1058:'s 1984 analysis, first use of nuclear weapons as a right of self-defense in warfare is the "most controversial" under international law—a right, in their view, not unlimited. Highlighted also were the views of "religious, political and military authorities" who questioned a first-use doctrine. SIPRI concluded that a meaningful no-first-use declaration "would have to be accompanied—or preferably preceded—by changes in the deployment of both nuclear and conventional forces".
454:, in 1998. In August 1999, the Indian government released a draft of the doctrine which asserts that nuclear weapons are solely for deterrence and that India will pursue a policy of "retaliation only". The document also maintains that India "will not be the first to initiate a nuclear first strike, but will respond with punitive retaliation should deterrence fail" and that decisions to authorise the use of nuclear weapons would be made by the prime minister or his "
42:
1242:
sense of security from their nuclear weapons, but significantly reduces possibilities of use". And in its effort to shape proposals and ideas on nuclear risk reduction "into a pathway to achieve the treaty-mandated disarmament end state of the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of
Nuclear Weapons," the Council on Strategic Risks places the universal adoption of NFU at "the starting gate for any process towards full nuclear disarmament."
1254:
769:
states that are not eligible for the assurance, the United States would consider the use of nuclear weapons only in extreme circumstances to defend the vital interests of the United States or its allies and partners. The
Nuclear Posture Review also notes, "It is in the U.S. interest and that of all other nations that the nearly 65-year record of nuclear non-use be extended forever."
761:: "The fundamental role of U.S. nuclear weapons, which will continue as long as nuclear weapons exist, is to deter nuclear attack on the United States, our allies, and partners." The U.S. doctrine also includes the following assurance to other states: "The United States will not use or threaten to use nuclear weapons against non-nuclear weapons states that are party to the
501:, India would retaliate massively. That was in response to reports that Pakistan had developed a tactical battlefield nuclear weapon in an attempt to supposedly nullify an Indian "no first use" retaliatory doctrine. In April 2014, before the general elections, Prime Minister Modi reiterated commitment to a no-first-use policy. On November 10, 2016, the Indian
1104:
would be wrong to disregard the real value to both sides of a jointly declared adherence to this policy." They also maintained that an NFU posture and policy "could help to open the path toward serious reduction of nuclear armaments on both sides", cautioning that "s long as the weapons themselves exist, the possibility of use will remain."
1099:"to consider the possibilities, the requirements, the difficulties, and the advantages of a policy of no-first-use" and urged that citizens, too, consider these policy questions. The authors believed that fully exploring NFU as a strategy and policy would reveal greater advantages than costs and "help the peoples and governments of the
651:
conflict, this Policy provides for the prevention of an escalation of military actions and their termination on conditions that are acceptable for the
Russian Federation and/or its allies." This has been interpreted as describing non-nuclear scenarios where Russia might use nuclear weapons to achieve its military goals. During the
1119:(2014–2017) Nobuyasu Abe in 2018 called for re-examining the role of nuclear weapons alongside the non-nuclear military situation in the regional security environment to bridge the "great divide between idealists and realists" on adopting a no-first-use policy. He described the political divide in Japan as the skepticism of the
1193:, in 2016 wrote: "Champions and critics of no-first-use often cast it as a principled policy and a revolutionary step, for good or for ill. But the idealistic symbolism of no-first-use betrays an underlying reality. Disavowing a first strike is a luxury afforded to the strong. ... No-first-use is the policy of
788:. That now superseded doctrine envisioned commanders requesting presidential approval to use nuclear weapons to preempt an attack by a nation or a terrorist group using weapons of mass destruction. The now superseded doctrine also included the option of using nuclear weapons to destroy known enemy stockpiles of
1172:
Administration as the most recent indicator, and called for, among other things, "a more informed public discourse" by strengthening and expanding participation in strategic deterrence dialogues. The authors also noted that further enlargement of "underlying 'anti-nuclear' sentiment among some allied
1103:
to find the political will to move in this direction". They called "both fear and mistrust ... the most immediate enemies", arguing that: "The Soviet government has repeatedly offered to join the West in declaring such a policy, and while such declarations may have only limited reliability, it
768:
For states eligible for the assurance, the United States would not use nuclear weapons in response to a chemical or biological attack but states that those responsible for such an attack would be held accountable and would face the prospect of a devastating conventional military response. Even for
1241:
co-authored an opinion piece with
Manpreet Sethi, mentioning the reintroduction of the No First Use Act in both chambers of the US Congress as "hope rekindled" and noting that, given the reality of countries unwilling to give up their nuclear weapons, an NFU "allows nations to maintain a notional
1212:
Alexander Kmentt in 2020 explained that nuclear risk reduction measures, including de-alerting and de-targeting as well as no-first-use declarations, are "assessed as having a negative impact on the credibility of nuclear deterrence" and "considered only insofar, as they do not impact the nuclear
1139:
in
January 2022 wrote that, were the US to adopt an NFU position, the credibility of its extended deterrence would be diminished. The institute's public attitudes survey findings, published in May 2023, include naming North Korea as the most pressing security concern, followed by China. In its
1167:
and
Jonathan D. Pollack in 2016 noted that "non-nuclear states living in the shadow of nuclear-armed adversaries" are willing to forego developing their own nuclear arms because of US security guarantees, and that adopting an NFU doctrine "would represent a profound shift" in those guarantees.
650:
The military doctrine of 2014 did not depart from this stance. The 2020 Presidential
Executive Order on Nuclear Deterrence in Article 4 uses the following wording: "deterrence of a potential adversary from aggression against the Russian Federation and/or its allies. In the event of a military
934:
North Korea's stated policy position is that nuclear weapons "will never be abused or used as a means for preemptive strike", but if there is an "attempt to have recourse to military force against us" North Korea may use their "most powerful offensive strength in advance to punish them".
382:, with Russian military doctrine later stating in 2000 that Russia reserves the right to use nuclear weapons "in response to a large-scale conventional aggression". Pakistan has also made similar statements, largely in reference to intermittent military tensions with India.
1051:—it comes as no surprise that academics, diplomats, and nuclear strategists are focusing anew on risk reduction proposals. One idea that has been in circulation for some time is a global-no-first-use agreement (GNFU), with unilateral or bilateral NFUs as another option."
888:
Pakistan refuses to adopt a no first use doctrine and indicates that it would launch nuclear weapons even if the other side did not use such weapons first. Pakistan's asymmetric nuclear posture has significant influence on India's ability to retaliate, as shown in
485:, on October 21, 2010, the wording was changed from "no first use" to "no first use against non-nuclear weapon states", but some argued that it was not a substantive change but "an innocent typographical or lexical error in the text of the speech". In April 2013,
1237:, recommended that China's and India's unilateral NFU declarations be turned into a bilateral statement as a step towards nuclear risk reduction in South Asia, "since the risk of not taking any would be quite risky indeed". The following year, the India-based
901:
carried out deadly terrorist attacks on India, only to be met with a relatively subdued response from India. A military spokesperson stated that "Pakistan's threat of nuclear first-use deterred India from seriously considering conventional military strikes."
671:. Under the second paragraph of article two, China and Russia agreed that "The contracting parties reaffirm their commitment that they will not be the first to use nuclear weapons against each other nor target strategic nuclear missiles against each other."
866:
expressed support for a "sole purpose" declaration confirming that the only use of U.S. nuclear weapons would be as a deterrent, although this is distinct from a "no first use" declaration identifying that the United States would not unilaterally use them.
1152:", having declared its NFU doctrine out of the belief "that neither its government nor its nuclear arsenal could be eliminated in a first strike by a hostile power". And in the foreground of strained relations between South Korea and Japan, stemming from
663:
announced the mobilization of
Russian nuclear forces to "combat-ready" status. In December 2022, Putin claimed that Russia would not be the first to use nuclear weapons or the second, and that "Russian nuclear doctrine is premised on self-defense."
1173:
governments and/or their publics ... would essentially eliminate the existing US extended nuclear deterrence policy, particularly (but not only) undercutting NATO allied participation in NATO's nuclear deterrence policy." Former chair of the
746:" in which nuclear weapons would explicitly be used to defend North America or Western Europe against a conventional attack. Although this strategy was revised, they both reserved the right to use nuclear weapons first under the new doctrine of "
718:" in "the most extreme circumstances". Fallon stated in a parliamentary answer that the UK has neither a 'first use' or 'no first use' in its nuclear weapon policy so that its adversaries would not know when the UK would launch nuclear strikes.
1217:
acknowledged the importance of deterrence as a security tool to many states and proposed a "bridge-building framework" involving supporters and opponents finding common ground and working together, for example, on nuclear risk reduction.
3617:
2343:
335:
while it formally forswears any of the strategic advantages of nuclear weapons, provided the enemy power does not possess or utilize any such weapons of their own. The concept is primarily invoked in reference to nuclear
1168:
Co-founder Keith B. Payne and
Research Scholar Michaela Dodge of the National Institute for Public Policy in 2023 noted that for decades "US allies" have continued to oppose such a shift, citing a reported survey by the
3441:
582:
proposed that NATO adopt a no-first-use policy, but the proposal was rejected. In 2022, leaders of the five NPT nuclear-weapon states issued a statement on prevention of nuclear war, saying "We affirm that a
1233:, noted that even the definition of strategic stability was evolving due to the unpredictability of and increasing strategic concerns. In the same publication, Manpreet Sethi, lead researcher for the
559:
say that they will use nuclear weapons against either nuclear or non-nuclear states only in the case of invasion or other attack against their territory or against one of their allies. Historically,
1751:
1569:"Risk of Nuclear Weapons Use Higher Than at Any Time Since Cold War, Disarmament Affairs Chief Warns Security Council: Many Speakers Condemn Russian Federation's Dangerous Rhetoric, Veiled Threats"
1678:
2351:
1036:
742:, and NATO continues to oppose a no-first-use policy. Not only did the United States and NATO refuse to adopt a no first use policy, but until 1967 they maintained a nuclear doctrine of "
2689:
726:
The United States has refused to adopt a no first use policy and says that it "reserves the right to use" nuclear weapons first in the case of conflict. This was partially to provide a
3495:
3562:
1985:
2469:
331:
in retaliation to an attack by an enemy power using WMD. Such a pledge would allow for a unique state of affairs in which a given nuclear power can be engaged in a conflict of
508:
questioned the no-first-use policy of India, and asked why should India "bind" itself when it is a "responsible nuclear power". He clarified that it was his personal opinion.
827:
429:
174:
1355:
1222:
3231:
3137:
1055:
955:. Its continued ambiguous stance puts it in a difficult position since to issue a statement pledging 'no first use' would confirm their possession of nuclear weapons.
3026:
1834:
2938:
366:
was commonly argued as a key option to afford NATO a credible nuclear deterrent, compensating for the overwhelming conventional weapon superiority enjoyed by the
2374:
1780:
180:
2786:
1703:
1205:
241:
1721:
3521:
929:
383:
230:
2441:
1156:, the June 2023 trilateral meeting of the countries' military chiefs signaled closer nuclear strategy consultation at the urging of their US counterpart.
3697:
2128:
1225:
researcher on the global nonproliferation regime, because of the deep divide over whether they reduce risk or, for example, increase risk by undermining
913:
707:
463:
386:
has publicly pledged to refrain from a preemptive nuclear strike, while threatening retaliation up to and including WMD against conventional aggression.
251:
2072:
1597:
3412:
2714:
2556:
1068:
459:
282:
826:, there were efforts to either require congressional approval for a pre-emptive nuclear strike or to ban it altogether and impose an NFU policy. The
358:
and India are currently the only two nuclear powers to formally maintain a no first use policy, adopting pledges in 1964 and 1998 respectively. Both
1112:
977:, Israel's policy on nuclear weapons, which was set down in 1966, revolves around four "red lines" which could lead to an Israeli nuclear response:
859:
404:
225:
3124:, pp. 187–212, edited by Steven L. Spiegel, Jennifer D. Kibbe and Elizabeth G. Matthews. Symposium Series, Volume 66, The Edwin Mellen Press, 2001.
2911:
1959:
1629:
3383:
855:
668:
522:
on August 16, 2019, said that India's no-first-use policy might change depending upon the "circumstances". Vajpayee's government conducted the
195:
185:
1213:
deterrence calculus, which in itself is the origin of nuclear risk". In her 2018 view of narratives surrounding the TPNW, Heather
Williams of
3361:
2636:
1209:
1141:
777:
687:
441:
400:
349:
211:
200:
190:
3561:
John Borrie; Hassan Elbahtimy; Ulrich Kühn; Tanya Ogilvie-White; Ankit Panda; Manpreet Sethi; Wilfred Wan (April 2020). Wan, Wilfred (ed.).
2850:
1234:
758:
703:
115:
2611:
362:
and a number of its member states have repeatedly rejected calls for adopting a NFU policy, as during the lifetime of the Soviet Union a
2585:
312:
246:
164:
1391:
2174:
1082:
906:
847:
2978:
3334:
3308:
3097:
3062:
2921:
2048:
1874:
1514:
1469:
1136:
1124:
1116:
1044:
478:
445:
3677:
823:
412:
became the first nuclear-weapon state to make public its NFU pledge, when it first gained nuclear capabilities in 1964. During the
973:
with nuclear weapons, should the State of Israel be substantially damaged and/or near destruction. According to Israeli historian
807:
reportedly considered adopting a no first use policy. Obama was persuaded by several Cabinet officials such as Secretary of State
466:, India remained committed to its nuclear no-first-use policy. India is in the process of developing a nuclear doctrine based on "
2239:
2238:
Hird, Karolina; Bailey, Riley; Barros, George; Williams, Madison; Klepanchuk, Yekaterina; Kagan, Frederick W. (7 December 2022).
1416:
762:
652:
490:
3618:"Briefer No. 17. A Practical Strategy for Nuclear Risk Reduction and Disarmament: Fulfilling the Code of Nuclear Responsibility"
3591:
2288:
3717:
2878:
1363:
1089:
916:. Aziz stated that Pakistan's first use doctrine is entirely deterrent in nature. He explained that it was effective after the
620:
474:
428:. In its statement during a UN Security Council meeting in 2023, China reiterated its non-first use stance and support for the
3357:
3247:
3153:
2820:
2501:
2417:
2396:
2159:
944:
851:
680:
646:
in case of aggression against Russia with the use of conventional weapons when the very existence of the state is threatened.
2736:
1443:
2275:"Treaty of Good-Neighborliness and Friendly Cooperation Between the People's Republic of China and the Russian Federation"
1181:
in 2021 characterized NFU policy adoption as "a first step and a door-opener for an urgently needed dialog on the role of
1028:
917:
773:
409:
275:
93:
3442:"Information Series, Issue No. 555. Emerging Challenges to Extended Deterrence, Assurance and the Future of US Alliances"
3030:
615:
documents confirmed that the military had plans for a pre-emptive nuclear strike and considered launching one during the
3587:
1238:
894:
890:
337:
3178:
2949:
1543:
3707:
3499:
2832:
2121:
1048:
636:
467:
320:
256:
920:
and argued that if Pakistan had a no first use policy, there would have been a major war between the two countries.
3702:
2448:
1230:
1024:
952:
948:
715:
643:
in response to the use of nuclear and other types of weapons of mass destruction against it or its allies, and also
535:
363:
216:
61:
2660:
3712:
3472:
1729:
1441:
No First Use of Nuclear Weapons meeting: paper by Yuri Fedorov, 'Russia's Doctrine on the Use of Nuclear Weapons'
1153:
502:
850:
all introduced bills to limit the President's ability to order a pre-emptive nuclear strike. Calls to limit the
2761:
1864:
1842:
1655:
992:
885:
warned that if Pakistan is ever invaded or attacked, it will use "any weapon in its arsenal" to defend itself.
498:
268:
81:
1214:
3496:"Commentary. Nuclear deterrence perpetuates nuclear risks: the risk reduction perspective of TPNW supporters"
1601:
1127:, and "center/right conservatives" on the one hand, and the support of the ruling coalition's junior partner
2561:
1169:
1016:
667:
Russia and China do maintain a mutual agreement to have a no first use policy which was developed under the
656:
568:
516:
494:
110:
76:
611:
not to launch a pre-emptive nuclear strike. However, this pledge was not taken seriously, and later leaked
1752:"India's defense minister questions its no first-use nuclear policy — then says it's his personal opinion"
1144:
concluded that North Korea's posture is one of "nuclear pre-emption" and its government "concerned that a
754:
575:
3467:
2097:
3416:
2344:"Theresa May would fire UK's nuclear weapons as a 'first strike', says Defence Secretary Michael Fallon"
1917:
1912:
1160:
785:
150:
135:
71:
3468:"Nuclear Risk Reduction and Disarmament: Is it time for no-first-use policies in the USA and globally?"
416:, China decided to keep the size of its nuclear arsenal small, rather than compete in an international
2690:"Senator Warren, Chairman Smith Unveil Legislation to Establish 'No-First-Use' Nuclear Weapons Policy"
2715:"Congressman Lieu, Senator Markey Introduce the Restricting First Use of Nuclear Weapons Act of 2017"
2483:
1633:
1478:
1039:
program director John Loretz wrote: "With the risk of nuclear war greater than at any time since the
699:
628:
519:
332:
98:
86:
2026:
1115:'s Center for the Promotion of Disarmament and Nonproliferation (2008–2014) and commissioner of the
834:
held its first meeting on the President's authority to use nuclear weapons in 41 years. Since 2017,
1756:
1292:
1267:
1226:
1120:
970:
743:
612:
455:
140:
3330:
3304:
1148:
could destroy it"; in contrast, China pursues "what Beijing calls 'nuclear counterstrike campaigns
1807:
1460:
1186:
1000:
639:. With regard to nuclear weapons specifically, Russia reserves the right to use nuclear weapons:
632:
345:
3671:
3657:
1131:, opposition parties, and "left/center anti-nuclear idealists" on the other. In its analysis of
2527:
1208:
supporters, ambassador and director for Disarmament, Arms Control and Non-Proliferation at the
3667:
3653:
3243:
3149:
3103:
3093:
3068:
3058:
2917:
2886:
2824:
2787:"No president should have unilateral power to use nuclear weapons: Sen. Warren and Sec. Perry"
2566:
2463:
1993:
1870:
1788:
1496:
1108:
985:
793:
747:
695:
482:
417:
300:
145:
130:
125:
120:
56:
3536:
3284:
3219:
3190:
2685:
1486:
1319:
1132:
1078:
996:
843:
727:
505:
341:
3678:
When Actions Speak Louder Than Words: Adversary Perceptions of Nuclear No-First-Use Pledges
1537:"Statement on security assurances issued on 5 April 1995 by the People's Republic of China"
432:, adding its rejection of any attacks against nuclear weapons facilities and power plants.
3662:
MacDonald, Rhona: "Nuclear Weapons 60 Years On: Still a Global Public Health Threat", in:
3408:
3253:
3235:
3227:
3223:
3159:
3141:
2317:
1819:
1447:
1259:
1164:
1092:
1085:
1063:
898:
797:
608:
584:
379:
316:
66:
1522:
2946:
Harvard Kennedy School, Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs Policy Brief
1704:"Analysis: New Pakistani Tactical Nuclear Weapons — Implications And Ramifications"
1482:
3215:
2259:[Meeting of the Council for the Development of Civil Society and Human Rights]
1198:
1185:
in military doctrines and strategies". Dominic Tierney, political science professor at
1182:
1145:
1071:
1020:
882:
789:
711:
660:
616:
604:
600:
548:
296:
155:
103:
33:
3413:"Order from Chaos series. Before moving to 'no first use,' think about Northeast Asia"
1866:
NATO, Britain, France, and the FRG nuclear strategies and forces for Europe, 1949-2000
1253:
450:
India first adopted a "no first use" policy after its second series of nuclear tests,
3691:
3522:"A nuclear babel: narratives around the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons"
2296:
1272:
1032:
966:
781:
552:
512:
421:
328:
2137:
The same URL is used for various revisions with different presidential decree dates.
819:
that 'no first use' would rattle U.S. allies and decided not to take up the policy.
3648:
Feiveson, Harold A.; Hogendoorn, Ernst Jan: "No First Use of Nuclear Weapons", in:
3384:"US, Japan, South Korea hold rare military meeting as North Korea launches missile"
3000:
2557:"'No First Use' Nuclear Policy Proposal Assailed by U.S. Cabinet Officials, Allies"
1938:
1340:
876:
816:
804:
702:
troops in the field. This policy was restated in February 2003 and again under the
596:
425:
3540:
3289:
3272:
3194:
2274:
2160:"Basic Principles of State Policy of the Russian Federation on Nuclear Deterrence"
1491:
1464:
1324:
1307:
965:
If Israel's very existence is threatened, some speculate that Israel would use a "
854:' ability to unilaterally launch a pre-emptive nuclear strike increased after the
493:, affirmed that regardless of the size of a nuclear attack against India, be it a
27:
Refrainment from using weapons of mass destruction unless attacked with them first
2213:
3358:"Policy Brief. Pre-empting defeat: In search of North Korean's nuclear doctrine"
2254:
1440:
974:
959:
909:
735:
691:
564:
486:
367:
2737:"Invasion of Ukraine proves the U.S. must Trump-proof the nuclear codes – fast"
1568:
981:
A successful military penetration into populated areas within Israel's borders.
2828:
1249:
831:
812:
808:
683:
523:
451:
2890:
2762:"Trump-inspired insurrection prompts concern over control of nuclear weapons"
2570:
1997:
1792:
1679:"Even a midget nuke strike will lead to massive retaliation, India warns Pak"
1598:"Draft Report of National Security Advisory Board on Indian Nuclear Doctrine"
1500:
1221:
By 2020 new NFU commitments and ideas had stalled, according to Wilfred Wan,
3107:
3072:
2874:
2127:[Military doctrine of the Russian Federation] (in Russian). Moscow:
1536:
1174:
863:
839:
17:
3356:
Allard, Léonie; Duchâtel, Mathieu; Godement, François (November 22, 2017).
3257:
3163:
2811:
2132:
2851:"Sole Purpose Is Not No First Use: Nuclear Weapons and Declaratory Policy"
2188:
3463:
3087:
3052:
2710:
1178:
1075:
1040:
835:
739:
540:
413:
3616:
Rear Admiral John Gower, CB OBE; Christine Parthemore (April 19, 2021).
2979:"Promoting U.S.-Pakistan Relations: Future Challenges and Opportunities"
2073:"Able Archer 83: the Nato war-game that nearly spelled nuclear disaster"
1960:"Russia, China, Britain, U.S. and France say no one can win nuclear war"
3057:(1st ed.). New York: Random House. pp. 42, 136–137, 288–289.
3054:
The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy
1781:"'No First Use' nuclear policy depends on circumstances: Rajnath Singh"
1725:
1194:
1128:
579:
371:
41:
1191:
The Right Way to Lose a War: America in an Age of Unwinnable Conflicts
378:
dropped a pledge against first use of nuclear weapons made in 1982 by
3179:"Book Review: The Sheathed Sword: From Nuclear Brink to No First Use"
765:
and in compliance with their nuclear non-proliferation obligations."
624:
556:
544:
375:
2939:"Pakistan's Nuclear Posture: Implications for South Asian Stability"
2256:Заседание Совета по развитию гражданского общества и правам человека
2175:"Russia's nuclear doctrine moves the focus from non-Western threats"
1356:"Declaring a no-first-use nuclear policy would be exceedingly risky"
563:
military strategy, taking into account the numerical superiority of
2637:"Pelosi urges new law to limit president's use of nuclear weapons"
2146:
355:
3242:. London and Philadelphia: Taylor & Francis. pp. 29–41.
655:, observers expressed concern that Russia would preemptively use
627:
formally reversed this policy in 1993 due to the weakness of the
3120:
Avner Cohen, "Israel's Nuclear Opacity: a Political Genealogy",
1656:"Did India Change its Nuclear Doctrine?: Much Ado about Nothing"
1100:
1096:
731:
560:
359:
3230:(1984). "Nuclear weapons and the Atlantic Alliance (rept)". In
2972:
2970:
2612:"Lawmakers back push to curtail Trump's nuclear strike ability"
958:
Israel has said that it "would not be the first country in the
1463:; Korda, Matt; Johns, Eliana; Knight, Mackenzie (2024-01-02).
1295:. Manohar Parrikar Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses.
464:
escalation of tensions between India and Pakistan in 2001–2002
324:
3592:"Acceptance Of No First Use (NFU) By USA: Hope Redux? – OpEd"
2555:
Sonne, Paul; Lubold, Gordon; Lee, Carol E. (12 August 2016).
1658:. Manohar Parrikar Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses
635:. Russia describes its entire military doctrine as defensive
2098:"Russia Discards Soviet Legacy of No First Use of A-Weapons"
1019:
on strategic no-first-use of nuclear weapons include legal,
599:
adopted a formal no-first-use in 1982 when Foreign Minister
3092:. New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 2, 7, 341.
1229:, while John Borrie, lead for UNIDIR's research program on
2418:"NATO's Nuclear Weapons: The Rationale for 'No First Use'"
2397:"NATO's Nuclear Weapons: The Rationale for 'No First Use'"
1341:"NATO's Nuclear Weapons: The Rationale for 'No First Use'"
991:
Israeli cities being subjected to massive and devastating
2502:"The Flimsy Case Against No-First-Use of Nuclear Weapons"
2189:"Ukraine war: Could Russia use tactical nuclear weapons?"
1450:– Pugwash Meeting no. 279 London, UK, 15–17 November 2002
1308:"India and the Policy of No First Use of Nuclear Weapons"
2584:
Sanger, David E.; Broad, William J. (5 September 2016).
1722:"Modi says committed to no first use of nuclear weapons"
962:
to formally introduce nuclear weapons into the region".
698:
if they ever used "weapons of mass destruction" against
3652:. 10(2)/2003. The Center for Nonproliferation Studies,
2813:
U.S. Nuclear Weapons Policy: Considering 'No First Use'
2586:"Obama Unlikely to Vow No First Use of Nuclear Weapons"
2526:
Miller, Franklin C.; Payne, Keith B. (22 August 2016).
1913:"Senate Permits Study for New Tactical Nuclear Missile"
780:" and written under the direction of Air Force General
2661:"Senate committee questions Trump's nuclear authority"
2451:. April 2010. Archived from the original on 2012-12-27
714:
confirmed that the UK would use nuclear weapons in a "
669:
Treaty of Good-Neighborliness and Friendly Cooperation
3001:"Kim Jong Un's October 10 Speech: More Than Missiles"
515:, speaking on the anniversary of the death of former
3273:"No First Use: How to Overcome Japan's Great Divide"
3029:. Lionel Beehner. February 10, 2006. Archived from
2240:"Russian Offensive Campaign Assessment, December 7"
2214:"Putin: Nuclear risk is rising, but we are not mad"
2177:. Stockholm International Peace Research Institute.
2147:
Military doctrine of the Russian Federation of 2014
1939:"Germany Raises No-First-Use Issue at NATO Meeting"
571:would have to be used to defeat a Soviet invasion.
1869:. New York: St. Martin's Press. pp. 120–121.
1417:"Russia Drops Pledge of No First Use of Atom Arms"
1107:In the context of Japan's reliance on US extended
3676:Caitlin Talmadge, Lisa Michelini, Vipin Narang. "
3440:Payne, Keith B.; Dodge, Michaela (June 6, 2023).
3148:. London and Philadelphia: Taylor & Francis.
3122:The Dynamics of Middle East Nuclear Proliferation
2849:Panda, Ankit; Narang, Vipin (February 22, 2021).
1835:"Pentagon wants 'mini-nukes' to fight terrorists"
311:) refers to a type of pledge or policy wherein a
3232:Stockholm International Peace Research Institute
3138:Stockholm International Peace Research Institute
3027:"Israel's Nuclear Program and Middle East Peace"
2468:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (
2436:
2434:
3666:. 2(11)/2005. Public Library of Science, e301,
3563:Nuclear Risk Reduction: Closing Pathways to Use
1986:"Soviet Chief Renounces First Use of A-Weapons"
348:, as is the case of the official WMD policy of
3007:. The Henry L. Stimson Center. 13 October 2020
2049:"Soviet plan for WW3 nuclear attack unearthed"
1385:
1383:
1381:
3132:
3130:
1177:Subcommittee on Disarmament and Arms Control
1035:actors as well as countries. In 2023, former
276:
8:
3435:
3433:
3305:"Issue Briefs: The Troubled ROK–US Alliance"
1542:. United Nations. 6 April 1995. S/1995/265.
1392:"Refusing to Nuke First Is for the Powerful"
3234:; Blackaby, Frank Thomas; Goldblat, Jozef;
3140:; Blackaby, Frank Thomas; Goldblat, Jozef;
2122:"Voyennaya doktrina Rossiyskoy Federatsii"
1135:'s reliance on US extended deterrence, the
930:North Korea and weapons of mass destruction
3331:"Country Report: South Korea (April 2023)"
2129:Security Council of the Russian Federation
1006:The use of nuclear weapons against Israel.
969:", a "last resort" deterrence strategy of
708:Strategic Defence and Security Review 2010
283:
269:
40:
29:
3288:
3277:Journal for Peace and Nuclear Disarmament
2375:"Nuclear Weapons:Written question – 8502"
1779:Special Correspondent (August 16, 2019).
1490:
1323:
1312:Journal for Peace and Nuclear Disarmament
587:cannot be won and must never be fought."
460:National Research Development Corporation
3411:; Pollack, Jonathan D. (July 20, 2016).
2717:. United States House of Representatives
1111:, former Japanese diplomat, director of
860:2020 United States presidential election
2484:"Doctrine for Joint Nuclear Operations"
1284:
1163:'s Center for East Asia Policy Studies
951:, the country is widely believed to be
686:stated that the UK was prepared to use
163:
48:
32:
3494:Kmentt, Alexander (December 4, 2020).
3444:. National Institute for Public Policy
2461:
2289:"UK 'prepared to use nuclear weapons'"
1815:
1805:
1592:
1590:
1306:Sundaram, Kumar; Ramana, M.V. (2018).
1047:2023)—exacerbated even further by the
856:January 6 United States Capitol attack
734:as a deterrent against a conventional
3362:European Council on Foreign Relations
2785:Warren, Elizabeth; Perry, William J.
2735:Gans-Morse, Jordan (March 12, 2022).
2550:
2548:
2173:Topychkanov, Petr (October 1, 2020).
2124:Военная доктрина Российской Федерации
2021:
2019:
2017:
2015:
2013:
1415:Schmemann, Serge (November 4, 1993).
1339:Mendelsohn, Jack (July–August 1999).
1154:Japan's 1910–1945 occupation of Korea
1142:European Council on Foreign Relations
1023:, moral and political arguments from
778:Doctrine for Joint Nuclear Operations
530:Countries against no-first-use policy
442:India and weapons of mass destruction
405:People's Liberation Army Rocket Force
401:China and weapons of mass destruction
7:
2373:Fallon, Michael (5 September 2017).
2027:"'No First Use' and Nuclear Weapons"
772:This supersedes the doctrine of the
753:Released on April 6, 2010, the 2010
2253:Putin, Vladimir (7 December 2022).
2162:. GlobalSecurity.org. June 8, 2020.
2047:Samuel, Henry (20 September 2007).
1630:"Shivshankar Menon at NDC (Speech)"
1600:. Indianembassy.org. Archived from
945:does not officially confirm or deny
3590:; Sethi, Manpreet (May 17, 2021).
2760:Oswald, Rachel (January 8, 2021).
1911:Healy, Melissa (October 3, 1987).
1677:Bagchi, Indrani (April 30, 2013).
828:Senate Foreign Relations Committee
710:. In April 2017 Defence Secretary
567:conventional forces, assumed that
315:formally refrains from the use of
25:
3698:Foreign policy doctrines of India
3335:Asan Institute for Policy Studies
3309:Asan Institute for Policy Studies
2532:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
2242:. Institute for the Study of War.
1833:Coman, Julian (26 October 2003).
1470:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
1360:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
1137:Asan Institute for Policy Studies
1117:Japanese Atomic Energy Commission
1045:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
446:Nuclear Command Authority (India)
2838:from the original on 2021-09-16.
1728:. April 16, 2014. Archived from
1293:"India's Response to CBW attack"
1252:
1140:November 2017 policy brief, the
1061:Sparking debate with their 1982
653:2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine
491:National Security Advisory Board
3183:Medicine, Conflict and Survival
2913:India-Pakistan in War and Peace
2442:"Nuclear Posture Review Report"
2295:. 20 March 2002. Archived from
1898:The East-West Strategic Balance
1549:from the original on 2014-12-17
1465:"Chinese nuclear weapons, 2024"
1354:Chang, Gordon (July 27, 2016).
1090:Strategic Arms Limitation Talks
1088:and US lead negotiator for the
1025:intergovernmental organizations
621:dissolution of the Soviet Union
390:Countries pledging no-first-use
3625:The Council on Strategic Risks
3177:Loretz, John (March 6, 2023).
2981:. Council on Foreign Relations
2937:Narang, Vipin (January 2010).
2821:Congressional Research Service
2610:Mitchell, Ellen (2017-05-03).
2342:Merrick, Rob (24 April 2017).
2277:. Article 2, second paragraph.
2029:. Council on Foreign Relations
1984:Goshko, John M. (1982-06-16).
1159:Nonresident Senior Fellows in
1029:non-governmental organizations
852:President of the United States
681:Secretary of State for Defence
607:a pledge by General Secretary
1:
3541:10.1080/10736700.2018.1477453
3382:Ali, Idrees (July 12, 2023).
3290:10.1080/25751654.2018.1456042
3195:10.1080/13623699.2023.2186769
2879:"Why America Must Lead Again"
2528:"The dangers of no-first-use"
2131:. 2010-06-25 . Archived from
1492:10.1080/00963402.2023.2295206
1325:10.1080/25751654.2018.1438737
918:2001 Indian Parliament attack
774:George W. Bush administration
340:but has also been applied to
3588:Observer Research Foundation
2318:"UK restates nuclear threat"
1239:Observer Research Foundation
1235:Centre for Air Power Studies
1069:US national security advisor
881:Pakistan's Foreign Minister
824:2017–2018 North Korea crisis
338:mutually assured destruction
3650:The Nonproliferation Review
3500:European Leadership Network
2910:Dixit, J. N. (2003-09-02).
2635:Lillis, Mike (2017-10-12).
2096:Efron, Sonni (1993-11-04).
1343:. Arms Control Association.
468:credible minimum deterrence
321:weapons of mass destruction
3734:
3520:Williams, Heather (2018).
3051:Hersh, Seymour M. (1991).
2916:. Routledge. p. 343.
2449:U.S. Department of Defense
2420:. Arms Control Association
2399:. Arms Control Association
1941:. Arms Control Association
1095:challenged the US and the
927:
874:
815:, and Secretary of Energy
803:In August 2016, President
716:pre-emptive initial strike
536:Mutual assured destruction
533:
439:
398:
364:pre-emptive nuclear strike
3473:Global Security Institute
2926:– via Google Books.
1863:Heuser, Beatrice (1997).
1519:Nuclear Threat Initiative
1446:December 4, 2008, at the
1210:Austrian Foreign Ministry
907:National Security Advisor
479:National Security Advisor
2255:
2123:
1841:. London. Archived from
1204:From the perspective of
1049:prolonged war in Ukraine
657:tactical nuclear weapons
595:In its final years, the
569:tactical nuclear weapons
511:Indian Defence Minister
499:strategic nuclear weapon
475:National Defence College
430:Non-Proliferation Treaty
3529:Nonproliferation Review
2562:The Wall Street Journal
1083:US Secretary of Defense
1017:international community
984:The destruction of the
811:, Secretary of Defense
526:nuclear tests in 1998.
495:tactical nuclear weapon
456:designated successor(s)
3718:Chinese foreign policy
3682:International Security
3271:Abe, Nobuyasu (2018).
2810:Woolf, Amy F. (2021).
2692:. United States Senate
755:Nuclear Posture Review
3417:Brookings Institution
3086:Cohen, Avner (1998).
2977:Boies, Mary McInnis.
2102:The Los Angeles Times
1918:The Los Angeles Times
1215:King's College London
1041:Cold War of the 1980s
953:in possession of them
786:Joint Chiefs of Staff
333:conventional weaponry
2875:Biden, Joseph R. Jr.
1710:. February 16, 2013.
1515:"No-First-Use (NFU)"
862:the eventual victor
759:U.S. nuclear weapons
757:reduces the role of
700:British Armed Forces
629:Russian Armed Forces
520:Atal Bihari Vajpayee
458:". According to the
165:Nuclear-armed states
3684:2024; 48 (4): 7–46.
3089:Israel and the bomb
3033:on February 9, 2008
1990:The Washington Post
1760:. November 10, 2016
1757:The Washington Post
1636:on January 27, 2013
1604:on December 5, 2009
1483:2024BuAtS..80a..49K
1461:Kristensen, Hans M.
1268:Nuclear disarmament
1227:strategic stability
1121:Japanese government
971:massive retaliation
914:policy of first use
744:massive retaliation
730:over its allies in
704:Ministry of Defence
679:In March 2002, the
613:Soviet Armed Forces
591:Soviet Union/Russia
473:In a speech at the
3708:Military doctrines
3466:(April 29, 2021).
3311:. January 21, 2022
3224:McNamara, Robert S
2590:The New York Times
1845:on 4 December 2003
1818:has generic name (
1683:The Economic Times
1421:The New York Times
1390:Tierney, Dominic.
1187:Swarthmore College
1027:, regional blocs,
1001:biological attacks
993:aerial bombardment
784:, chairman of the
738:attack during the
625:Russian Federation
619:crisis. After the
489:, convener of the
346:biological warfare
327:, except for as a
3703:International law
2819:. Washington DC:
2686:Warren, Elizabeth
2324:. 2 February 2003
2261:(videoconference)
1097:Atlantic Alliance
986:Israeli Air Force
748:flexible response
637:military doctrine
483:Shivshankar Menon
418:nuclear arms race
301:deterrence theory
293:
292:
57:Nuclear explosion
16:(Redirected from
3725:
3713:Nuclear strategy
3636:
3635:
3633:
3631:
3622:
3613:
3607:
3606:
3604:
3602:
3584:
3578:
3577:
3575:
3573:
3568:(Report). UNIDIR
3567:
3558:
3552:
3551:
3549:
3547:
3526:
3517:
3511:
3510:
3508:
3506:
3491:
3485:
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3482:
3480:
3460:
3454:
3453:
3451:
3449:
3437:
3428:
3427:
3425:
3423:
3409:Bush, Richard C.
3405:
3399:
3398:
3396:
3394:
3379:
3373:
3372:
3370:
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3347:
3346:
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3327:
3321:
3320:
3318:
3316:
3301:
3295:
3294:
3292:
3268:
3262:
3261:
3236:Lodgaard, Sverre
3220:Kennan, George F
3212:
3206:
3205:
3203:
3201:
3174:
3168:
3167:
3142:Lodgaard, Sverre
3134:
3125:
3118:
3112:
3111:
3083:
3077:
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3039:
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3023:
3017:
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3012:
2997:
2991:
2990:
2988:
2986:
2974:
2965:
2964:
2962:
2960:
2954:
2948:. Archived from
2943:
2934:
2928:
2927:
2907:
2901:
2900:
2898:
2897:
2871:
2865:
2864:
2862:
2861:
2855:War on the Rocks
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2607:
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2600:
2598:
2596:
2581:
2575:
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2552:
2543:
2542:
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2523:
2517:
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2514:
2512:
2497:
2491:
2490:
2488:
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2474:
2473:
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2459:
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2456:
2446:
2438:
2429:
2428:
2426:
2425:
2414:
2408:
2407:
2405:
2404:
2393:
2387:
2386:
2384:
2382:
2370:
2364:
2363:
2361:
2359:
2354:on 25 April 2017
2350:. Archived from
2339:
2333:
2332:
2330:
2329:
2314:
2308:
2307:
2305:
2304:
2285:
2279:
2278:
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2262:
2250:
2244:
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2235:
2229:
2228:
2226:
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2210:
2204:
2203:
2201:
2200:
2185:
2179:
2178:
2170:
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2156:
2150:
2144:
2138:
2136:
2118:
2112:
2111:
2109:
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2093:
2087:
2086:
2084:
2083:
2069:
2063:
2062:
2060:
2059:
2044:
2038:
2037:
2035:
2034:
2023:
2008:
2007:
2005:
2004:
1981:
1975:
1974:
1972:
1971:
1956:
1950:
1949:
1947:
1946:
1935:
1929:
1928:
1926:
1925:
1908:
1902:
1901:
1894:
1888:
1887:
1885:
1883:
1860:
1854:
1853:
1851:
1850:
1830:
1824:
1823:
1817:
1813:
1811:
1803:
1801:
1799:
1776:
1770:
1769:
1767:
1765:
1748:
1742:
1741:
1739:
1737:
1732:on June 19, 2019
1718:
1712:
1711:
1700:
1694:
1693:
1691:
1689:
1674:
1668:
1667:
1665:
1663:
1652:
1646:
1645:
1643:
1641:
1632:. Archived from
1626:
1620:
1614:
1613:
1611:
1609:
1594:
1585:
1584:
1582:
1580:
1565:
1559:
1558:
1556:
1554:
1548:
1541:
1533:
1527:
1526:
1521:. Archived from
1511:
1505:
1504:
1494:
1457:
1451:
1438:
1432:
1431:
1429:
1427:
1412:
1406:
1405:
1403:
1402:
1387:
1376:
1375:
1373:
1371:
1366:on July 28, 2016
1362:. Archived from
1351:
1345:
1344:
1336:
1330:
1329:
1327:
1303:
1297:
1296:
1289:
1262:
1257:
1256:
1151:
1079:George F. Kennan
1067:article, former
997:chemical attacks
943:Although Israel
899:non-state actors
844:Elizabeth Warren
798:chemical weapons
728:nuclear umbrella
659:after President
603:read out at the
576:16th NATO summit
506:Manohar Parrikar
503:Defence Minister
285:
278:
271:
222:
116:Target selection
44:
30:
21:
3733:
3732:
3728:
3727:
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3724:
3723:
3722:
3688:
3687:
3645:
3643:Further reading
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3298:
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3269:
3265:
3250:
3228:Smith, Gerard C
3216:Bundy, McGeorge
3214:
3213:
3209:
3199:
3197:
3176:
3175:
3171:
3156:
3144:, eds. (1984).
3136:
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3065:
3050:
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3010:
3008:
2999:
2998:
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2976:
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2958:
2956:
2955:on 3 March 2016
2952:
2941:
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2924:
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2895:
2893:
2883:Foreign Affairs
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2377:. UK Parliament
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2348:The Independent
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1575:. 31 March 2023
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1448:Wayback Machine
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1086:Robert McNamara
1064:Foreign Affairs
1015:Debates in the
1013:
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873:
724:
688:nuclear weapons
677:
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609:Leonid Brezhnev
593:
578:in April 1999,
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440:Main articles:
438:
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399:Main articles:
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2713:(2017-01-24).
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2149:, paragraph 27
2139:
2135:on 2011-05-04.
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2088:
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2009:
1976:
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1573:United Nations
1560:
1528:
1525:on 2010-01-25.
1506:
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1377:
1346:
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1283:
1282:
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1189:and author of
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1007:
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928:Main article:
925:
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883:Shamshad Ahmad
872:
869:
776:set forth in "
723:
720:
712:Michael Fallon
696:Ba'athist Iraq
676:
675:United Kingdom
673:
661:Vladimir Putin
648:
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617:Able Archer 83
605:United Nations
601:Andrei Gromyko
592:
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549:United Kingdom
531:
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517:Prime Minister
462:, despite the
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3664:PLoS Medicine
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3337:. May 2, 2023
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1273:Nuclear taboo
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963:
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858:. During the
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782:Richard Myers
779:
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136:Proliferation
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3630:November 16,
3628:. Retrieved
3624:
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3599:. Retrieved
3595:
3582:
3570:. Retrieved
3556:
3544:. Retrieved
3532:
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3503:. Retrieved
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3471:
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3446:. Retrieved
3420:. Retrieved
3403:
3391:. Retrieved
3387:
3377:
3365:. Retrieved
3351:
3339:. Retrieved
3325:
3313:. Retrieved
3299:
3280:
3276:
3266:
3240:No-first-use
3239:
3210:
3198:. Retrieved
3186:
3182:
3172:
3146:No-first-use
3145:
3121:
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3088:
3081:
3053:
3046:
3035:. Retrieved
3031:the original
3021:
3009:. Retrieved
3004:
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2957:. Retrieved
2950:the original
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2794:. Retrieved
2790:
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2765:
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2740:
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2719:. Retrieved
2705:
2694:. Retrieved
2680:
2669:. Retrieved
2667:. 2017-11-14
2664:
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2644:. Retrieved
2640:
2630:
2619:. Retrieved
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2593:. Retrieved
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2535:. Retrieved
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2509:. Retrieved
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2368:
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2297:the original
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2222:. Retrieved
2220:. 2022-12-07
2217:
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2197:. Retrieved
2195:. 2022-03-16
2192:
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2133:the original
2116:
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2101:
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2076:
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2052:
2042:
2031:. Retrieved
2001:. Retrieved
1989:
1979:
1968:. Retrieved
1966:. 2022-01-04
1963:
1954:
1943:. Retrieved
1933:
1922:. Retrieved
1916:
1906:
1897:
1892:
1880:. Retrieved
1865:
1858:
1847:. Retrieved
1843:the original
1838:
1828:
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1784:
1774:
1762:. Retrieved
1755:
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1734:. Retrieved
1730:the original
1716:
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1686:. Retrieved
1682:
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1650:
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1634:the original
1624:
1618:
1606:. Retrieved
1602:the original
1577:. Retrieved
1572:
1563:
1553:20 September
1551:. Retrieved
1531:
1523:the original
1518:
1509:
1477:(1): 49–72.
1474:
1468:
1455:
1436:
1424:. Retrieved
1420:
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1396:The Atlantic
1395:
1368:. Retrieved
1364:the original
1359:
1349:
1334:
1315:
1311:
1301:
1287:
1220:
1203:
1190:
1158:
1146:first strike
1106:
1062:
1060:
1053:
1014:
964:
957:
942:
933:
904:
887:
880:
877:N-deterrence
821:
817:Ernest Moniz
805:Barack Obama
802:
771:
767:
752:
725:
692:rogue states
678:
666:
649:
597:Soviet Union
594:
573:
539:
510:
472:
449:
426:Soviet Union
408:
354:
308:
305:no first use
304:
294:
242:South Africa
237:
221:(undeclared)
207:
173:
18:No-first-use
2381:18 November
1708:Space Daily
1370:January 24,
1318:: 152–168.
1133:South Korea
975:Avner Cohen
960:Middle East
924:North Korea
910:Sartaj Aziz
905:Pakistan's
895:2008 crises
830:chaired by
822:During the
736:Warsaw Pact
585:nuclear war
565:Warsaw Pact
487:Shyam Saran
477:by India's
384:North Korea
374:. In 1993,
368:Soviet Army
231:North Korea
141:Disarmament
3692:Categories
3249:0850662605
3155:0850662605
3037:2007-11-03
3011:15 October
2896:2022-03-20
2860:2022-03-20
2829:1097538161
2796:2022-03-19
2771:2022-03-19
2746:2022-03-19
2721:2022-03-19
2696:2022-03-20
2671:2022-03-19
2646:2018-01-07
2621:2018-01-07
2455:2019-07-08
2424:2022-03-20
2403:2022-03-19
2328:2007-09-14
2303:2007-09-14
2224:2022-12-07
2199:2022-03-19
2107:2022-03-19
2082:2022-03-20
2058:2022-03-19
2033:2022-03-19
2003:2022-03-19
1970:2022-03-20
1945:2013-04-30
1924:2012-08-08
1849:2007-09-14
1798:August 16,
1764:August 16,
1401:2018-01-24
1279:References
1109:deterrence
875:See also:
848:Adam Smith
832:Bob Corker
813:Ash Carter
809:John Kerry
794:biological
694:" such as
684:Geoff Hoon
534:See also:
524:Pokhran-II
452:Pokhran-II
252:Kazakhstan
177:recognized
151:Opposition
49:Background
3672:1549-1277
3658:1073-6700
3601:August 3,
3464:Zapf, Uta
2985:6 October
2959:4 January
2891:0015-7120
2791:USA Today
2766:Roll Call
2711:Lieu, Ted
2571:0099-9660
1998:0190-8286
1808:cite news
1793:0971-751X
1785:The Hindu
1688:April 30,
1640:April 30,
1501:0096-3402
1426:2 January
1175:Bundestag
1161:Brookings
1081:, former
1011:Rationale
864:Joe Biden
840:Ed Markey
690:against "
420:with the
323:(WMD) in
319:or other
146:Terrorism
131:Espionage
126:Blackmail
121:Arms race
3572:July 13,
3546:July 12,
3505:June 12,
3479:June 14,
3422:June 12,
3393:July 12,
3258:2840610M
3238:(eds.).
3164:2840610M
3108:42330721
3073:24609770
3005:38 North
2833:Archived
2741:NBC News
2641:The Hill
2616:The Hill
2506:Politico
2464:cite web
2358:24 April
2322:BBC News
2293:BBC News
2218:BBC News
2193:BBC News
1882:30 March
1736:June 19,
1662:June 19,
1608:30 April
1544:Archived
1444:Archived
1246:See also
1179:Uta Zapf
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