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large number of joints that provide the human musculoskeletal system with numerous kinematic degrees of freedom. Because the goal of most movement tasks, like moving a hand to a target, is defined in terms of a much smaller number of kinematic degrees of freedom, it can be achieved in an infinite number of different ways (also referred to as the 'inverse kinematics problem'). Furthermore, the number of muscles acting across a joint generally exceeds the number of kinematic degrees of freedom of that joint. As a result, a given movement can be realized with an infinite number of muscle activation patterns (also referred to as the 'inverse dynamics problem'). Even though a goal can be reached in an infinite number of ways, many studies have revealed very consistent and stereotypical patterns of kinematics and muscle activation. Evidently, the
Central Nervous System (CNS) is capable of adequately controlling the many degrees of freedom. This question of how the CNS is capable of adequately controlling the many degrees of freedom of the musculoskeletal system was first addressed by Bernstein and is now known as the '
251:. The purpose of the study was to optimize productivity, and Bernstein's analysis focused on cutting metal with a chisel. He used cyclographic techniques to track human movement, a technique he would continue using for many of his experiments. His research showed that most movements, like hitting a chisel with a hammer, are composed of smaller movements. Any one of these smaller movements, if altered, affect the movement as a whole.
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axis, and the two front wheels are also allowed to rotate in parallel around a longitudinal axis, controlled by the steering wheel) a car becomes much easier to control. Bernstein also did major work with motor learning, creating models for stages of learning. His work in the 1950s and 1960s was remarkably insightful and is still valid and respected today.
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Bernstein suggested that the CNS is capable of "functionally freezing degrees of freedom." As an analogy, controlling the four wheels of a car independently is very difficult. Yet, by functionally freezing degrees of freedom (the two rear wheels are only allowed to rotate around one shared horizontal
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inventing original devices that track the motion of people with and without experience in actions. The field of motor control basically studies how the
Central Nervous System (CNS) controls posture and movement. Understanding how humans plan and control movement is a major challenge because of the
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Bernstein is also famous for saying that "none of the actions is repeated but every action is constructed anew; it's just a matter what level regulates this construction". He proposed a theory of "levels of control over action construction" that later were echoed in levels of control in cognitive
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broke out in the summer of 1914, the
Bernstein family felt the need to help their country during these hard times. Nikolai then took an alternative route in his education and started attending the medical college where he graduated in 1919 with a medical degree. Nikolai was then drafted into the
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In 1926, Bernstein started a series of experiments that examined human walking. Originally, this work was to help with the engineering of pedestrian bridges. He studied the development of walking as humans matured and aged, and he also examined the gaits of those with brain damage.
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that study the structure and mechanisms of motion. American kinesiologist Karl Newell is one of many to be greatly influenced by
Bernstein. Newell (1986) arranged constraints into three main groups: Individual (structural or functional), task, and environmental constraints.
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Newell, K.M. (1986). Constraints on the development of coordination. In M.G. Wade & H.T.A. Whiting (Eds.), Motor development in children: Aspects of coordination and control (pp. 341–361). Amsterdam:
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who has pioneered motion-tracking devices and formal processing of information obtained from the use of these devices. He was also one of first psychologists to suggest that
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Nikolai
Bernstein graduated high school in 1913. He was interested in languages and philosophy and wanted to be a linguist so he enrolled at Moscow University to study
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degree without submitting a thesis. He was also one of the first members of the USSR Academy of
Medical Sciences, founded in 1944. In 1948, he was awarded the
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597:"Ad Marginem: The Controversial History of Nikolai Bernstein's Book, Contemporary Inquiries into the Physiology of the Nervous Process"
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Feigenberg, I.M.; Latash, L.P. (2016). "N. A. Bernstein: The
Reformer of Neuroscience". In Latash, Mark L.; Turvey, Michael T. (eds.).
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Ad
Marginem: The Controversial History of Nikolai Bernstein's Book, Contemporary Inquiries into the Physiology of the Nervous Process
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Ad
Marginem: The Controversial History of Nikolai Bernstein’s Book, Contemporary Inquiries into the Physiology of the Nervous Process
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His first scientific work was in 1922, when he, along with other researchers, were invited to study movement during manual labour in
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Bernstein, N.A. (1967). The co-ordination and regulation of movements. Oxford : Pergamon Press.
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as a doctor. After his service ended in 1921 his father helped him get a job as a physician at the
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till his father's death, he then took over his father's practice who was also a physician.
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Futurism in
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Progress in Motor Control: Bernstein's Traditions in Movement Studies, Vol. 1
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Vera Talis.New pages in the biography of Nikolai Alexandrovich Bernstein
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Russian State University of Physical Education, Sport, Youth and Tourism
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is generative, constructive and not reactive. He was born and died in
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Bernstein's Construction of Movements: Original Text and Commentaries
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Nikolai Bernstein : from reflex to the model of the future
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Corresponding Members of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences
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Ocherki po Fiziologii Dvizheniy i Fiziologii Aktivnosti
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A cyclogram of cutting metal with a chisel and hammer.
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The art and science of movement in France and Russia
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Bernstein, Nikolai Aleksandrovich Bernstein (2020).
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Sovremennye Iskaniia v Fiziologii Nervnogo Protsessa
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in the laboratory of the Central Institute of Labor
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372:"Biomechanics for Instructors" (Moscow, 1926)
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658:Die Entwicklung der Bewegungsfertigkeiten
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