1484: 1467: 1402: 1359: 1315: 1304: 1288: 1265:, and his SS adjutant 1221: 1203: 1195:Gustav Ritter von Kahr 1170: 1159: 1156:Gustav Ritter von Kahr 1148: 1137: 1090: 1064: 1028: 958: 932: 875:Konstantin von Neurath 856: 809:Werner von Alvensleben 792:, and Hitler's deputy 722:Hitler to appoint him 704: 675:(Röhm-cult), like the 495: 424:Gustav Ritter von Kahr 323: 295: 50:considered for merging 6075:Human experimentation 5771:Reactionary modernism 5716:Anti-Slavic sentiment 5443:Human experimentation 5177:Geheime Staatspolizei 5050:Socialist Reich Party 5041:Deutsche Reichspartei 4862:Richard Walther Darré 4755:Völkischer Beobachter 4636:German Workers' Party 4067:Wheeler-Bennett, John 4055:Wheeler-Bennett, John 3813:Kershaw, Ian (2008). 3794:Kershaw, Ian (2001). 3532:Yale University Press 2730:"Books: Nazi Salvage" 1896:legislative processes 1660: 1648: 1479: 1444:Richard Walther Darré 1396: 1370:André François-Poncet 1357: 1285: 1245:published in 1937 by 1225:Catholic Centre Party 1165: 1154: 1143: 1131: 1062: 1031:Further information: 1019: 1008:stood behind Hitler. 1001:Völkischer Beobachter 984:Walther von Reichenau 919: 843: 815:foreign minister and 694: 569:movement of the post- 477: 314:Operation Hummingbird 231:of former Chancellor 6447:Massacres in Germany 6148:German American Bund 5489:Anti-intellectualism 5336:Enabling Act of 1933 5066:Adolf Hitler Schools 4992:Arthur Seyss-Inquart 4697:Hitler's Chancellery 4631:Enabling Act of 1933 4373:on 29 September 2007 3277:Wheeler-Bennett 1967 3262:Wheeler-Bennett 1967 3247:Wheeler-Bennett 1967 3235:Wheeler-Bennett 1967 3223:Wheeler-Bennett 1967 3200:Wheeler-Bennett 1967 3137:Wheeler-Bennett 1967 2736:. 15 November 1937. 2530:Wheeler-Bennett 1967 2494:Wheeler-Bennett 1967 2455:Wheeler-Bennett 2005 2419:Wheeler-Bennett 1967 2400:Wheeler-Bennett 1967 2364:Wheeler-Bennett 1967 2343:Wheeler-Bennett 1967 2331:Wheeler-Bennett 1967 2292:Wheeler-Bennett 2005 2256:Wheeler-Bennett 2005 2087:Gisevius, Hans Bernd 2052:– Gallo, Max (1972) 1884:Enabling Act of 1933 1813:, the writer of the 1620:Geoffrey of Monmouth 1549:film about the 1933 1542:The Victory of Faith 1397:Election poster for 1388:August von Mackensen 1296:, behind the car SS- 1261:, Commandant of the 1252: 1233:Enabling Act of 1933 1049:off the shirt of SA- 912:Heydrich and Himmler 862:Röhm's homosexuality 821:John Wheeler-Bennett 805:Ferdinand von Bredow 752:Treaty of Versailles 510:following few months 478:Hitler poses with a 30:For other uses, see 6442:Mass murder in 1934 6268:Role and impact in 6138:American Nazi Party 5550:Cult of personality 5519:Class collaboration 5428:Extermination camps 5413:Concentration camps 5354:Anti-Comintern Pact 5036:German Social Union 4987:Baldur von Schirach 4942:Ernst Kaltenbrunner 4737:SS Education Office 4621:Brown House, Munich 3815:Hitler: A Biography 3556:. New York: Harper. 3460:. London: Profile. 3249:, pp. 329–330. 3175:, pp. 299–306. 3163:, pp. 113–118. 2457:, pp. 319–320. 2433:, pp. 308–312. 2402:, pp. 317–318. 2333:, pp. 315–316. 2258:, pp. 712–739. 2138:, pp. 120–121. 2126:, pp. 298–299. 2040:– memoranda in the 1900:Weimar Constitution 1797:Informational notes 1481:Werner von Blomberg 1412:Frederick the Great 1134:Kurt von Schleicher 1054:August Schneidhuber 1025:August Schneidhuber 801:Kurt von Schleicher 778:Propaganda Minister 728:Werner von Blomberg 724:Minister of Defence 591:November Revolution 530:and eliminated all 502:Paul von Hindenburg 441:Paul von Hindenburg 416:Kurt von Schleicher 330:that took place in 324:Unternehmen Kolibri 308:), also called the 250:Suppression of the 240:Elimination of the 233:Kurt von Schleicher 100:Unternehmen Kolibri 57: 6355:German Romanticism 6243:Nazi Party members 6065:Extermination camp 5458:Racial segregation 5186:Deutsches Jungvolk 4764:Das Schwarze Korps 4429:Amazon Prime Video 4419:Hitler's Bodyguard 4114:. London: Dutton. 3173:Schwarzmüller 1995 2768:The New York Times 2705:The Waffen-SS 2002 2607:, pp. 22, 23. 2081:Flight from Terror 1734:(Al Stewart album) 1656:Carl von Ossietzky 1582:Historia Brittonum 1557:'s film archives. 1485: 1403: 1360: 1305: 1171: 1160: 1149: 1138: 1065: 1029: 976:Werner von Fritsch 954:ℛ︁ℳ︁ 933: 898:Marburg University 879:Ulrich von Hassell 857: 705: 671:The supporters of 636:National Socialist 589:believed that the 496: 455:At least 85 people 6399: 6398: 5940:Strasser (Gregor) 5819:Volksgemeinschaft 5764:Völkisch movement 5759:Völkisch equality 5344:Nuremberg rallies 5307:German rearmament 5116: 5115: 5096:Horst-Wessel-Lied 4927:Reinhard Heydrich 4917:Ernst Hanfstaengl 4656:Nuremberg rallies 4258:978-3-412-22186-7 4222:978-0-345-02787-0 4196:978-0-394-47122-8 4169:978-1-59921-070-4 4150:978-0-14-303469-8 4137:Evans, Richard J. 4099:978-0-9537577-5-6 4080:978-1-4039-1812-3 4046:978-0-385-42053-2 4020:978-0-13-189877-6 3998:978-1-84212-735-3 3979:978-0-671-72868-7 3962:Shirer, William L 3953:978-3-423-30823-6 3934:978-0-393-31554-7 3917:Schoenbaum, David 3908:978-0-521-52431-5 3889:978-0-685-11957-0 3867:978-1-84212-478-9 3848:978-0-679-45696-4 3833:Klemperer, Victor 3824:978-0-393-06757-6 3805:978-0-19-280206-4 3786:978-0-393-32035-0 3756:978-0-06-016833-9 3745:. 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New Haven, CT: 3349:978-1-4668-2164-4 3330:, pp. 90–93. 3151:, pp. 33–34. 2878:978-1-84486-022-7 2680:, pp. 78–79. 2668:, pp. 33–34. 2508:, pp. 72–80. 2091:To the Bitter End 2032:978-0-307-40885-3 1950:Stadelheim Prison 1914:, pp. 35–42. 1894:that avoided the 1624:Arthurian legends 1506:Kaiser Wilhelm II 1406:Luise Solmitz, a 1375:persona non grata 1106:Stadelheim Prison 1051:Obergruppenführer 1022:Obergruppenführer 931:, in Munich, 1934 925:Reinhard Heydrich 883:Giacomo Matteotti 829:Reinhard Heydrich 732:Prussian nobility 504:appointed Hitler 395:Reinhard Heydrich 360:(SA), the Nazis' 279: 278: 192:Reinhard Heydrich 16:(Redirected from 6489: 6457:Nazi terminology 6437:June 1934 events 6432:July 1934 events 6391: 6390: 6351: 6342: 6339:Drang nach Osten 6184: 6165: 6035:von Sebottendorf 5831: 5822: 5811: 5791:State capitalism 5776:Social Darwinism 5755: 5746: 5628: 5619: 5600: 5591: 5565: 5534: 5531:Dolchstoßlegende 5504:Authoritarianism 5397:Nuremberg trials 5373: 5364: 5327: 5303: 5262: 5252: 5238: 5189: 5180: 5171: 5143: 5136: 5129: 5120: 5059:Related articles 5012:Julius Streicher 4972:Alfred Rosenberg 4932:Heinrich Himmler 4830: 4821: 4812: 4803: 4794: 4785: 4776: 4767: 4758: 4616:Beer Hall Putsch 4559: 4552: 4545: 4536: 4530: 4522: 4521: 4520: 4513: 4505: 4504: 4503: 4493: 4477: 4476: 4465: 4464: 4453: 4452: 4451: 4444: 4382: 4380: 4378: 4369:. 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Breithaupt 1301:Jakob Grimminger 1291: 1206: 1176:Herbert von Bose 1093: 961: 867:Benito Mussolini 853:Nuremberg trials 813:Heinrich Brüning 790:Heinrich Himmler 713:Beer Hall Putsch 653:Great Depression 640:seizure of power 617:Social Democrats 528:legislative body 488:Julius Streicher 428:Beer Hall Putsch 383:Security Service 344:Heinrich Himmler 321: 306: 305: 304: 302: 290: 187:Heinrich Himmler 101: 96:Native name 76:Heinrich Himmler 65: 58: 21: 6497: 6496: 6492: 6491: 6490: 6488: 6487: 6486: 6417:1934 in Germany 6402: 6401: 6400: 6395: 6381: 6380: 6379: 6365:Racial theories 6348:Generalplan Ost 6295: 6289: 6269: 6263: 6262: 6261: 6233:Nazi ideologues 6215: 6214: 6213: 6182: 6177:(United States) 6176: 6163: 6089: 6083: 6080:Romani genocide 6047: 6040: 6039: 6038: 5955: 5954: 5953: 5945:Strasser (Otto) 5835: 5834: 5833: 5808:Gleichschaltung 5801:Totalitarianism 5686:One-party state 5494:Anti-liberalism 5464: 5463: 5462: 5387:Tripartite Pact 5300:Machtergreifung 5268: 5267: 5266: 5152: 5147: 5117: 5112: 5054: 5016: 5002:Gregor Strasser 4907:Joseph Goebbels 4892:Roland Freisler 4877:Dietrich Eckart 4839:Notable members 4833: 4741: 4675: 4599: 4568: 4563: 4533: 4523: 4518: 4516: 4506: 4501: 4499: 4496: 4492:sister projects 4491: 4489:at Knowledge's 4483: 4471: 4459: 4449: 4447: 4439: 4408:Wayback Machine 4376: 4374: 4359: 4356: 4344: 4322: 4320: 4315: 4306: 4304: 4299: 4285: 4276: 4274: 4259: 4236: 4223: 4203: 4197: 4176: 4170: 4157: 4151: 4135: 4131: 4129:Further reading 4126: 4106: 4100: 4087: 4081: 4065: 4053: 4047: 4027: 4021: 4005: 3999: 3986: 3980: 3960: 3954: 3941: 3935: 3915: 3909: 3896: 3890: 3876:O'Neill, Robert 3874: 3868: 3855: 3849: 3831: 3825: 3812: 3806: 3793: 3787: 3763: 3757: 3735: 3729: 3713: 3707: 3691: 3685: 3675:Nuremberg Diary 3669: 3663: 3650: 3644: 3624: 3618: 3602: 3596: 3583: 3577: 3560: 3548: 3542: 3524:Bessel, Richard 3522: 3518: 3513: 3512: 3504: 3500: 3493: 3480: 3479: 3475: 3468: 3455: 3454: 3450: 3442: 3438: 3431: 3418: 3417: 3413: 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Now that the 536:one-party state 524:Weimar Republic 515:Gleichschaltung 472: 466:Hitler and the 449:Franz von Papen 412:Gregor Strasser 406:faction of the 317: 300: 298: 297: 296: 286: 256:Gregor Strasser 218: 196: 165: 151:Concern of the 91: 72:Ordnungspolizei 70:, chief of the 53: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6495: 6493: 6485: 6484: 6479: 6477:Sturmabteilung 6474: 6469: 6464: 6459: 6454: 6449: 6444: 6439: 6434: 6429: 6424: 6419: 6414: 6404: 6403: 6397: 6396: 6386: 6383: 6382: 6378: 6377: 6372: 6367: 6362: 6357: 6352: 6343: 6334: 6329: 6324: 6322:Beefsteak Nazi 6319: 6318: 6317: 6312: 6301: 6300: 6299: 6297: 6291: 6290: 6288: 6283: 6278: 6273: 6271: 6270:German society 6265: 6264: 6260: 6255: 6250: 6245: 6240: 6235: 6230: 6225: 6224: 6223: 6221: 6217: 6216: 6212: 6211: 6206: 6201: 6196: 6191: 6186: 6179: 6172: 6167: 6160: 6155: 6150: 6145: 6140: 6129: 6128: 6127: 6126: 6121: 6113: 6112: 6111: 6106: 6095: 6094: 6093: 6091: 6085: 6084: 6082: 6077: 6072: 6070:Final Solution 6067: 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4683: 4681: 4677: 4676: 4674: 4673: 4668: 4663: 4658: 4653: 4648: 4643: 4638: 4633: 4628: 4626:Denazification 4623: 4618: 4613: 4607: 4605: 4601: 4600: 4598: 4597: 4594:Martin Bormann 4591: 4585: 4578: 4576: 4570: 4569: 4564: 4562: 4561: 4554: 4547: 4539: 4532: 4531: 4529:from Wikiquote 4514: 4485: 4482: 4481: 4469: 4457: 4437: 4436: 4415: 4410: 4398: 4393: 4388: 4383: 4355: 4354:External links 4352: 4351: 4350: 4341: 4340: 4339: 4338: 4330: 4329: 4313: 4296: 4295: 4294: 4293: 4284: 4283: 4257: 4234: 4227: 4221: 4201: 4195: 4187:Pantheon Books 4174: 4168: 4155: 4149: 4132: 4130: 4127: 4125: 4124: 4104: 4098: 4085: 4079: 4063: 4051: 4045: 4025: 4019: 4003: 3997: 3984: 3978: 3958: 3952: 3939: 3933: 3913: 3907: 3894: 3888: 3872: 3866: 3853: 3847: 3829: 3823: 3810: 3804: 3791: 3785: 3761: 3755: 3733: 3727: 3711: 3705: 3689: 3683: 3667: 3661: 3648: 3642: 3622: 3616: 3604:Evans, Richard 3600: 3594: 3581: 3575: 3558: 3546: 3540: 3519: 3517: 3514: 3511: 3510: 3498: 3491: 3473: 3466: 3448: 3446:, p. 515. 3436: 3429: 3411: 3404: 3386: 3353: 3332: 3320: 3308: 3306:, p. 520. 3293: 3281: 3279:, p. 337. 3266: 3264:, p. 336. 3251: 3239: 3237:, p. 330. 3227: 3225:, p. 329. 3204: 3202:, p. 328. 3189: 3185:Klemperer 1998 3177: 3165: 3153: 3141: 3139:, p. 327. 3120: 3118:, p. 277. 3108: 3106:, p. 470. 3096: 3090: 3072: 3040: 3009: 3007:, p. 519. 2997: 2985: 2983:, p. 468. 2973: 2971:, p. 469. 2961: 2959:, p. 226. 2949: 2930: 2910: 2908:, p. 517. 2898: 2877: 2859: 2857:, p. 312. 2847: 2835: 2808:(4): 372–386. 2788: 2754: 2721: 2709: 2697: 2682: 2670: 2658: 2646: 2621: 2609: 2597: 2582: 2580:, p. 514. 2565: 2563:, p. 166. 2553: 2551:, p. 221. 2534: 2532:, p. 322. 2522: 2520:, p. 165. 2510: 2498: 2496:, p. 321. 2486: 2474: 2459: 2447: 2445:, p. 309. 2443:Von Papen 1953 2435: 2431:Von Papen 1953 2423: 2421:, p. 318. 2404: 2392: 2380: 2368: 2366:, p. 317. 2347: 2345:, p. 316. 2335: 2320: 2308: 2296: 2294:, p. 726. 2284: 2272: 2260: 2248: 2236: 2224: 2222:, p. 503. 2212: 2210:, p. 435. 2200: 2188: 2186:, p. 501. 2176: 2164: 2162:, p. 165. 2152: 2150:, p. 266. 2140: 2128: 2116: 2101: 2077:Strasser, Otto 2031: 2004: 2003: 2001: 1998: 1995: 1994: 1981: 1968: 1954: 1941: 1939:, p. 126. 1929: 1916: 1903: 1875: 1858: 1856:, p. 298. 1845: 1843:, p. 517. 1832: 1819: 1815:Marburg speech 1801: 1800: 1798: 1795: 1793: 1790: 1789: 1788: 1783: 1778: 1773: 1765: 1760: 1750: 1747: 1746: 1745: 1736: 1727: 1716: 1713: 1685: 1682: 1562: 1559: 1517: 1514: 1499:Rapallo Treaty 1449:Rudolf Nadolny 1351: 1348: 1279: 1276: 1254: 1251: 1125: 1122: 1013: 1010: 992:Josef Terboven 913: 910: 849:Marburg speech 774:Hermann Göring 764: 761: 688: 685: 629:Foreign Office 560:Sturmabteilung 552:foreign policy 492:Hermann Göring 471: 468:Sturmabteilung 464: 445:German critics 357:Sturmabteilung 340:Hermann Göring 338:, urged on by 277: 276: 272: 271: 267: 266: 265: 264: 261: 258: 248: 238: 235: 224: 220: 219: 217: 216: 204: 202: 198: 197: 195: 194: 189: 184: 182:Hermann Göring 179: 173: 171: 167: 166: 164: 163: 160: 156: 149: 145: 143: 139: 138: 133: 129: 128: 125: 121: 120: 115: 111: 110: 107: 103: 102: 97: 93: 92: 86:, head of the 78:, head of the 66: 38: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6494: 6483: 6480: 6478: 6475: 6473: 6470: 6468: 6465: 6463: 6460: 6458: 6455: 6453: 6450: 6448: 6445: 6443: 6440: 6438: 6435: 6433: 6430: 6428: 6425: 6423: 6420: 6418: 6415: 6413: 6410: 6409: 6407: 6394: 6384: 6376: 6373: 6371: 6368: 6366: 6363: 6361: 6358: 6356: 6353: 6350: 6349: 6344: 6341: 6340: 6335: 6333: 6330: 6328: 6325: 6323: 6320: 6316: 6313: 6311: 6308: 6307: 6306: 6303: 6302: 6298: 6292: 6287: 6284: 6282: 6279: 6277: 6276:The Wehrmacht 6274: 6272: 6266: 6259: 6256: 6254: 6251: 6249: 6246: 6244: 6241: 6239: 6236: 6234: 6231: 6229: 6226: 6222: 6218: 6210: 6207: 6205: 6202: 6200: 6197: 6195: 6192: 6190: 6187: 6185: 6180: 6178: 6173: 6171: 6168: 6166: 6161: 6159: 6156: 6154: 6151: 6149: 6146: 6144: 6141: 6139: 6136: 6135: 6134: 6133: 6125: 6122: 6120: 6117: 6116: 6114: 6110: 6107: 6105: 6102: 6101: 6100: 6097: 6096: 6092: 6086: 6081: 6078: 6076: 6073: 6071: 6068: 6066: 6063: 6061: 6058: 6056: 6053: 6051: 6049: 6043: 6036: 6033: 6031: 6028: 6026: 6023: 6021: 6018: 6016: 6013: 6011: 6008: 6006: 6003: 6001: 5998: 5996: 5993: 5991: 5988: 5986: 5983: 5981: 5978: 5976: 5973: 5971: 5968: 5964: 5962: 5958: 5951: 5948: 5946: 5943: 5941: 5938: 5936: 5933: 5931: 5930:Seyss-Inquart 5928: 5926: 5923: 5921: 5918: 5916: 5913: 5911: 5908: 5906: 5903: 5901: 5898: 5896: 5893: 5891: 5888: 5886: 5883: 5881: 5878: 5876: 5873: 5871: 5868: 5866: 5863: 5861: 5858: 5856: 5853: 5851: 5848: 5844: 5842: 5838: 5830: 5829: 5824: 5821: 5820: 5815: 5810: 5809: 5804: 5803: 5802: 5799: 5797: 5794: 5792: 5789: 5787: 5784: 5782: 5779: 5777: 5774: 5772: 5769: 5765: 5762: 5760: 5757: 5754: 5753: 5752:Untermenschen 5748: 5745: 5744: 5743:Rassenschande 5739: 5737: 5734: 5732: 5729: 5727: 5724: 5722: 5719: 5717: 5714: 5712: 5709: 5708: 5707: 5704: 5702: 5699: 5697: 5694: 5692: 5689: 5687: 5684: 5682: 5679: 5677: 5674: 5670: 5667: 5665: 5662: 5660: 5657: 5655: 5652: 5651: 5650: 5647: 5645: 5642: 5640: 5637: 5633: 5632:Pan-Germanism 5630: 5627: 5626: 5621: 5618: 5617: 5612: 5610: 5607: 5606: 5605: 5602: 5599: 5598: 5593: 5590: 5589: 5584: 5582: 5579: 5577: 5574: 5572: 5571:Direct action 5569: 5564: 5563: 5562:Führerprinzip 5558: 5557: 5556: 5553: 5551: 5548: 5546: 5543: 5539: 5536: 5533: 5532: 5527: 5526: 5525: 5522: 5520: 5517: 5515: 5512: 5510: 5507: 5505: 5502: 5500: 5499:Anti-pacifism 5497: 5495: 5492: 5490: 5487: 5485: 5482: 5480: 5477: 5473: 5471: 5467: 5459: 5456: 5454: 5451: 5449: 5446: 5444: 5441: 5439: 5436: 5434: 5431: 5429: 5426: 5424: 5421: 5419: 5416: 5414: 5411: 5410: 5409: 5408: 5403: 5400: 5398: 5395: 5393: 5390: 5388: 5385: 5383: 5382:The Holocaust 5380: 5378: 5375: 5372: 5371: 5366: 5363: 5362: 5361:Kristallnacht 5357: 5355: 5352: 5350: 5347: 5345: 5342: 5339: 5337: 5334: 5332: 5329: 5326: 5325: 5320: 5318: 5315: 5313: 5310: 5308: 5305: 5302: 5301: 5296: 5294: 5291: 5289: 5286: 5284: 5281: 5277: 5275: 5271: 5261: 5260: 5259:Schutzstaffel 5255: 5251: 5250: 5245: 5243: 5240: 5237: 5236: 5231: 5229: 5226: 5224: 5221: 5219: 5216: 5214: 5211: 5209: 5206: 5204: 5201: 5199: 5196: 5194: 5191: 5188: 5187: 5182: 5179: 5178: 5173: 5170: 5169: 5164: 5163: 5159: 5155: 5151: 5144: 5139: 5137: 5132: 5130: 5125: 5124: 5121: 5109: 5106: 5104: 5101: 5097: 5094: 5093: 5092: 5089: 5087: 5084: 5082: 5079: 5077: 5074: 5072: 5069: 5067: 5064: 5063: 5061: 5057: 5051: 5048: 5046: 5042: 5039: 5037: 5033: 5029: 5026: 5025: 5023: 5019: 5013: 5010: 5008: 5007:Otto Strasser 5005: 5003: 5000: 4998: 4995: 4993: 4990: 4988: 4985: 4983: 4980: 4978: 4977:Bernhard Rust 4975: 4973: 4970: 4968: 4965: 4963: 4960: 4958: 4955: 4953: 4952:Josef Mengele 4950: 4948: 4945: 4943: 4940: 4938: 4935: 4933: 4930: 4928: 4925: 4923: 4920: 4918: 4915: 4913: 4910: 4908: 4905: 4903: 4900: 4898: 4897:Wilhelm Frick 4895: 4893: 4890: 4888: 4885: 4883: 4880: 4878: 4875: 4873: 4870: 4868: 4865: 4863: 4860: 4858: 4855: 4853: 4850: 4848: 4845: 4844: 4842: 4840: 4836: 4829: 4828: 4823: 4820: 4819: 4814: 4811: 4810: 4805: 4802: 4801: 4796: 4793: 4792: 4787: 4784: 4783: 4778: 4775: 4774: 4769: 4766: 4765: 4760: 4757: 4756: 4751: 4750: 4748: 4744: 4738: 4735: 4733: 4730: 4728: 4725: 4723: 4720: 4718: 4715: 4713: 4710: 4708: 4705: 4703: 4700: 4698: 4695: 4693: 4690: 4688: 4687:Amt Rosenberg 4685: 4684: 4682: 4680:Party offices 4678: 4672: 4671:Thule Society 4669: 4667: 4664: 4662: 4659: 4657: 4654: 4652: 4649: 4647: 4644: 4642: 4639: 4637: 4634: 4632: 4629: 4627: 4624: 4622: 4619: 4617: 4614: 4612: 4609: 4608: 4606: 4602: 4595: 4592: 4589: 4586: 4583: 4582:Anton Drexler 4580: 4579: 4577: 4575: 4571: 4567: 4560: 4555: 4553: 4548: 4546: 4541: 4540: 4537: 4528: 4527: 4515: 4511: 4510: 4498: 4494: 4488: 4480: 4475: 4470: 4468: 4463: 4458: 4456: 4446: 4442: 4434: 4430: 4426: 4422: 4420: 4416: 4414: 4411: 4409: 4405: 4402: 4399: 4397: 4394: 4392: 4389: 4387: 4384: 4372: 4368: 4367: 4362: 4358: 4357: 4353: 4347: 4346:The Waffen-SS 4343: 4342: 4337: 4334: 4333: 4332: 4331: 4318: 4314: 4302: 4301:"Röhm-Putsch" 4298: 4297: 4292: 4289: 4288: 4287: 4286: 4272: 4268: 4264: 4260: 4254: 4250: 4246: 4242: 4241: 4235: 4232: 4231:History Today 4228: 4224: 4218: 4214: 4210: 4206: 4202: 4198: 4192: 4188: 4184: 4180: 4179:Holborn, Hajo 4175: 4171: 4165: 4161: 4156: 4152: 4146: 4142: 4138: 4134: 4133: 4128: 4121: 4117: 4113: 4109: 4105: 4101: 4095: 4091: 4086: 4082: 4076: 4072: 4068: 4064: 4060: 4056: 4052: 4048: 4042: 4037: 4036: 4030: 4026: 4022: 4016: 4012: 4008: 4004: 4000: 3994: 3990: 3985: 3981: 3975: 3970: 3969: 3963: 3959: 3955: 3949: 3945: 3940: 3936: 3930: 3925: 3924: 3918: 3914: 3910: 3904: 3900: 3895: 3891: 3885: 3881: 3877: 3873: 3869: 3863: 3859: 3854: 3850: 3844: 3840: 3839: 3834: 3830: 3826: 3820: 3816: 3811: 3807: 3801: 3797: 3792: 3788: 3782: 3778: 3773: 3772: 3766: 3762: 3758: 3752: 3748: 3747:HarperCollins 3744: 3743: 3738: 3737:Johnson, Paul 3734: 3730: 3724: 3720: 3716: 3712: 3708: 3706:9780060113971 3702: 3698: 3694: 3690: 3686: 3684:0-306-80661-4 3680: 3676: 3672: 3668: 3664: 3658: 3654: 3649: 3645: 3639: 3634: 3633: 3627: 3626:Fest, Joachim 3623: 3619: 3613: 3609: 3605: 3601: 3597: 3591: 3587: 3582: 3578: 3572: 3567: 3566: 3559: 3555: 3551: 3550:Bullock, Alan 3547: 3543: 3537: 3533: 3529: 3525: 3521: 3520: 3515: 3508:, p. 79. 3507: 3502: 3499: 3494: 3492:9781526728944 3488: 3484: 3477: 3474: 3469: 3467:9781782834595 3463: 3459: 3452: 3449: 3445: 3440: 3437: 3432: 3430:9781860649738 3426: 3422: 3415: 3412: 3407: 3405:9789004405288 3401: 3397: 3390: 3387: 3374: 3370: 3366: 3360: 3358: 3354: 3350: 3346: 3342: 3336: 3333: 3329: 3324: 3321: 3318:, p. 40. 3317: 3312: 3309: 3305: 3300: 3298: 3294: 3288: 3286: 3282: 3278: 3273: 3271: 3267: 3263: 3258: 3256: 3252: 3248: 3243: 3240: 3236: 3231: 3228: 3224: 3219: 3217: 3215: 3213: 3211: 3209: 3205: 3201: 3196: 3194: 3190: 3187:, p. 74. 3186: 3181: 3178: 3174: 3169: 3166: 3162: 3157: 3154: 3150: 3145: 3142: 3138: 3133: 3131: 3129: 3127: 3125: 3121: 3117: 3112: 3109: 3105: 3100: 3097: 3093: 3091:9780415222143 3087: 3083: 3076: 3073: 3060: 3056: 3055: 3050: 3044: 3041: 3028: 3024: 3020: 3013: 3010: 3006: 3001: 2998: 2995:, p. 72. 2994: 2989: 2986: 2982: 2977: 2974: 2970: 2965: 2962: 2958: 2953: 2950: 2937: 2933: 2931:9780374939182 2927: 2923: 2922: 2914: 2911: 2907: 2902: 2899: 2894: 2888: 2880: 2874: 2870: 2863: 2860: 2856: 2851: 2848: 2845:, p. 33. 2844: 2839: 2836: 2831: 2827: 2823: 2819: 2815: 2811: 2807: 2803: 2799: 2792: 2789: 2777: 2773: 2769: 2765: 2758: 2755: 2743: 2739: 2735: 2731: 2725: 2722: 2718: 2713: 2710: 2706: 2701: 2698: 2695:, p. 36. 2694: 2689: 2687: 2683: 2679: 2674: 2671: 2667: 2662: 2659: 2656:, p. 34. 2655: 2650: 2647: 2642: 2641: 2640:Inside Europe 2636: 2635:Gunther, John 2630: 2628: 2626: 2622: 2619:, p. 23. 2618: 2613: 2610: 2606: 2601: 2598: 2595:, p. 32. 2594: 2589: 2587: 2583: 2579: 2574: 2572: 2570: 2566: 2562: 2557: 2554: 2550: 2545: 2543: 2541: 2539: 2535: 2531: 2526: 2523: 2519: 2514: 2511: 2507: 2502: 2499: 2495: 2490: 2487: 2484:, p. 30. 2483: 2478: 2475: 2472:, p. 31. 2471: 2466: 2464: 2460: 2456: 2451: 2448: 2444: 2439: 2436: 2432: 2427: 2424: 2420: 2415: 2413: 2411: 2409: 2405: 2401: 2396: 2393: 2390:, p. 61. 2389: 2388:Williams 2001 2384: 2381: 2378:, p. 29. 2377: 2372: 2369: 2365: 2360: 2358: 2356: 2354: 2352: 2348: 2344: 2339: 2336: 2332: 2327: 2325: 2321: 2318:, p. 33. 2317: 2312: 2309: 2306:, p. 26. 2305: 2300: 2297: 2293: 2288: 2285: 2282:, p. 22. 2281: 2276: 2273: 2270:, p. 97. 2269: 2264: 2261: 2257: 2252: 2249: 2246:, p. 24. 2245: 2240: 2237: 2234:, p. 13. 2233: 2228: 2225: 2221: 2216: 2213: 2209: 2204: 2201: 2198:, p. 20. 2197: 2192: 2189: 2185: 2180: 2177: 2174:, p. 23. 2173: 2168: 2165: 2161: 2156: 2153: 2149: 2144: 2141: 2137: 2132: 2129: 2125: 2120: 2117: 2114:, p. 39. 2113: 2108: 2106: 2102: 2098: 2092: 2088: 2082: 2078: 2070: 2067: 2061: 2055: 2049: 2043: 2034: 2028: 2024: 2023: 2018: 2012: 2010: 2006: 1999: 1992:, p. 72. 1991: 1985: 1982: 1979:, p. 87. 1978: 1972: 1969: 1966:, p. 518 1965: 1958: 1955: 1951: 1945: 1942: 1938: 1933: 1930: 1927:, p. 80. 1926: 1920: 1917: 1913: 1907: 1904: 1901: 1897: 1893: 1889: 1885: 1879: 1876: 1872: 1868: 1862: 1859: 1855: 1849: 1846: 1842: 1836: 1833: 1830:, p. 39. 1829: 1823: 1820: 1816: 1812: 1806: 1803: 1796: 1791: 1787: 1786:Death in June 1784: 1782: 1779: 1777: 1774: 1771: 1770: 1769:Kristallnacht 1766: 1764: 1761: 1758: 1757: 1753: 1752: 1748: 1744: 1740: 1737: 1735: 1733: 1728: 1725: 1723: 1719: 1718: 1714: 1712: 1710: 1705: 1703: 1702: 1697: 1696: 1692: 1683: 1681: 1678: 1673: 1670: 1664: 1659: 1657: 1651: 1647: 1645: 1644: 1635: 1630: 1627: 1625: 1621: 1617: 1616: 1607: 1603: 1599: 1595: 1591: 1587: 1583: 1579: 1575: 1568: 1560: 1558: 1556: 1552: 1548: 1544: 1543: 1538: 1533: 1531: 1528:According to 1526: 1523: 1520:Hitler named 1516:SA leadership 1515: 1513: 1511: 1507: 1502: 1500: 1496: 1491: 1482: 1478: 1474: 1472: 1466: 1464: 1460: 1453: 1450: 1445: 1441: 1436: 1431: 1428: 1424: 1419: 1417: 1413: 1409: 1400: 1395: 1391: 1389: 1385: 1379: 1377: 1376: 1371: 1366: 1356: 1349: 1347: 1344: 1339: 1337: 1333: 1329: 1325: 1324:Wilhelm Frick 1321: 1320:Franz Gürtner 1314: 1309: 1302: 1299: 1295: 1290: 1284: 1277: 1275: 1272: 1268: 1264: 1260: 1259:Theodor Eicke 1250: 1248: 1244: 1240: 1236: 1234: 1230: 1229:Nazi ideology 1226: 1220: 1218: 1212: 1210: 1205: 1200: 1196: 1192: 1187: 1185: 1181: 1177: 1168: 1164: 1157: 1153: 1146: 1142: 1135: 1130: 1123: 1121: 1119: 1115: 1114:Leibstandarte 1111: 1110:Leibstandarte 1107: 1103: 1102: 1101:Leibstandarte 1097: 1096:Sepp Dietrich 1092: 1085: 1083: 1078: 1077:Edmund Heines 1074: 1071:The SS found 1069: 1061: 1057: 1055: 1052: 1048: 1044: 1040: 1034: 1026: 1023: 1018: 1011: 1009: 1007: 1003: 1002: 997: 993: 989: 985: 981: 977: 973: 969: 968:Willi Lehmann 965: 960: 955: 950: 947: 943: 938: 930: 926: 923: 922:Brigadeführer 918: 911: 909: 906: 903: 899: 895: 891: 886: 884: 880: 876: 872: 868: 863: 854: 850: 846: 842: 838: 835: 830: 824: 822: 818: 814: 810: 806: 802: 797: 795: 791: 788: 787: 782: 779: 775: 771: 762: 760: 756: 753: 747: 745: 739: 737: 733: 729: 725: 721: 716: 714: 710: 709:Edmund Heines 702: 698: 693: 686: 684: 682: 678: 674: 669: 665: 662: 658: 657:working-class 654: 648: 645: 641: 637: 632: 630: 624: 622: 618: 613: 608: 604: 600: 596: 592: 588: 584: 580: 579:nationalistic 576: 572: 568: 567: 562: 561: 555: 553: 549: 545: 544:field marshal 542: 537: 533: 529: 525: 521: 517: 516: 511: 507: 503: 500: 493: 489: 485: 481: 476: 469: 465: 463: 461: 456: 452: 450: 446: 442: 438: 437: 431: 429: 425: 421: 417: 413: 409: 405: 400: 396: 392: 391:secret police 388: 384: 380: 379: 378:Schutzstaffel 373: 371: 367: 363: 359: 358: 353: 349: 348:extrajudicial 345: 341: 337: 333: 329: 325: 320: 315: 311: 307: 303: 293: 289: 284: 273: 268: 262: 259: 257: 253: 249: 247: 243: 239: 236: 234: 230: 229:Assassination 227: 226: 225: 221: 215: 211: 210: 209:Schutzstaffel 206: 205: 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