496:
Centromeric DNA consists of a number of repetitive DNA sequences that often take up a significant fraction of the genome because each centromere can be millions of base pairs in length. In humans, for example, the sequences of all 24 centromeres have been determined and they account for about 6% of the genome. However, it is unlikely that all of this noncoding DNA is essential since there is considerable variation in the total amount of centromeric DNA in different individuals. Centromeres are another example of functional noncoding DNA sequences that have been known for almost half a century and it is likely that they are more abundant than coding DNA.
228:
sequences and centromeres as expected. Much of the repetitive DNA seen in other eukaryotes has been deleted from the bladderwort genome since that lineage split from those of other plants. About 59% of the bladderwort genome consists of transposon-related sequences but since the genome is so much smaller than other genomes, this represents a considerable reduction in the amount of this DNA. The authors of the original 2013 article note that claims of additional functional elements in the non-coding DNA of animals do not seem to apply to plant genomes.
472:
585:
648:. Much of the remaining half of the genome that is currently without an explained origin is expected to have found its origin in transposable elements that were active so long ago (> 200 million years) that random mutations have rendered them unrecognizable. Genome size variation in at least two kinds of plants is mostly the result of retrotransposon sequences.
416:
genome. Combining that with about 1% coding sequences means that protein-coding genes occupy about 38% of the human genome. The calculations for noncoding genes are more complicated because there is considerable dispute over the total number of noncoding genes but taking only the well-defined examples means that noncoding genes occupy at least 6% of the genome.
388:
368:
Many regulatory sequences occur near promoters, usually upstream of the transcription start site of the gene. Some occur within a gene and a few are located downstream of the transcription termination site. In eukaryotes, there are some regulatory sequences that are located at a considerable distance
435:
be several hundred nucleotides in length in eukaryotes. They contain short elements that control the initiation of translation (5'-UTRs) and transcription termination (3'-UTRs) as well as regulatory elements that may control mRNA stability, processing, and targeting to different regions of the cell.
352:
bind to DNA and these transcription factors can either activate transcription (activators) or repress transcription (repressors). Regulatory elements were discovered in the 1960s and their general characteristics were worked out in the 1970s by studying specific transcription factors in bacteria and
675:
Variations in the number of STR repeats can cause genetic diseases when they lie within a gene but most of these regions appear to be non-functional junk DNA where the number of repeats can vary considerably from individual to individual. This is why these length differences are used extensively in
434:
in mRNA located between the 5' end of the gene and the translation initiation codon. These regions are called 5'-untranslated regions or 5'-UTRs. Similar regions called 3'-untranslated regions (3'-UTRs) are found at the end of the gene. The 5'-UTRs and 3'UTRs are very short in bacteria but they can
360:
Promoters and regulatory sequences represent an abundant class of noncoding DNA but they mostly consist of a collection of relatively short sequences so they do not take up a very large fraction of the genome. The exact amount of regulatory DNA in mammalian genome is unclear because it is difficult
227:
and regulatory sequences that are shorter than those in other plant species. The genes contain introns but there are fewer of them and they are smaller than the introns in other plant genomes. There are noncoding genes, including many copies of ribosomal RNA genes. The genome also contains telomere
694:
Junk DNA is DNA that has no biologically relevant function such as pseudogenes and fragments of once active transposons. Bacteria and viral genomes have very little junk DNA but some eukaryotic genomes may have a substantial amount of junk DNA. The exact amount of nonfunctional DNA in humans and
415:
Group I and group II introns take up only a small percentage of the genome when they are present. Spliceosomal introns (see Figure) are only found in eukaryotes and they can represent a substantial proportion of the genome. In humans, for example, introns in protein-coding genes cover 37% of the
311:
Noncoding genes account for only a few percent of prokaryotic genomes but they can represent a vastly higher fraction in eukaryotic genomes. In humans, the noncoding genes take up at least 6% of the genome, largely because there are hundreds of copies of ribosomal RNA genes. Protein-coding genes
203:
genome is only about one eighth the size of the human genome, yet seems to have a comparable number of genes. Genes take up about 30% of the pufferfish genome and the coding DNA is about 10%. (Non-coding DNA = 90%.) The reduced size of the pufferfish genome is due to a reduction in the length of
231:
According to a New York Times article, during the evolution of this species, "... genetic junk that didn't serve a purpose was expunged, and the necessary stuff was kept." According to Victor Albert of the
University of Buffalo, the plant is able to expunge its so-called junk DNA and "have a
569:
Pseudogenes are junk DNA by definition and they evolve at the neutral rate as expected for junk DNA. Some former pseudogenes have secondarily acquired a function and this leads some scientists to speculate that most pseudogenes are not junk because they have a yet-to-be-discovered function.
495:
Centromeres are the sites where spindle fibers attach to newly replicated chromosomes in order to segregate them into daughter cells when the cell divides. Each eukaryotic chromosome has a single functional centromere that is seen as a constricted region in a condensed metaphase chromosome.
456:
The main features of replication origins are sequences where specific initiation proteins are bound. A typical replication origin covers about 100-200 base pairs of DNA. Prokaryotes have one origin of replication per chromosome or plasmid but there are usually multiple origins in eukaryotic
717:(SNPs) and the trait being examined and most of these SNPs are located in non-functional DNA. The association establishes a linkage that helps map the DNA region responsible for the trait but it does not necessarily identify the mutations causing the disease or phenotypic difference.
540:(SARs) and they consist of stretches of DNA that bind an RNA/protein complex to stabilize the loop. There are about 100,000 loops in the human genome and each one consists of about 100 bp of DNA. The total amount of DNA devoted to SARs accounts for about 0.3% of the human genome.
167:
where "C" refers to the haploid genome size. The paradox was resolved with the discovery that most of the differences were due to the expansion and contraction of repetitive DNA and not the number of genes. Some researchers speculated that this repetitive DNA was mostly
558:). Pseudogenes are only a small fraction of noncoding DNA in prokaryotic genomes because they are eliminated by negative selection. In some eukaryotes, however, pseudogenes can accumulate because selection is not powerful enough to eliminate them (see
220:(100.7 Mb) compared to most plants. It likely evolved from an ancestral genome that was 1,500 Mb in size. The bladderwort genome has roughly the same number of genes as other plants but the total amount of coding DNA comes to about 30% of the genome.
565:
The human genome contains about 15,000 pseudogenes derived from protein-coding genes and an unknown number derived from noncoding genes. They may cover a substantial fraction of the genome (~5%) since many of them contain former intron sequences.
660:(one after the other). The repeat segments are usually between 2 bp and 10 bp but longer ones are known. Highly repetitive DNA is rare in prokaryotes but common in eukaryotes, especially those with large genomes. It is sometimes called
643:
Over 8% of the human genome is made up of (mostly decayed) endogenous retrovirus sequences, as part of the over 42% fraction that is recognizably derived of retrotransposons, while another 3% can be identified to be the remains of
667:
Most of the highly repetitive DNA is found in centromeres and telomeres (see above) and most of it is functional although some might be redundant. The other significant fraction resides in short tandem repeats (STRs; also called
315:
The total number of noncoding genes in the human genome is controversial. Some scientists think that there are only about 5,000 noncoding genes while others believe that there may be more than 100,000 (see the article on
622:, classified as a short interspersed nuclear element, are the most abundant mobile elements in the human genome. Some examples have been found of SINEs exerting transcriptional control of some protein-encoding genes.
453:. These are regions of the genome where the DNA replication machinery is assembled and the DNA is unwound to begin DNA synthesis. In most cases, replication proceeds in both directions from the replication origin.
156:
and over the total size of the human genome. This means that 98–99% of the human genome consists of non-coding DNA and this includes many functional elements such as non-coding genes and regulatory sequences.
411:
during the processing to mature RNA. Introns are found in both types of genes: protein-coding genes and noncoding genes. They are present in prokaryotes but they are much more common in eukaryotic genomes.
672:) consisting of short stretches of a simple repeat such as ATC. There are about 350,000 STRs in the human genome and they are scattered throughout the genome with an average length of about 25 repeats.
175:
This led to the observation that the number of genes does not seem to correlate with perceived notions of complexity because the number of genes seems to be relatively constant, an issue termed the
3490:
365:
were characterized in the 1970s and the biochemical properties of transcription factors predict that in cells with large genomes, the majority of binding sites will not be biologically functional.
554:
Pseudogenes are mostly former genes that have become non-functional due to mutation, but the term also refers to inactive DNA sequences that are derived from RNAs produced by functional genes (
1136:
Aparicio S, Chapman J, Stupka E, Putnam N, Chia JM, Dehal P, Christoffels A, Rash S, Hoon S, Smit A (2002). "Whole-genome shotgun assembly and analysis of the genome of Fugu rubripes".
724:.) About 12% of these polymorphisms are found in coding regions; about 40% are located in introns; and most of the rest are found in intergenic regions, including regulatory sequences.
144:
where the RNA transcript is functional (non-coding genes) and regulatory sequences, which means that almost all of the bacterial genome has a function. The amount of coding DNA in
3483:
698:
The nonfunctional DNA in bacterial genomes is mostly located in the intergenic fraction of non-coding DNA but in eukaryotic genomes it may also be found within
3476:
559:
232:
perfectly good multicellular plant with lots of different cells, organs, tissue types and flowers, and you can do it without the junk. Junk is not needed."
1231:
Ibarra-Laclette E, Lyons E, Hernández-Guzmán G, Pérez-Torres CA, Carretero-Paulet L, Chang TH, Lan T, Welch AJ, Juárez MJ, Simpson J, et al. (2013).
2605:"Doubling genome size without polyploidization: dynamics of retrotransposition-driven genomic expansions in Oryza australiensis, a wild relative of rice"
3449:
487:, wherein non-coding DNA is present at the centromeres (shown as narrow segment of each chromosome), and also occurs to a greater extent in darker (
519:
148:
is usually a much smaller fraction of the genome because eukaryotic genomes contain large amounts of repetitive DNA not found in prokaryotes. The
3345:
3318:
2961:
1555:
1424:
536:
Both prokaryotic and eukarotic genomes are organized into large loops of protein-bound DNA. In eukaryotes, the bases of the loops are called
738:
152:
contains somewhere between 1–2% coding DNA. The exact number is not known because there are disputes over the number of functional coding
361:
to distinguish between spurious transcription factor binding sites and those that are functional. The binding characteristics of typical
720:
SNPs that are tightly linked to traits are the ones most likely to identify a causal mutation. (The association is referred to as tight
2750:
Kronenberg ZN, Fiddes IT, Gordon D, Murali S, Cantsilieris S, Meyerson OS, Underwood JG, Nelson BJ, Chaisson MJ, Dougherty ML (2018).
163:
in eukaryotes can vary over a wide range, even between closely related species. This puzzling observation was originally known as the
140:
typically take up 88% of the genome. The remaining 12% does not encode proteins, but much of it still has biological function through
713:(GWAS) identify linkages between alleles and observable traits such as phenotypes and diseases. Most of the associations are between
702:. There are many examples of functional DNA elements in non-coding DNA, and it is erroneous to equate non-coding DNA with junk DNA.
537:
531:
522:
are transcripts derived from telomeres. TERRA has been shown to maintain telomerase activity and lengthen the ends of chromosomes.
1307:
Lan T, Renner T, Ibarra-Laclette E, Farr KM, Chang TH, Cervantes-Pérez SA, Zheng C, Sankoff D, Tang H, and
Purbojati RW (2017).
743:
714:
710:
1367:
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3739:
695:
other species with large genomes has not been determined and there is considerable controversy in the scientific literature.
2701:
Gymrek M, Willems T, Guilmatre A, Zeng H, Markus B, Georgiev S, Daly MJ, Price AL, Pritchard JK, Sharp AJ, Erlich Y (2016).
2654:"Differential lineage-specific amplification of transposable elements is responsible for genome size variation in Gossypium"
312:
occupy about 38% of the genome; a fraction that is much higher than the coding region because genes contain large introns.
4280:
733:
241:
3436:
1734:
Harrow J, Frankish A, Gonzalez JM, Tapanari E, Diekhans M, Kokocinski F, Aken BL, Barrell D, Zadissa A, Searle S (2012).
3928:
277:
genomes contain genes for a number of other noncoding RNAs but noncoding RNA genes are much more common in eukaryotes.
172:. The reasons for the changes in genome size are still being worked out and this problem is called the C-value Enigma.
3848:
3604:
905:"Reflections on the HUPO Human Proteome Project, the Flagship Project of the Human Proteome Organization, at 10 Years"
2136:
Cusanelli E, Chartrand P (May 2014). "Telomeric noncoding RNA: telomeric repeat-containing RNA in telomere biology".
373:
but there is no rigorous definition of enhancer that distinguishes it from other transcription factor binding sites.
399:(top). After the introns have been removed via splicing, the mature mRNA sequence is ready for translation (bottom).
3440:
457:
chromosomes. The human genome contains about 100,000 origins of replication representing about 0.3% of the genome.
85:
4149:
1630:
Compe E, Egly JM (2021). "The Long Road to
Understanding RNAPII Transcription Initiation and Related Syndromes".
763:
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3814:
471:
345:
49:
1599:
4313:
4023:
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748:
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603:
588:
579:
334:
Promoters are DNA segments near the 5' end of the gene where transcription begins. They are the sites where
189:) has been reported to contain more than 200 times the amount of DNA in humans (i.e. more than 600 billion
4251:
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721:
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349:
297:
65:
1489:
Rogozin IB, Makarova KS, Natale DA, Spiridonov AN, Tatusov RL, Wolf YI, et al. (October 2002).
4191:
4033:
3989:
3945:
3683:
3400:
Castillo-Davis CI (October 2005). "The evolution of noncoding DNA: how much junk, how much func?".
425:
370:
362:
329:
301:
285:
224:
77:
2495:
Nelson PN, Hooley P, Roden D, Davari
Ejtehadi H, Rylance P, Warren P, et al. (October 2004).
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2565:
2544:
Lander ES, Linton LM, Birren B, Nusbaum C, Zody MC, Baldwin J, et al. (February 2001).
2516:
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2410:
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Altemose N, Logsdon GA, Bzikadze AV, Sidhwani P, Langley SA, Caldas GV, et al. (2021).
2000:
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599:
515:
176:
81:
656:
Highly repetitive DNA consists of short stretches of DNA that are repeated many times in
3028:
3011:
2603:
Piegu B, Guyot R, Picault N, Roulin A, Sanyal A, Saniyal A, et al. (October 2006).
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2415:
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1324:
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965:
819:
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2029:
2005:
1978:
1954:
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1854:
1829:
1760:
1735:
1711:
1678:
1547:
1343:
1308:
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1232:
1013:
989:"What's in a genome? The C-value enigma and the evolution of eukaryotic genome content"
988:
929:
904:
880:
853:
806:
Kirchberger PC, Schmidt ML, and Ochman H (2020). "The ingenuity of bacterial genomes".
773:
669:
335:
317:
262:
252:
217:
109:
53:
3468:
3383:
3356:
2703:"Abundant contribution of short tandem repeats to gene expression variation in humans"
1515:
1490:
4302:
4259:
4224:
4067:
4057:
4028:
3661:
3654:
3096:
2512:
2071:
1659:
1616:
1309:"Long-read sequencing uncovers the adaptive topography of a carnivorous plant genome"
1057:
835:
768:
677:
661:
657:
640:. Mutation within these retro-transcribed sequences can inactivate the viral genome.
404:
354:
305:
270:
265:. Noncoding genes are an important part of non-coding DNA and they include genes for
137:
69:
2996:
2326:
2165:
1475:
1282:
1173:
1122:
1030:
4308:
4246:
4089:
4049:
4016:
3788:
3774:
3672:
2432:
1491:"Congruent evolution of different classes of non-coding DNA in prokaryotic genomes"
1073:
619:
480:
408:
266:
149:
57:
42:
618:(SINEs), account for a large proportion of the genomic sequences in many species.
2927:
1538:
Bielawski JP, Jones C (2016). "Adaptive
Molecular Evolution: Detection Methods".
518:. Recent studies have shown that telomeres function to aid in its own stability.
17:
4270:
4136:
4084:
4079:
3592:
3445:
1845:
920:
852:
Piovesan A, Antonaros F, Vitale L, Strippoli P, Pelleri MC, Caracausi M (2019).
778:
213:
190:
160:
113:
105:
3220:
3171:
2390:
2196:
2087:"Centromeric satellite DNAs: hidden sequence variation in the human population"
1458:
1441:
4178:
4173:
4126:
4119:
4114:
4099:
4094:
3935:
3870:
3619:
3561:
3413:
3269:
3154:
Visscher PV, Wray NR, Zhang Q, Sklar P, McCarthy MI, Brown MA, Yang J (2017).
2868:
2406:
2357:
870:
784:
645:
633:
595:
555:
549:
511:
488:
466:
431:
430:
The standard biochemistry and molecular biology textbooks describe non-coding
369:
from the promoter region. These distant regulatory sequences are often called
274:
194:
93:
2877:
1995:
1200:
4183:
4168:
4155:
3907:
3695:
3614:
3609:
3599:
3587:
3526:
3373:
2767:
2259:
2181:"The self-organizing genome: Principles of genome architecture and function"
2045:
1333:
1157:
637:
484:
476:
320:). The difference is largely due to debate over the number of lncRNA genes.
304:(lncRNAs). In addition, there are a number of unique RNA genes that produce
145:
3421:
3392:
3287:
3238:
3189:
3140:
3088:
3069:
3037:
2988:
2946:
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2638:
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2530:
2481:
2424:
2375:
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2214:
2157:
2122:
2063:
2014:
1963:
1945:
1914:
1863:
1769:
1720:
1651:
1608:
1524:
1467:
1352:
1274:
1165:
1114:
1089:"The modulation of DNA content: proximate causes and ultimate consequences"
1065:
1022:
1004:
973:
938:
889:
827:
3357:"The mammalian transcriptome and the function of non-coding DNA sequences"
3131:
3114:
2980:
2309:
2292:
2103:
1751:
1208:
4214:
4160:
4062:
4006:
4001:
3892:
3853:
3809:
3711:
3516:
3454:
2817:
2580:
1573:"Genome-Wide Analysis of Human Long Noncoding RNAs: A Provocative Review"
1506:
689:
505:
289:
198:
169:
133:
121:
97:
61:
1702:
1256:
4196:
4074:
3858:
3843:
3546:
3521:
2669:
2620:
1736:"GENCODE: the reference human genome annotation for The ENCODE Project"
1105:
1088:
699:
164:
117:
101:
45:
3115:"Genomewide association studies and assessment of the risk of disease"
3053:"The advantages and limitations of trait analysis with GWAS: a review"
2497:"Human endogenous retroviruses: transposable elements with potential?"
2448:"InvAluable junk: the cellular impact and function of Alu and B2 RNAs"
2149:
338:
binds to initiate RNA synthesis. Every gene has a noncoding promoter.
4287:
4265:
3962:
3885:
3880:
3645:
3536:
3531:
3463:
2570:
2545:
1979:"Analytical Biases Associated with GC-Content in Molecular Evolution"
1879:"The hunt for origins of DNA replication in multicellular eukaryotes"
1442:"The Noncoding RNA Revolution - Trashing Old Rules to Forge New Ones"
1368:"Genetic Tidying Up Made Humped Bladderworts Into Carnivorous Plants"
392:
382:
100:. Some non-coding regions appear to be mostly nonfunctional, such as
3012:"No Gene in the Genome Makes Sense Except in the Light of Evolution"
2718:
2463:
387:
1895:
280:
Typical classes of noncoding genes in eukaryotes include genes for
76:). Other functional regions of the non-coding DNA fraction include
3769:
3761:
3579:
3541:
583:
470:
386:
1783:
Alberts B, Bray D, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Watson JD (1994).
514:, which provide protection from chromosomal deterioration during
4275:
3967:
3508:
3254:"Replicability and Prediction: Lessons and Challenges from GWAS"
3156:"10 Years of GWAS Discovery: Biology, Function, and Translation"
2652:
Hawkins JS, Kim H, Nason JD, Wing RA, Wendel JF (October 2006).
854:"Human protein-coding genes and gene feature statistics in 2019"
396:
258:
153:
141:
3472:
403:
Introns are the parts of a gene that are transcribed into the
38:
952:
Thomas CA (1971). "The genetic organization of chromosomes".
223:
The remainder of the genome (70% non-coding DNA) consists of
2752:"High-resolution comparative analysis of great ape genomes"
2030:"Complete genomic and epigenetic maps of human centromeres"
391:
Illustration of an unspliced pre-mRNA precursor, with five
2852:"Gene overlapping and size constraints in the viral world"
706:
Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and non-coding DNA
348:
of a nearby gene. They are almost always sequences where
3252:
Marigorta UM, Rodríguez JA, Gibson G, Navarro A (2018).
510:
Telomeres are regions of repetitive DNA at the end of a
3328:
Gregory TR (2005). "Genome Size
Evolution in Animals".
2962:"Genome as a Multipurpose Structure Built by Evolution"
1396:(Press release). Tucson, AZ, USA: University of Arizona
591:
in the cell (left) and how they can be acquired (right)
120:. Regions that are completely nonfunctional are called
2546:"Initial sequencing and analysis of the human genome"
1802:. Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA: Pearson/Prentice Hall.
1233:"Architecture and evolution of a minute plant genome"
2391:"Useful 'junk': Alu RNAs in the human transcriptome"
1813:
Moran L, Horton HR, Scrimgeour KG, Perry MD (2012).
4207:
4135:
4048:
3916:
3798:
3787:
3760:
3732:
3682:
3671:
3644:
3633:
3578:
3507:
1187:Ohno S (1972). "So much "junk" DNA in our genome".
2342:"Genomic gems: SINE RNAs regulate mRNA production"
2291:Wen YZ, Zheng LL, Qu LH, Ayala FJ, Lun ZR (2012).
1226:
1224:
1222:
1220:
1218:
3205:"The Post-GWAS Era: From Association to Function"
2446:Walters RD, Kugel JF, Goodrich JA (August 2009).
2340:Ponicsan SL, Kugel JF, Goodrich JA (April 2010).
1600:20.500.11820/ede40d70-b99c-42b0-a378-3b9b7b256a1b
1877:Urban JM, Foulk MS, Casella C, Gerbi SA (2015).
1044:Hahn MW, Wray GA (2002). "The g-value paradox".
574:Repeat sequences, transposons and viral elements
1313:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
2244:"Are human translated pseudogenes functional?"
449:DNA synthesis begins at specific sites called
3484:
2389:Häsler J, Samuelsson T, Strub K (July 2007).
2346:Current Opinion in Genetics & Development
193:vs a bit more than 3 billion in humans). The
179:. For example, the genome of the unicellular
8:
3016:Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics
2229:"Ensemble Human reference genome GRCh38.p13"
1930:"DNA replication origins—where do we begin?"
1577:Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics
1419:. Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press.
560:Nearly neutral theory of molecular evolution
273:. These genes were discovered in the 1960s.
37:) sequences are components of an organism's
1679:"Genomic views of distant-acting enhancers"
3795:
3679:
3641:
3491:
3477:
3469:
3108:
3106:
1834:Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology
1785:Molecular Biology of the Cell, 3rd edition
847:
845:
3382:
3372:
3277:
3228:
3179:
3130:
3078:
3068:
3027:
2936:
2926:
2885:
2867:
2826:
2816:
2775:
2726:
2677:
2628:
2579:
2569:
2520:
2471:
2414:
2365:
2308:
2267:
2204:
2112:
2102:
2053:
2004:
1994:
1953:
1904:
1894:
1853:
1759:
1710:
1598:
1588:
1514:
1457:
1394:"Carnivorous Plant Throws Out 'Junk' DNA"
1342:
1332:
1264:
1104:
1012:
928:
879:
869:
3450:Estonian Institute of Zoology and Botany
3313:. San Diego: Elsevier. pp. 89–162.
1815:Principles of Biochemistry Fifth Edition
3203:Gallagher MD, Chen-Plotkin, AS (2018).
2850:Brandes, Nadav; Linial, Michal (2016).
1817:. Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA: Pearson.
795:
520:Telomeric repeat-containing RNA (TERRA)
479:of a human, showing an overview of the
1302:
1300:
1298:
1296:
1294:
1292:
2801:"Factors behind junk DNA in bacteria"
2293:"Pseudogenes are not pseudo any more"
1787:. London, UK: Garland Publishing Inc.
1644:10.1146/annurev-biochem-090220-112253
7:
3355:Shabalina SA, Spiridonov NA (2004).
2969:Perspectives in Biology and Medicine
2501:Clinical and Experimental Immunology
2395:Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences
2138:Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews. RNA
1540:Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Biology
1392:Hsu C, and Stolte D (May 13, 2013).
1087:Gregory TR, Hebert PD (April 1999).
801:
799:
739:Eukaryotic chromosome fine structure
407:sequence, but ultimately removed by
3119:The New England Journal of Medicine
3029:10.1146/annurev-genom-090413-025621
2909:Palazzo AF, Gregory TR (May 2014).
1590:10.1146/annurev-genom-112921-123710
966:10.1146/annurev.ge.05.120171.001321
909:Molecular & Cellular Proteomics
820:10.1146/annurev-micro-020518-115822
616:short interspersed nuclear elements
27:DNA that does not code for proteins
3209:American Journal of Human Genetics
3160:American Journal of Human Genetics
1548:10.1016/B978-0-12-800049-6.00171-2
612:long interspersed nuclear elements
128:Fraction of non-coding genomic DNA
48:sequences. Some non-coding DNA is
25:
3307:"Genome size evolution in plants"
3010:Haerty W, and Ponting CP (2014).
1928:Prioleau M, MacAlpine DM (2016).
1571:Ponting CP, and Haerty W (2022).
532:Scaffold/matrix attachment region
324:Promoters and regulatory elements
236:Types of non-coding DNA sequences
204:introns and less repetitive DNA.
3338:10.1016/B978-012301463-4/50003-6
2513:10.1111/j.1365-2249.2004.02592.x
1058:10.1046/j.1525-142X.2002.01069.x
3455:ENCODE: The human encyclopaedia
2248:Molecular Biology and Evolution
987:Elliott TA, Gregory TR (2015).
744:Gene-centered view of evolution
715:single-nucleotide polymorphisms
711:Genome-wide association studies
4145:Last universal common ancestor
3740:Defective interfering particle
3305:Bennett MD, Leitch IJ (2005).
1828:Leonard AC, Méchali M (2013).
1189:Brookhaven Symposia in Biology
1:
4281:Clonally transmissible cancer
3717:Satellite-like nucleic acids
2799:Gil R, and Latorre A (2012).
1632:Annual Review of Biochemistry
808:Annual Review of Microbiology
734:Conserved non-coding sequence
628:sequences are the product of
242:Conserved non-coding sequence
2928:10.1371/journal.pgen.1004351
1977:Romiguier J, Roux C (2017).
636:genomes into the genomes of
3446:Fungal Genome Size Database
3437:Plant DNA C-values Database
3330:The Evolution of the Genome
3311:The Evolution of the Genome
1846:10.1101/cshperspect.a010116
1440:Cech TR, Steitz JA (2014).
921:10.1016/j.mcpro.2021.100062
538:scaffold attachment regions
526:Scaffold attachment regions
344:are sites that control the
261:: protein coding genes and
86:scaffold attachment regions
4335:
3837:Class II or DNA transposon
3832:Class I or retrotransposon
3441:Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew
3221:10.1016/j.ajhg.2018.04.002
3172:10.1016/j.ajhg.2017.06.005
3051:Korte A, Farlwo A (2013).
2197:10.1016/j.cell.2020.09.014
1459:10.1016/j.cell.2014.03.008
687:
577:
547:
529:
503:
464:
442:
423:
380:
327:
250:
239:
90:origins of DNA replication
4150:Earliest known life forms
4024:Repeated sequences in DNA
3414:10.1016/j.tig.2005.08.001
3270:10.1016/j.tig.2018.03.005
2869:10.1186/s13062-016-0128-3
2407:10.1007/s00018-007-7084-0
2358:10.1016/j.gde.2010.01.004
1830:"DNA replication origins"
1046:Evolution and Development
954:Annual Review of Genetics
871:10.1186/s13104-019-4343-8
764:Phylogenetic footprinting
3997:Endogenous viral element
3815:Horizontal gene transfer
3113:Manolio TA (July 2010).
2960:Morange, Michel (2014).
2397:(Submitted manuscript).
1996:10.3389/fgene.2017.00016
216:plant, has a very small
3694:dsDNA satellite virus (
3374:10.1186/gb-2004-5-4-105
3309:. In Gregory RT (ed.).
2911:"The case for junk DNA"
2768:10.1126/science.aar6343
2046:10.1126/science.abl4178
1934:Genes & Development
1366:Klein J (19 May 2017).
1334:10.1073/pnas.1702072114
1158:10.1126/science.1072104
749:Gene regulatory network
604:mobile genetic elements
589:Mobile genetic elements
580:Repeated sequence (DNA)
4252:Helper dependent virus
3568:Biological dark matter
3070:10.1186/1746-4811-9-29
2242:Xu J, Zhang J (2015).
1946:10.1101/gad.285114.116
1495:Nucleic Acids Research
1415:Kampourakis K (2017).
1005:10.1098/rstb.2014.0331
993:Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B
722:linkage disequilibrium
592:
492:
451:origins of replication
439:Origins of replication
400:
294:short interfering RNAs
4012:Endogenous retrovirus
3985:Origin of replication
3701:ssDNA satellite virus
3691:ssRNA satellite virus
3132:10.1056/NEJMra0905980
2981:10.1353/pbm.2014.0008
2310:10.4161/rna.9.1.18277
2260:10.1093/molbev/msv268
2104:10.3390/genes10050352
1983:Frontiers in Genetics
1752:10.1101/gr.135350.111
1417:Making sense of genes
759:Intragenomic conflict
652:Highly repetitive DNA
630:reverse transcription
626:Endogenous retrovirus
587:
556:processed pseudogenes
474:
445:Origin of replication
390:
350:transcription factors
298:PIWI-interacting RNAs
240:Further information:
3956:Secondary chromosome
3951:Extrachromosomal DNA
3827:Transposable element
2818:10.3390/genes3040634
420:Untranslated regions
363:DNA-binding proteins
286:small nucleolar RNAs
78:regulatory sequences
4192:Model lipid bilayer
4034:Interspersed repeat
2562:2001Natur.409..860L
2179:Mistreli T (2020).
1703:10.1038/nature08451
1695:2009Natur.461..199V
1673:Visel A, Rubin EM,
1325:2017PNAS..114E4435L
1319:(22): E4435–E4441.
1257:10.1038/nature12132
1249:2013Natur.498...94I
1150:2002Sci...297.1301A
1144:(5585): 1301–1310.
426:Untranslated region
342:Regulatory elements
330:Promoter (genetics)
302:long noncoding RNAs
185:(formerly known as
112:, and fragments of
3502:organic structures
3402:Trends in Genetics
3258:Trends in Genetics
2670:10.1101/gr.5282906
2621:10.1101/gr.5290206
1883:F1000Prime Reports
1677:(September 2009).
1542:. pp. 16–25.
1507:10.1093/nar/gkf549
1106:10.1101/gr.9.4.317
999:(1678): 20140331.
858:BMC Research Notes
678:DNA fingerprinting
608:repeated sequences
606:. Retrotransposon
593:
493:
401:
282:small nuclear RNAs
259:two types of genes
4296:
4295:
4237:Non-cellular life
4044:
4043:
3783:
3782:
3756:
3755:
3710:ssRNA satellite (
3347:978-0-12-301463-4
3332:. pp. 3–87.
3320:978-0-08-047052-8
2664:(10): 1252–1261.
2615:(10): 1262–1269.
2556:(6822): 860–921.
2401:(14): 1793–1800.
2150:10.1002/wrna.1220
1940:(15): 1683–1697.
1689:(7261): 199–205.
1557:978-0-12-800426-5
1501:(19): 4264–4271.
1426:978-1-107-12813-2
903:Omenn GS (2021).
754:Intergenic region
209:Utricularia gibba
18:Non-coding region
16:(Redirected from
4326:
3973:Gene duplication
3796:
3792:self-replication
3680:
3642:
3500:Self-replicating
3493:
3486:
3479:
3470:
3425:
3396:
3386:
3376:
3351:
3324:
3292:
3291:
3281:
3249:
3243:
3242:
3232:
3200:
3194:
3193:
3183:
3151:
3145:
3144:
3134:
3110:
3101:
3100:
3082:
3072:
3048:
3042:
3041:
3031:
3007:
3001:
3000:
2966:
2957:
2951:
2950:
2940:
2930:
2906:
2900:
2899:
2889:
2871:
2847:
2841:
2840:
2830:
2820:
2796:
2790:
2789:
2779:
2747:
2741:
2740:
2730:
2698:
2692:
2691:
2681:
2649:
2643:
2642:
2632:
2600:
2594:
2593:
2583:
2573:
2571:10.1038/35057062
2541:
2535:
2534:
2524:
2492:
2486:
2485:
2475:
2443:
2437:
2436:
2418:
2386:
2380:
2379:
2369:
2337:
2331:
2330:
2312:
2288:
2282:
2281:
2271:
2239:
2233:
2232:
2225:
2219:
2218:
2208:
2176:
2170:
2169:
2133:
2127:
2126:
2116:
2106:
2085:Miga KH (2019).
2082:
2076:
2075:
2057:
2025:
2019:
2018:
2008:
1998:
1974:
1968:
1967:
1957:
1925:
1919:
1918:
1908:
1898:
1874:
1868:
1867:
1857:
1825:
1819:
1818:
1810:
1804:
1803:
1798:Lewin B (2004).
1795:
1789:
1788:
1780:
1774:
1773:
1763:
1746:(9): 1760–1774.
1731:
1725:
1724:
1714:
1670:
1664:
1663:
1627:
1621:
1620:
1602:
1592:
1568:
1562:
1561:
1535:
1529:
1528:
1518:
1486:
1480:
1479:
1461:
1437:
1431:
1430:
1412:
1406:
1405:
1403:
1401:
1389:
1383:
1382:
1380:
1378:
1363:
1357:
1356:
1346:
1336:
1304:
1287:
1286:
1268:
1228:
1213:
1212:
1184:
1178:
1177:
1133:
1127:
1126:
1108:
1084:
1078:
1077:
1041:
1035:
1034:
1016:
984:
978:
977:
949:
943:
942:
932:
900:
894:
893:
883:
873:
849:
840:
839:
803:
610:, which include
600:retrotransposons
182:Polychaos dubium
56:molecules (e.g.
52:into functional
21:
4334:
4333:
4329:
4328:
4327:
4325:
4324:
4323:
4319:Gene expression
4299:
4298:
4297:
4292:
4242:Synthetic virus
4230:Artificial cell
4203:
4131:
4040:
3929:RNA replication
3924:DNA replication
3912:
3903:Group II intron
3801:
3791:
3779:
3770:Mammalian prion
3752:
3728:
3707:dsRNA satellite
3704:ssDNA satellite
3674:
3667:
3636:
3629:
3574:
3503:
3497:
3433:
3428:
3408:(10): 533–536.
3399:
3354:
3348:
3327:
3321:
3304:
3300:
3298:Further reading
3295:
3251:
3250:
3246:
3202:
3201:
3197:
3153:
3152:
3148:
3112:
3111:
3104:
3050:
3049:
3045:
3009:
3008:
3004:
2964:
2959:
2958:
2954:
2921:(5): e1004351.
2908:
2907:
2903:
2849:
2848:
2844:
2798:
2797:
2793:
2749:
2748:
2744:
2719:10.1038/ng.3461
2707:Nature Genetics
2700:
2699:
2695:
2658:Genome Research
2651:
2650:
2646:
2609:Genome Research
2602:
2601:
2597:
2543:
2542:
2538:
2494:
2493:
2489:
2464:10.1002/iub.227
2445:
2444:
2440:
2388:
2387:
2383:
2339:
2338:
2334:
2290:
2289:
2285:
2241:
2240:
2236:
2227:
2226:
2222:
2178:
2177:
2173:
2135:
2134:
2130:
2084:
2083:
2079:
2027:
2026:
2022:
1976:
1975:
1971:
1927:
1926:
1922:
1876:
1875:
1871:
1840:(10): a010116.
1827:
1826:
1822:
1812:
1811:
1807:
1797:
1796:
1792:
1782:
1781:
1777:
1740:Genome Research
1733:
1732:
1728:
1672:
1671:
1667:
1629:
1628:
1624:
1570:
1569:
1565:
1558:
1537:
1536:
1532:
1488:
1487:
1483:
1439:
1438:
1434:
1427:
1414:
1413:
1409:
1399:
1397:
1391:
1390:
1386:
1376:
1374:
1365:
1364:
1360:
1306:
1305:
1290:
1243:(7452): 94–98.
1230:
1229:
1216:
1186:
1185:
1181:
1135:
1134:
1130:
1093:Genome Research
1086:
1085:
1081:
1043:
1042:
1038:
986:
985:
981:
951:
950:
946:
902:
901:
897:
851:
850:
843:
805:
804:
797:
793:
730:
708:
692:
686:
670:microsatellites
654:
646:DNA transposons
582:
576:
552:
546:
534:
528:
516:DNA replication
508:
502:
469:
463:
447:
441:
428:
422:
385:
379:
332:
326:
263:noncoding genes
255:
249:
247:Noncoding genes
244:
238:
177:G-value Paradox
165:C-value Paradox
130:
82:gene expression
74:regulatory RNAs
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4332:
4330:
4322:
4321:
4316:
4314:Non-coding DNA
4311:
4301:
4300:
4294:
4293:
4291:
4290:
4285:
4284:
4283:
4278:
4268:
4262:
4256:
4255:
4254:
4249:
4239:
4234:
4233:
4232:
4227:
4217:
4211:
4209:
4205:
4204:
4202:
4201:
4200:
4199:
4194:
4186:
4181:
4176:
4171:
4165:
4164:
4163:
4152:
4147:
4141:
4139:
4133:
4132:
4130:
4129:
4124:
4123:
4122:
4117:
4109:
4107:Kappa organism
4104:
4103:
4102:
4097:
4092:
4087:
4082:
4072:
4071:
4070:
4065:
4054:
4052:
4046:
4045:
4042:
4041:
4039:
4038:
4037:
4036:
4031:
4021:
4020:
4019:
4014:
4009:
4004:
3994:
3993:
3992:
3982:
3981:
3980:
3978:Non-coding DNA
3975:
3970:
3960:
3959:
3958:
3953:
3948:
3943:
3933:
3932:
3931:
3920:
3918:
3914:
3913:
3911:
3910:
3905:
3900:
3898:Group I intron
3895:
3890:
3889:
3888:
3878:
3877:
3876:
3873:
3864:
3861:
3856:
3851:
3841:
3840:
3839:
3834:
3824:
3823:
3822:
3820:Genomic island
3817:
3806:
3804:
3800:Mobile genetic
3793:
3785:
3784:
3781:
3780:
3778:
3777:
3772:
3766:
3764:
3758:
3757:
3754:
3753:
3751:
3750:
3749:
3748:
3745:
3736:
3734:
3730:
3729:
3727:
3726:
3725:
3724:
3721:
3715:
3708:
3705:
3702:
3699:
3692:
3688:
3686:
3677:
3669:
3668:
3666:
3665:
3658:
3650:
3648:
3639:
3631:
3630:
3628:
3627:
3625:dsDNA-RT virus
3622:
3620:ssRNA-RT virus
3617:
3615:(−)ssRNA virus
3612:
3610:(+)ssRNA virus
3607:
3602:
3597:
3596:
3595:
3584:
3582:
3576:
3575:
3573:
3572:
3571:
3570:
3565:
3555:Incertae sedis
3551:
3550:
3549:
3544:
3539:
3534:
3524:
3519:
3513:
3511:
3505:
3504:
3498:
3496:
3495:
3488:
3481:
3473:
3467:
3466:
3452:
3443:
3432:
3431:External links
3429:
3427:
3426:
3397:
3361:Genome Biology
3352:
3346:
3325:
3319:
3301:
3299:
3296:
3294:
3293:
3264:(7): 504–517.
3244:
3215:(5): 717–730.
3195:
3146:
3102:
3043:
3002:
2975:(1): 162–171.
2952:
2901:
2856:Biology Direct
2842:
2811:(4): 634–650.
2791:
2762:(6393): 1085.
2742:
2693:
2644:
2595:
2536:
2487:
2458:(8): 831–837.
2438:
2381:
2352:(2): 149–155.
2332:
2283:
2254:(3): 755–760.
2234:
2220:
2171:
2144:(3): 407–419.
2128:
2077:
2020:
1969:
1920:
1896:10.12703/P7-30
1869:
1820:
1805:
1790:
1775:
1726:
1665:
1622:
1563:
1556:
1530:
1481:
1432:
1425:
1407:
1384:
1372:New York Times
1358:
1288:
1214:
1179:
1128:
1099:(4): 317–324.
1079:
1036:
979:
944:
895:
841:
794:
792:
789:
788:
787:
781:
776:
774:Non-coding RNA
771:
766:
761:
756:
751:
746:
741:
736:
729:
726:
707:
704:
688:Main article:
685:
682:
653:
650:
578:Main article:
575:
572:
548:Main article:
545:
542:
530:Main article:
527:
524:
504:Main article:
501:
498:
465:Main article:
462:
459:
443:Main article:
440:
437:
424:Main article:
421:
418:
381:Main article:
378:
375:
336:RNA polymerase
328:Main article:
325:
322:
318:Non-coding RNA
306:catalytic RNAs
300:(piRNAs), and
253:Non-coding RNA
248:
245:
237:
234:
218:nuclear genome
191:pairs of bases
138:coding regions
129:
126:
110:intergenic DNA
54:non-coding RNA
31:Non-coding DNA
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4331:
4320:
4317:
4315:
4312:
4310:
4307:
4306:
4304:
4289:
4286:
4282:
4279:
4277:
4274:
4273:
4272:
4269:
4267:
4263:
4261:
4260:Nanobacterium
4257:
4253:
4250:
4248:
4245:
4244:
4243:
4240:
4238:
4235:
4231:
4228:
4226:
4225:Cell division
4223:
4222:
4221:
4218:
4216:
4213:
4212:
4210:
4206:
4198:
4195:
4193:
4190:
4189:
4187:
4185:
4182:
4180:
4177:
4175:
4172:
4170:
4166:
4162:
4159:
4158:
4157:
4153:
4151:
4148:
4146:
4143:
4142:
4140:
4138:
4134:
4128:
4125:
4121:
4118:
4116:
4113:
4112:
4110:
4108:
4105:
4101:
4098:
4096:
4093:
4091:
4088:
4086:
4083:
4081:
4078:
4077:
4076:
4073:
4069:
4068:Hydrogenosome
4066:
4064:
4061:
4060:
4059:
4058:Mitochondrion
4056:
4055:
4053:
4051:
4050:Endosymbiosis
4047:
4035:
4032:
4030:
4029:Tandem repeat
4027:
4026:
4025:
4022:
4018:
4015:
4013:
4010:
4008:
4005:
4003:
4000:
3999:
3998:
3995:
3991:
3988:
3987:
3986:
3983:
3979:
3976:
3974:
3971:
3969:
3966:
3965:
3964:
3961:
3957:
3954:
3952:
3949:
3947:
3944:
3942:
3939:
3938:
3937:
3934:
3930:
3927:
3926:
3925:
3922:
3921:
3919:
3917:Other aspects
3915:
3909:
3906:
3904:
3901:
3899:
3896:
3894:
3891:
3887:
3884:
3883:
3882:
3879:
3874:
3872:
3868:
3865:
3862:
3860:
3857:
3855:
3852:
3850:
3847:
3846:
3845:
3842:
3838:
3835:
3833:
3830:
3829:
3828:
3825:
3821:
3818:
3816:
3813:
3812:
3811:
3808:
3807:
3805:
3803:
3797:
3794:
3790:
3786:
3776:
3773:
3771:
3768:
3767:
3765:
3763:
3759:
3746:
3743:
3742:
3741:
3738:
3737:
3735:
3731:
3722:
3719:
3718:
3716:
3713:
3709:
3706:
3703:
3700:
3697:
3693:
3690:
3689:
3687:
3685:
3681:
3678:
3676:
3670:
3664:
3663:
3662:Avsunviroidae
3659:
3657:
3656:
3655:Pospiviroidae
3652:
3651:
3649:
3647:
3643:
3640:
3638:
3632:
3626:
3623:
3621:
3618:
3616:
3613:
3611:
3608:
3606:
3603:
3601:
3598:
3594:
3591:
3590:
3589:
3586:
3585:
3583:
3581:
3577:
3569:
3566:
3564:
3563:
3559:
3558:
3557:
3556:
3552:
3548:
3545:
3543:
3540:
3538:
3535:
3533:
3530:
3529:
3528:
3525:
3523:
3520:
3518:
3515:
3514:
3512:
3510:
3509:Cellular life
3506:
3501:
3494:
3489:
3487:
3482:
3480:
3475:
3474:
3471:
3465:
3462:
3461:
3456:
3453:
3451:
3447:
3444:
3442:
3438:
3435:
3434:
3430:
3423:
3419:
3415:
3411:
3407:
3403:
3398:
3394:
3390:
3385:
3380:
3375:
3370:
3366:
3362:
3358:
3353:
3349:
3343:
3339:
3335:
3331:
3326:
3322:
3316:
3312:
3308:
3303:
3302:
3297:
3289:
3285:
3280:
3275:
3271:
3267:
3263:
3259:
3255:
3248:
3245:
3240:
3236:
3231:
3226:
3222:
3218:
3214:
3210:
3206:
3199:
3196:
3191:
3187:
3182:
3177:
3173:
3169:
3165:
3161:
3157:
3150:
3147:
3142:
3138:
3133:
3128:
3125:(2): 166–76.
3124:
3120:
3116:
3109:
3107:
3103:
3098:
3094:
3090:
3086:
3081:
3076:
3071:
3066:
3062:
3058:
3057:Plant Methods
3054:
3047:
3044:
3039:
3035:
3030:
3025:
3021:
3017:
3013:
3006:
3003:
2998:
2994:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2978:
2974:
2970:
2963:
2956:
2953:
2948:
2944:
2939:
2934:
2929:
2924:
2920:
2916:
2915:PLOS Genetics
2912:
2905:
2902:
2897:
2893:
2888:
2883:
2879:
2875:
2870:
2865:
2861:
2857:
2853:
2846:
2843:
2838:
2834:
2829:
2824:
2819:
2814:
2810:
2806:
2802:
2795:
2792:
2787:
2783:
2778:
2773:
2769:
2765:
2761:
2757:
2753:
2746:
2743:
2738:
2734:
2729:
2724:
2720:
2716:
2712:
2708:
2704:
2697:
2694:
2689:
2685:
2680:
2675:
2671:
2667:
2663:
2659:
2655:
2648:
2645:
2640:
2636:
2631:
2626:
2622:
2618:
2614:
2610:
2606:
2599:
2596:
2591:
2587:
2582:
2581:2027.42/62798
2577:
2572:
2567:
2563:
2559:
2555:
2551:
2547:
2540:
2537:
2532:
2528:
2523:
2518:
2514:
2510:
2506:
2502:
2498:
2491:
2488:
2483:
2479:
2474:
2469:
2465:
2461:
2457:
2453:
2449:
2442:
2439:
2434:
2430:
2426:
2422:
2417:
2412:
2408:
2404:
2400:
2396:
2392:
2385:
2382:
2377:
2373:
2368:
2363:
2359:
2355:
2351:
2347:
2343:
2336:
2333:
2328:
2324:
2320:
2316:
2311:
2306:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2287:
2284:
2279:
2275:
2270:
2265:
2261:
2257:
2253:
2249:
2245:
2238:
2235:
2230:
2224:
2221:
2216:
2212:
2207:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2186:
2182:
2175:
2172:
2167:
2163:
2159:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2139:
2132:
2129:
2124:
2120:
2115:
2110:
2105:
2100:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2081:
2078:
2073:
2069:
2065:
2061:
2056:
2051:
2047:
2043:
2039:
2035:
2031:
2024:
2021:
2016:
2012:
2007:
2002:
1997:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1980:
1973:
1970:
1965:
1961:
1956:
1951:
1947:
1943:
1939:
1935:
1931:
1924:
1921:
1916:
1912:
1907:
1902:
1897:
1892:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1873:
1870:
1865:
1861:
1856:
1851:
1847:
1843:
1839:
1835:
1831:
1824:
1821:
1816:
1809:
1806:
1801:
1794:
1791:
1786:
1779:
1776:
1771:
1767:
1762:
1757:
1753:
1749:
1745:
1741:
1737:
1730:
1727:
1722:
1718:
1713:
1708:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1688:
1684:
1680:
1676:
1675:Pennacchio LA
1669:
1666:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1637:
1633:
1626:
1623:
1618:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1601:
1596:
1591:
1586:
1582:
1578:
1574:
1567:
1564:
1559:
1553:
1549:
1545:
1541:
1534:
1531:
1526:
1522:
1517:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1492:
1485:
1482:
1477:
1473:
1469:
1465:
1460:
1455:
1451:
1447:
1443:
1436:
1433:
1428:
1422:
1418:
1411:
1408:
1395:
1388:
1385:
1373:
1369:
1362:
1359:
1354:
1350:
1345:
1340:
1335:
1330:
1326:
1322:
1318:
1314:
1310:
1303:
1301:
1299:
1297:
1295:
1293:
1289:
1284:
1280:
1276:
1272:
1267:
1262:
1258:
1254:
1250:
1246:
1242:
1238:
1234:
1227:
1225:
1223:
1221:
1219:
1215:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1183:
1180:
1175:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1132:
1129:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1107:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1083:
1080:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1040:
1037:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1015:
1010:
1006:
1002:
998:
994:
990:
983:
980:
975:
971:
967:
963:
959:
955:
948:
945:
940:
936:
931:
926:
922:
918:
914:
910:
906:
899:
896:
891:
887:
882:
877:
872:
867:
863:
859:
855:
848:
846:
842:
837:
833:
829:
825:
821:
817:
813:
809:
802:
800:
796:
790:
786:
782:
780:
777:
775:
772:
770:
769:Transcriptome
767:
765:
762:
760:
757:
755:
752:
750:
747:
745:
742:
740:
737:
735:
732:
731:
727:
725:
723:
718:
716:
712:
705:
703:
701:
696:
691:
683:
681:
679:
673:
671:
665:
663:
662:satellite DNA
659:
651:
649:
647:
641:
639:
635:
631:
627:
623:
621:
620:Alu sequences
617:
613:
609:
605:
601:
597:
590:
586:
581:
573:
571:
567:
563:
561:
557:
551:
543:
541:
539:
533:
525:
523:
521:
517:
513:
507:
499:
497:
490:
486:
482:
478:
473:
468:
460:
458:
454:
452:
446:
438:
436:
433:
427:
419:
417:
413:
410:
406:
405:precursor RNA
398:
394:
389:
384:
376:
374:
372:
366:
364:
358:
356:
355:bacteriophage
351:
347:
346:transcription
343:
339:
337:
331:
323:
321:
319:
313:
309:
307:
303:
299:
295:
291:
287:
283:
278:
276:
272:
271:ribosomal RNA
268:
264:
260:
254:
246:
243:
235:
233:
229:
226:
221:
219:
215:
211:
210:
205:
202:
200:
196:
192:
188:
184:
183:
178:
173:
171:
166:
162:
158:
155:
151:
147:
143:
139:
135:
127:
125:
123:
119:
115:
111:
107:
103:
99:
95:
91:
87:
83:
80:that control
79:
75:
71:
70:ribosomal RNA
67:
63:
59:
55:
51:
47:
44:
40:
36:
32:
19:
4247:Viral vector
4090:Gerontoplast
4017:Transpoviron
3977:
3789:Nucleic acid
3775:Fungal prion
3673:Helper-virus
3660:
3653:
3560:
3553:
3458:
3405:
3401:
3364:
3360:
3329:
3310:
3261:
3257:
3247:
3212:
3208:
3198:
3163:
3159:
3149:
3122:
3118:
3060:
3056:
3046:
3019:
3015:
3005:
2972:
2968:
2955:
2918:
2914:
2904:
2859:
2855:
2845:
2808:
2804:
2794:
2759:
2755:
2745:
2713:(1): 22–29.
2710:
2706:
2696:
2661:
2657:
2647:
2612:
2608:
2598:
2553:
2549:
2539:
2504:
2500:
2490:
2455:
2451:
2441:
2398:
2394:
2384:
2349:
2345:
2335:
2303:(1): 27–32.
2300:
2296:
2286:
2251:
2247:
2237:
2223:
2191:(1): 28–45.
2188:
2184:
2174:
2141:
2137:
2131:
2094:
2090:
2080:
2040:(6588): 56.
2037:
2033:
2023:
1986:
1982:
1972:
1937:
1933:
1923:
1886:
1882:
1872:
1837:
1833:
1823:
1814:
1808:
1799:
1793:
1784:
1778:
1743:
1739:
1729:
1686:
1682:
1668:
1635:
1631:
1625:
1580:
1576:
1566:
1539:
1533:
1498:
1494:
1484:
1452:(1): 77–94.
1449:
1445:
1435:
1416:
1410:
1398:. Retrieved
1387:
1375:. Retrieved
1371:
1361:
1316:
1312:
1240:
1236:
1192:
1188:
1182:
1141:
1137:
1131:
1096:
1092:
1082:
1052:(2): 73–75.
1049:
1045:
1039:
996:
992:
982:
957:
953:
947:
912:
908:
898:
861:
857:
811:
807:
719:
709:
697:
693:
674:
666:
655:
642:
624:
614:(LINEs) and
594:
568:
564:
553:
535:
509:
494:
481:human genome
455:
448:
429:
414:
409:RNA splicing
402:
367:
359:
340:
333:
314:
310:
288:(sno RNAs),
279:
267:transfer RNA
256:
230:
222:
207:
206:
197:
187:Amoeba dubia
186:
180:
174:
159:
150:human genome
131:
58:transfer RNA
41:that do not
34:
30:
29:
4271:Cancer cell
4137:Abiogenesis
4085:Chromoplast
4080:Chloroplast
3863:Degradative
3605:dsRNA virus
3600:ssDNA virus
3593:Giant virus
3588:dsDNA virus
3166:(1): 5–22.
2297:RNA Biology
1638:: 193–219.
1583:: 153–172.
1195:: 366–370.
960:: 237–256.
814:: 815–834.
779:Gene desert
596:Transposons
544:Pseudogenes
461:Centromeres
432:nucleotides
275:Prokaryotic
214:bladderwort
161:Genome size
114:transposons
106:pseudogenes
94:centromeres
50:transcribed
4303:Categories
4179:Proteinoid
4174:Coacervate
4127:Nitroplast
4120:Trophosome
4115:Bacteriome
4100:Apicoplast
4095:Leucoplast
3936:Chromosome
3854:Resistance
3562:Parakaryon
3367:(4): 105.
2507:(1): 1–9.
2452:IUBMB Life
2097:(5): 353.
1800:Genes VIII
915:: 100062.
864:(1): 315.
791:References
785:Onion Test
638:germ cells
634:retrovirus
550:Pseudogene
512:chromosome
491:) regions.
475:Schematic
467:Centromere
296:(siRNAs),
292:(miRNAs),
284:(snRNAs),
257:There are
251:See also:
195:pufferfish
146:eukaryotes
4188:Research
4169:Protocell
3908:Retrozyme
3867:Virulence
3849:Fertility
3696:Virophage
3684:Satellite
3675:dependent
3527:Eukaryota
3097:206976469
3022:: 71–92.
2878:1745-6150
2862:(1): 26.
2072:247853627
1660:235595550
1617:248049706
1201:101819442
836:220699395
500:Telomeres
485:G banding
477:karyogram
371:enhancers
290:microRNAs
225:promoters
98:telomeres
4215:Organism
4208:See also
4184:Sulphobe
4161:Ribozyme
4156:RNA life
4063:Mitosome
4007:Prophage
4002:Provirus
3990:Replicon
3946:Circular
3893:Phagemid
3810:Mobilome
3802:elements
3712:Virusoid
3635:Subviral
3547:Protista
3532:Animalia
3517:Bacteria
3422:16098630
3393:15059247
3288:29716745
3239:29727686
3190:28686856
3141:20647212
3089:23876160
3038:24773316
2997:27613442
2989:25345709
2947:24809441
2896:27209091
2837:24705080
2786:29880660
2737:26642241
2688:16954538
2639:16963705
2590:11237011
2531:15373898
2482:19621349
2425:17514354
2416:11136058
2376:20176473
2327:13161678
2319:22258143
2278:26589994
2215:32976797
2166:36918311
2158:24523222
2123:31072070
2064:35357911
2015:28261263
1964:27542827
1915:25926981
1864:23838439
1770:22955987
1721:19741700
1652:34153211
1609:35395170
1525:12364605
1476:14852160
1468:24679528
1353:28507139
1283:18219754
1275:23665961
1174:10310355
1166:12142439
1123:16791399
1115:10207154
1066:12004964
1031:12095046
1023:26323762
974:16097657
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