31:
533:, concurred in the judgment, on the grounds that Congress could not constitutionally vest bankruptcy courts with such broad authority to adjudicate state law matters related to a bankruptcy case, but not governed by a federal rule of decision. However, because this is an area of law the Court has addressed infrequently, and because this was a narrower constitutional ground upon which to decide the case, Rehnquist would have declined to take as broad a position on the powers of Congress to create such federal courts as the plurality did.
514:. Moreover, the jurisdiction granted to the bankruptcy courts under the Act was too broad, vesting them jurisdiction over all civil proceedings arising under Title 11 and in related cases, and granting them the power to issue final judgments. Thus, while Congress did retain the power to assign certain matters to non-Article III tribunals, this power was limited to rights created by federal statute and the powers of the tribunal had to be narrower than what an Article III court could exercise.
594:
should examine which
Article III values Congress seeks to accommodate or undermine in its legislative scheme, and then weigh this impact against which values Congress hopes to serve by creating Article I courts. In other words, the benefits of a legislative court must be weighed against its effect on separation of powers and judicial independence. White concluded by saying he felt that the Bankruptcy Act of 1978 passed his balancing test.
450:. He stressed the importance of the political independence of the judiciary, which allows judges to decide cases free from domination from the Executive and Legislative branches. The life tenure and protection against diminution of salary helps to ensure this independence, but the bankruptcy judges lacked this protection.
628:
that could have proceeded in federal or state court in the absence of a bankruptcy petition. The bankruptcy judges could not enter final orders or judgments on such related proceedings without consent of the parties, but had to submit its findings and conclusions to the district court, which were subject to
565:
First of all, White argued, the statute should not have been declared invalid on its face, but only as applied to
Marathon's proceeding. Secondly, bankruptcy almost always involves a combination of federal and state law issues, by the very nature of its proceedings. Since federal courts only rarely
627:
published an
Emergency Interim Rule, which the federal district courts adopted on December 25, 1982. This rule allowed the district courts to refer cases to bankruptcy courts, but allowed them to withdraw the case at any time. The rule also narrowed the definition of “related proceedings” as those
509:
Brennan held that the rights to be determined in a bankruptcy proceeding were not
Congressionally created rights, and therefore the Bankruptcy Act encroached upon the powers of Article III courts. The rights Northern claimed against Marathon were contractual in nature, and as such were creatures of
505:
for initial determination. These cases provided limits on the extent to which
Congress may transfer traditionally judicial functions to non-Article III tribunals. For example, Congress has substantial discretion in prescribing the manner in which rights created by its own statutes may be enforced,
585:
practice. He noted that not only did bankruptcy judges have many of the same powers as the “referees” under the old law, but that
District Courts were given greater latitude in judicial review of bankruptcy court decisions than they had when sitting in review of administrative agency actions (see
468:
Brennan held that the dispute in question here was an adjudication of private rights, because it involved the restructuring of creditor-debtor relations under the bankruptcy laws. Thus, none of the three exceptions to
Article III jurisdiction were applicable. He further held that Congress’ power
593:
White lamented the confused state of the Court's prior jurisprudence in this area, and suggested that instead of attempting to fashion any sort of hard rules about what matters must remain within the cognizance of
Article III courts, the court should use a balancing test. Specifically, the Court
480:
Brennan then turned to
Northern's argument that the bankruptcy courts were merely adjuncts to the U.S. District Courts. He framed the Constitutional issue as the determination whether the Bankruptcy Act retained “the essential attributes of judicial power” inherent in Article III tribunals. He
464:
The third exception discussed by
Brennan are tribunals for the adjudication of cases involving public rights, matters which arise “between the government and persons subject to its authority in connection with the performance of the constitutional functions of the executive or legislative
641:. Like the Emergency Interim Rule, this statute authorized the federal district courts to refer bankruptcy cases to the bankruptcy courts, but in so called “non-core” proceedings, the bankruptcy court must submit proposed findings of fact and conclusions of law to the district court for
506:
but Congress has no such discretion in altering the adjudication of rights it has not created by statute. Furthermore, the functions of the adjunct court must be limited in such a way so as to preserve the parties’ rights to adjudication before an Article III court.
977:
602:
Chief Justice Burger added his own brief dissenting opinion, first agreeing with Rehnquist's comment about the overbreadth of the plurality opinion, then lamenting the disruption that the majority's decision would cause in forcing Congress to rewrite the law.
1894:
566:
hear state law claims, having bankruptcy courts adjudicate these issues really would not intrude on the powers of Article III courts very much. White accused the court of ignoring the complex realities of bankruptcy law in favor of its own theory of
316:, the federal district courts served as bankruptcy courts and appointed “referees” to conduct proceedings, so long as the district court chose not to withdraw a case from the referee. The new law eliminated the “referee” system and allowed the
1769:
1192:
1184:
1152:
355:
over all “civil proceedings arising under Title 11 or arising in or related to cases under Title 11”. Furthermore, the law endowed the bankruptcy courts with all of the “powers of a court of law or equity”, except for issuing
415:
the suit on the grounds that the Bankruptcy Act of 1978 unconstitutionally conferred Article III powers on judges who lacked the career protections and political independence of Article III judges. The United States
1605:
1950:
1854:
615:
its judgment until October 4, 1982 to give Congress an opportunity to repair the constitutional flaws in the bankruptcy system. The Court then extended its stay until December 24, 1982 upon the motion of the
1597:
2296:
1200:
661:
Doernberg, Donald L.; Wingate, C. Keith; Zeigler, Donald H. Federal Courts, Federalism and Separation of Powers: Cases and Materials (3rd Edition). Thomson West (American Casebook Series), 2004.
885:
1549:
1176:
877:
473:(Art. I, § 8, cl.4) of the Constitution did not carry with it a power to create specialized tribunals for the adjudication of bankruptcy cases. Brennan feared that reading such a power into
2286:
2089:
424:
567:
465:
departments”. 458 U.S. at 67-68. Public rights exist in contrast to private rights, i.e. disputes between two private parties, which are within the judicial power of Article III courts.
993:
1982:
861:
705:
72:
1533:
1224:
517:
Finally, Brennan chose to apply the holding only prospectively, and to stay the judgment of the court until October 4, 1982, to give Congress some time to rewrite the statute.
240:
1862:
845:
387:
of the bankruptcy code in the U.S. Bankruptcy Court for the District of Minnesota. Two months later, in March 1980, Northern brought suit in the bankruptcy court against
1461:
1038:
1974:
1030:
1477:
794:
1240:
453:
Brennan distinguished the bankruptcy courts from three other categories of non-Article III courts. The first two categories of courts Brennan discusses are the
1573:
1381:
266:
1581:
1208:
853:
587:
558:
joined, dissented. White felt that the plurality was oversimplifying its analysis of Article III and the principle of judicial independence, and that pure
474:
2301:
2291:
1272:
1055:
320:
to appoint bankruptcy judges for terms of fourteen years (as opposed to the life tenure given to Article III judges), with the advice and consent of the
1485:
376:
from final orders and judgments of the bankruptcy courts. If no appeals panel was designated, then the district court itself would hear the appeals.
2054:
1966:
624:
384:
341:
2311:
1050:
333:
309:
2306:
1753:
782:
1232:
1001:
897:
638:
488:
1998:
1493:
1337:
1072:
2211:
1120:
916:
273:
1886:
1288:
829:
791:
297:
262:
244:
35:
2144:
688:
666:
1248:
582:
581:
cases as the outer limits of Congressional authority to create non-Article III tribunals, and ignored both prior bankruptcy and
1589:
1280:
808:
617:
454:
293:
743:
1926:
1878:
1216:
1128:
502:
317:
301:
1958:
1687:
1312:
1296:
985:
470:
1990:
1902:
1373:
1096:
1022:
305:
1013:
1671:
1112:
1088:
383:/appellant in this matter, Northern Pipeline Construction Co. (Northern), filed a petition for reorganization under
2227:
1429:
1304:
908:
775:
369:
2038:
1397:
2259:
2030:
1679:
1469:
1437:
1144:
924:
493:
1565:
498:
2243:
2235:
2172:
1814:
1453:
1445:
1264:
961:
461:, permissible because the Constitution grants the political branches broad powers to control the military.
2006:
1724:
1421:
1160:
1104:
1080:
837:
530:
477:
would erode the jurisdiction conferred by Article III and displace the judicial branch of the government.
345:
340:, neglect of duty, or physical or mental disability (as compared with Article III judges, who may only be
313:
289:
189:
145:
2113:
2014:
1846:
1541:
1525:
1501:
1405:
1365:
768:
709:
412:
408:
337:
277:
64:
321:
725:
491:
to make factual determinations in the issuance of compensation orders for individual employees; and
457:, permissible because Congress exercises the general powers of government in these territories; and
1830:
1806:
1716:
1663:
1349:
1136:
820:
612:
169:
79:
2219:
2105:
2062:
1918:
1798:
1699:
1517:
1357:
1256:
952:
435:
417:
392:
2251:
2119:
2097:
2081:
2046:
2022:
1777:
1613:
1509:
1413:
1064:
932:
869:
684:
676:
662:
526:
483:
447:
439:
400:
361:
181:
177:
157:
978:
Black & White Taxicab & Transfer Co. v. Brown & Yellow Taxicab & Transfer Co.
2156:
1621:
1168:
940:
551:
137:
716:
2203:
2164:
1910:
1870:
1822:
1389:
760:
555:
1934:
1895:
Valley Forge Christian College v. Americans United for Separation of Church & State
1838:
1789:
1761:
1642:
969:
680:
630:
443:
165:
734:
122:
The U.S. Bankruptcy Courts could not exercise the full powers of an Article III court.
2280:
1745:
1708:
458:
348:
and are constitutionally forbidden from having their pay decreased while in office).
87:
1942:
365:
352:
269:
248:
67:
1193:
C & L Enterprises, Inc. v. Citizen Band, Potawatomi Indian Tribe of Oklahoma
547:
153:
1770:
Williamson County Regional Planning Commission v. Hamilton Bank of Johnson City
427:
reversed, agreeing with Marathon's argument that the law was unconstitutional.
559:
357:
83:
1185:
College Savings Bank v. Florida Prepaid Postsecondary Education Expense Board
501:, which permitted district court judges to refer certain pretrial motions to
104:
On appeal from the United States District Court for the District of Minnesota
1153:
Oklahoma Tax Commission v. Citizen Band, Potawatomi Indian Tribe of Oklahoma
511:
388:
380:
1736:
1654:
752:
404:
396:
292:
completely altered bankruptcy law in the United States. It created the
329:
1606:
Grable & Sons Metal Products, Inc. v. Darue Engineering & Mfg.
487:, 285 U.S. 22 (1932), in which the court permitted the United States
373:
325:
258:
Northern Pipeline Construction Company v. Marathon Pipe Line Company
54:
Northern Pipeline Construction Company v. Marathon Pipe Line Company
24:
Northern Pipeline Construction Company v. Marathon Pipe Line Company
90:) ¶ 68,698; 6 Collier Bankr. Cas. 2d (MB) 785; 9 Bankr. Ct. Dec. 67
1951:
Friends of the Earth, Inc. v. Laidlaw Environmental Services, Inc.
1855:
United States v. Students Challenging Regulatory Agency Procedures
423:
The bankruptcy judge denied Marathon's motion, but on appeal, the
2191:
2142:
1640:
1598:
JPMorgan Chase Bank v. Traffic Stream (BVI) Infrastructure Ltd.
1335:
806:
764:
30:
1201:
Inyo County v. Paiute-Shoshone Indians of the Bishop Community
886:
Moses H. Cone Memorial Hospital v. Mercury Construction Corp.
1558:
Northern Pipeline Construction Co. v. Marathon Pipe Line Co.
1550:
Mt. Healthy City School District Board of Education v. Doyle
332:
and subject to adjustment, and they could be removed by the
1177:
Kiowa Tribe of Oklahoma v. Manufacturing Technologies, Inc.
878:
Colorado River Water Conservation District v. United States
573:
White also felt that the plurality incorrectly defined the
2090:
County of Oneida v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York State
994:
Hinderlider v. La Plata River & Cherry Creek Ditch Co.
425:
United States District Court for the District of Minnesota
562:
and deriving basic rules from past cases was not enough.
639:
Bankruptcy Amendments and Federal Judgeship Act of 1984
2297:
United States Supreme Court cases of the Burger Court
1983:
Arizona Christian School Tuition Organization v. Winn
862:
England v. Louisiana State Board of Medical Examiners
623:
In response to Congress’ failure to act quickly, the
497:, 447 U.S. 667 (1980), in which the court upheld the
351:
The new Bankruptcy Act granted the bankruptcy courts
1534:
Oneida Indian Nation of New York v. County of Oneida
1225:
City of Sherrill v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York
846:
Louisiana Power & Light Co. v. City of Thibodaux
2073:
1863:
Schlesinger v. Reservists Committee to Stop the War
1788:
1735:
1698:
1653:
1049:
1012:
951:
896:
819:
234:
226:
218:
210:
202:
197:
126:
116:
108:
100:
95:
59:
49:
42:
23:
1462:Louisville & Nashville Railroad Co. v. Mottley
637:Finally, Congress dealt with the problem with the
481:began his analysis by examining two prior cases:
2287:United States Constitution Article Three case law
1478:American Well Works Co. v. Layne & Bowler Co.
1039:Exxon Mobil Corp. v. Saudi Basic Industries Corp.
1975:Massachusetts v. Environmental Protection Agency
1031:District of Columbia Court of Appeals v. Feldman
391:/appellee Marathon Pipe Line Co. (Marathon) for
702:Northern Pipeline Co. v. Marathon Pipe Line Co.
1241:Permanent Mission of India v. City of New York
310:federal judicial district of the United States
206:Brennan, joined by Marshall, Blackmun, Stevens
1574:Commodity Futures Trading Commission v. Schor
1382:American Insurance Co. v. 356 Bales of Cotton
776:
364:outside of court (or otherwise punishable by
8:
1582:Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals Inc. v. Thompson
1209:United States v. White Mountain Apache Tribe
854:United Gas Pipe Line Co. v. Ideal Cement Co.
438:wrote for the plurality, joined by Justices
372:for each judicial circuit, which would hear
360:against other courts and punishing criminal
214:Rehnquist (in judgment), joined by O'Connor
2188:
2139:
1650:
1637:
1486:Smith v. Kansas City Title & Trust Co.
1332:
1273:Republic of Argentina v. NML Capital, Ltd.
816:
803:
783:
769:
761:
20:
2055:FDA v. Alliance for Hippocratic Medicine
1967:Hein v. Freedom From Religion Foundation
625:Judicial Conference of the United States
654:
86:143; 50 U.S.L.W. 4892; Bankr. L. Rep. (
1233:Dolan v. United States Postal Service
1002:Clearfield Trust Co. v. United States
18:1982 United States Supreme Court case
7:
1999:Clapper v. Amnesty International USA
1494:Hartsville Oil Mill v. United States
471:Naturalization and Bankruptcy Clause
2212:Osborn v. Bank of the United States
1754:Toilet Goods Ass'n, Inc. v. Gardner
1121:Banco Nacional de Cuba v. Sabbatino
917:Seneca Nation of Indians v. Christy
1887:Pfizer Inc. v. Government of India
1289:Jam v. International Finance Corp.
830:Railroad Commission v. Pullman Co.
489:Employees' Compensation Commission
304:, which served as adjuncts to the
298:Title 11 of the United States Code
265:case in which the Court held that
36:Supreme Court of the United States
14:
2302:United States bankruptcy case law
2292:United States Supreme Court cases
1073:The Schooner Exchange v. M'Faddon
1249:Ali v. Federal Bureau of Prisons
712:50 (1982) is available from:
276:courts (i.e. courts without the
29:
1590:Plaut v. Spendthrift Farm, Inc.
1281:OBB Personenverkehr AG v. Sachs
334:judicial council of the circuit
312:. Under the previous law, the
230:White, joined by Burger, Powell
2312:1982 in United States case law
1927:Lujan v. Defenders of Wildlife
1879:Illinois Brick Co. v. Illinois
1217:Republic of Austria v. Altmann
1129:Santa Clara Pueblo v. Martinez
420:to protect its own interests.
280:given to Article III judges).
1:
2307:Good Behavior Clause case law
1959:DaimlerChrysler Corp. v. Cuno
1688:Acheson Hotels, LLC v. Laufer
1297:Republic of Sudan v. Harrison
986:Erie Railroad Co. v. Tompkins
679:. Federal Jurisdiction, 4th
306:United States District Courts
1903:City of Los Angeles v. Lyons
1097:Schillinger v. United States
1023:Rooker v. Fidelity Trust Co.
683:. Aspen Publishers, 2003.
588:Administrative Procedure Act
336:on grounds of incompetence,
1672:Campbell-Ewald Co. v. Gomez
1113:United States v. Wunderlich
368:). The law also created a
278:independence and protection
263:United States Supreme Court
261:, 458 U.S. 50 (1982), is a
2328:
2228:Mistretta v. United States
1454:Burton v. United States II
1430:City of St. Louis v. Myers
1305:Opati v. Republic of Sudan
909:Murdock v. City of Memphis
753:Oyez (oral argument audio)
550:, with whom Chief Justice
370:Bankruptcy Appellate Panel
272:could not be conferred on
2198:
2187:
2151:
2138:
2039:TransUnion LLC v. Ramirez
1649:
1636:
1446:Burton v. United States I
1398:United States v. Jackalow
1374:Martin v. Hunter's Lessee
1344:
1331:
815:
802:
239:
131:
121:
28:
2260:Bank Markazi v. Peterson
2031:Uzuegbunam v. Preczewski
1680:Uzuegbunam v. Preczewski
1470:Muskrat v. United States
1438:Barrett v. United States
1145:United States v. Stanley
925:Fox Film Corp. v. Muller
900:independent state ground
494:United States v. Raddatz
241:U.S. Const., Article III
2244:United States v. Hatter
2236:Peretz v. United States
2173:Cramer v. United States
1815:Massachusetts v. Mellon
1566:Thomas v. Union Carbide
1265:United States v. Bormes
1014:Rooker–Feldman doctrine
962:United States v. Hudson
607:Subsequent developments
597:
541:
499:Federal Magistrates Act
2007:Spokeo, Inc. v. Robins
1725:Nixon v. United States
1422:United States v. Klein
1313:Trump v. United States
1161:Saudi Arabia v. Nelson
1105:Feres v. United States
1081:Mississippi v. Johnson
838:Burford v. Sun Oil Co.
314:Bankruptcy Act of 1898
290:Bankruptcy Act of 1978
146:William J. Brennan Jr.
2165:United States v. Burr
2114:Rucho v. Common Cause
2015:Texas v. Pennsylvania
1991:Bond v. United States
1847:Sierra Club v. Morton
1542:Arizona v. New Mexico
1526:Glidden Co. v. Zdanok
1502:Wisconsin v. Illinois
1406:Ex parte Vallandigham
1366:United States v. More
1056:presidential immunity
411:. Marathon moved to
379:In January 1980, the
45:Decided June 28, 1982
43:Argued April 27, 1982
1089:United States v. Lee
568:separation of powers
529:, joined by Justice
431:Opinion of the Court
78:102 S. Ct. 2858; 73
1831:Altvater v. Freeman
1807:Fairchild v. Hughes
1717:Goldwater v. Carter
1664:DeFunis v. Odegaard
1350:Chisholm v. Georgia
1137:Nixon v. Fitzgerald
744:Library of Congress
537:Dissenting opinions
190:Sandra Day O'Connor
170:Lewis F. Powell Jr.
2220:Forrester v. White
2106:Vieth v. Jubelirer
2063:Murthy v. Missouri
1919:Diamond v. Charles
1799:Bailiff v. Tipping
1700:Political question
1518:Colegrove v. Green
1358:Marbury v. Madison
1257:Samantar v. Yousuf
1051:Sovereign immunity
953:Federal common law
792:U.S. Supreme Court
677:Chemerinsky, Erwin
583:administrative law
455:territorial courts
393:breach of contract
142:Associate Justices
2274:
2273:
2270:
2269:
2252:Stern v. Marshall
2183:
2182:
2134:
2133:
2130:
2129:
2120:Benisek v. Lamone
2098:Davis v. Bandemer
2047:Biden v. Nebraska
2023:Trump v. New York
1778:Trump v. New York
1632:
1631:
1614:Bowles v. Russell
1510:Crowell v. Benson
1414:Ex parte McCardle
1327:
1326:
1323:
1322:
1065:Little v. Barreme
933:Harrison v. NAACP
870:Younger v. Harris
618:Solicitor General
484:Crowell v. Benson
401:misrepresentation
302:bankruptcy courts
254:
253:
178:William Rehnquist
158:Thurgood Marshall
2319:
2189:
2157:Ex parte Bollman
2140:
1651:
1638:
1622:Patchak v. Zinke
1333:
1169:Clinton v. Jones
941:Michigan v. Long
817:
804:
785:
778:
771:
762:
757:
751:
748:
742:
739:
733:
730:
724:
721:
715:
669:
659:
598:Burger's dissent
138:Warren E. Burger
127:Court membership
33:
32:
21:
2327:
2326:
2322:
2321:
2320:
2318:
2317:
2316:
2277:
2276:
2275:
2266:
2204:Stuart v. Laird
2194:
2179:
2147:
2126:
2069:
1911:Allen v. Wright
1871:Warth v. Seldin
1823:Ex parte Levitt
1784:
1731:
1694:
1645:
1628:
1390:Sheldon v. Sill
1340:
1319:
1054:
1045:
1008:
947:
899:
892:
811:
798:
789:
755:
749:
746:
740:
737:
731:
728:
722:
719:
713:
697:
673:
672:
660:
656:
651:
609:
600:
544:
542:White's dissent
539:
523:
436:Justice Brennan
433:
324:. The judges’
300:), and created
294:Bankruptcy Code
286:
274:non-Article III
182:John P. Stevens
180:
168:
156:
91:
44:
38:
19:
12:
11:
5:
2325:
2323:
2315:
2314:
2309:
2304:
2299:
2294:
2289:
2279:
2278:
2272:
2271:
2268:
2267:
2265:
2264:
2256:
2248:
2240:
2232:
2224:
2216:
2208:
2199:
2196:
2195:
2192:
2185:
2184:
2181:
2180:
2178:
2177:
2169:
2161:
2152:
2149:
2148:
2143:
2136:
2135:
2132:
2131:
2128:
2127:
2125:
2124:
2110:
2102:
2094:
2086:
2082:Hayburn's Case
2077:
2075:
2071:
2070:
2068:
2067:
2059:
2051:
2043:
2035:
2027:
2019:
2011:
2003:
1995:
1987:
1979:
1971:
1963:
1955:
1947:
1939:
1935:Raines v. Byrd
1931:
1923:
1915:
1907:
1899:
1891:
1883:
1875:
1867:
1859:
1851:
1843:
1839:Flast v. Cohen
1835:
1827:
1819:
1811:
1803:
1794:
1792:
1786:
1785:
1783:
1782:
1774:
1766:
1762:Laird v. Tatum
1758:
1750:
1741:
1739:
1733:
1732:
1730:
1729:
1721:
1713:
1704:
1702:
1696:
1695:
1693:
1692:
1684:
1676:
1668:
1659:
1657:
1647:
1646:
1643:Justiciability
1641:
1634:
1633:
1630:
1629:
1627:
1626:
1618:
1610:
1602:
1594:
1586:
1578:
1570:
1562:
1554:
1546:
1538:
1530:
1522:
1514:
1506:
1498:
1490:
1482:
1474:
1466:
1458:
1450:
1442:
1434:
1426:
1418:
1410:
1402:
1394:
1386:
1378:
1370:
1362:
1354:
1345:
1342:
1341:
1336:
1329:
1328:
1325:
1324:
1321:
1320:
1318:
1317:
1309:
1301:
1293:
1285:
1277:
1269:
1261:
1253:
1245:
1237:
1229:
1221:
1213:
1205:
1197:
1189:
1181:
1173:
1165:
1157:
1149:
1141:
1133:
1125:
1117:
1109:
1101:
1093:
1085:
1077:
1069:
1060:
1058:
1047:
1046:
1044:
1043:
1035:
1027:
1018:
1016:
1010:
1009:
1007:
1006:
998:
990:
982:
974:
970:Swift v. Tyson
966:
957:
955:
949:
948:
946:
945:
937:
929:
921:
913:
904:
902:
894:
893:
891:
890:
882:
874:
866:
858:
850:
842:
834:
825:
823:
813:
812:
807:
800:
799:
790:
788:
787:
780:
773:
765:
759:
758:
726:Google Scholar
696:
695:External links
693:
692:
691:
671:
670:
653:
652:
650:
647:
608:
605:
599:
596:
543:
540:
538:
535:
522:
519:
459:courts martial
432:
429:
285:
282:
252:
251:
245:28 U.S.C.
237:
236:
232:
231:
228:
224:
223:
220:
216:
215:
212:
208:
207:
204:
200:
199:
195:
194:
193:
192:
166:Harry Blackmun
143:
140:
135:
129:
128:
124:
123:
119:
118:
114:
113:
110:
106:
105:
102:
98:
97:
93:
92:
77:
61:
57:
56:
51:
50:Full case name
47:
46:
40:
39:
34:
26:
25:
17:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2324:
2313:
2310:
2308:
2305:
2303:
2300:
2298:
2295:
2293:
2290:
2288:
2285:
2284:
2282:
2262:
2261:
2257:
2254:
2253:
2249:
2246:
2245:
2241:
2238:
2237:
2233:
2230:
2229:
2225:
2222:
2221:
2217:
2214:
2213:
2209:
2206:
2205:
2201:
2200:
2197:
2190:
2186:
2175:
2174:
2170:
2167:
2166:
2162:
2159:
2158:
2154:
2153:
2150:
2146:
2141:
2137:
2122:
2121:
2116:
2115:
2111:
2108:
2107:
2103:
2100:
2099:
2095:
2092:
2091:
2087:
2084:
2083:
2079:
2078:
2076:
2072:
2065:
2064:
2060:
2057:
2056:
2052:
2049:
2048:
2044:
2041:
2040:
2036:
2033:
2032:
2028:
2025:
2024:
2020:
2017:
2016:
2012:
2009:
2008:
2004:
2001:
2000:
1996:
1993:
1992:
1988:
1985:
1984:
1980:
1977:
1976:
1972:
1969:
1968:
1964:
1961:
1960:
1956:
1953:
1952:
1948:
1945:
1944:
1940:
1937:
1936:
1932:
1929:
1928:
1924:
1921:
1920:
1916:
1913:
1912:
1908:
1905:
1904:
1900:
1897:
1896:
1892:
1889:
1888:
1884:
1881:
1880:
1876:
1873:
1872:
1868:
1865:
1864:
1860:
1857:
1856:
1852:
1849:
1848:
1844:
1841:
1840:
1836:
1833:
1832:
1828:
1825:
1824:
1820:
1817:
1816:
1812:
1809:
1808:
1804:
1801:
1800:
1796:
1795:
1793:
1791:
1787:
1780:
1779:
1775:
1772:
1771:
1767:
1764:
1763:
1759:
1756:
1755:
1751:
1748:
1747:
1746:Poe v. Ullman
1743:
1742:
1740:
1738:
1734:
1727:
1726:
1722:
1719:
1718:
1714:
1711:
1710:
1709:Baker v. Carr
1706:
1705:
1703:
1701:
1697:
1690:
1689:
1685:
1682:
1681:
1677:
1674:
1673:
1669:
1666:
1665:
1661:
1660:
1658:
1656:
1652:
1648:
1644:
1639:
1635:
1624:
1623:
1619:
1616:
1615:
1611:
1608:
1607:
1603:
1600:
1599:
1595:
1592:
1591:
1587:
1584:
1583:
1579:
1576:
1575:
1571:
1568:
1567:
1563:
1560:
1559:
1555:
1552:
1551:
1547:
1544:
1543:
1539:
1536:
1535:
1531:
1528:
1527:
1523:
1520:
1519:
1515:
1512:
1511:
1507:
1504:
1503:
1499:
1496:
1495:
1491:
1488:
1487:
1483:
1480:
1479:
1475:
1472:
1471:
1467:
1464:
1463:
1459:
1456:
1455:
1451:
1448:
1447:
1443:
1440:
1439:
1435:
1432:
1431:
1427:
1424:
1423:
1419:
1416:
1415:
1411:
1408:
1407:
1403:
1400:
1399:
1395:
1392:
1391:
1387:
1384:
1383:
1379:
1376:
1375:
1371:
1368:
1367:
1363:
1360:
1359:
1355:
1352:
1351:
1347:
1346:
1343:
1339:
1334:
1330:
1315:
1314:
1310:
1307:
1306:
1302:
1299:
1298:
1294:
1291:
1290:
1286:
1283:
1282:
1278:
1275:
1274:
1270:
1267:
1266:
1262:
1259:
1258:
1254:
1251:
1250:
1246:
1243:
1242:
1238:
1235:
1234:
1230:
1227:
1226:
1222:
1219:
1218:
1214:
1211:
1210:
1206:
1203:
1202:
1198:
1195:
1194:
1190:
1187:
1186:
1182:
1179:
1178:
1174:
1171:
1170:
1166:
1163:
1162:
1158:
1155:
1154:
1150:
1147:
1146:
1142:
1139:
1138:
1134:
1131:
1130:
1126:
1123:
1122:
1118:
1115:
1114:
1110:
1107:
1106:
1102:
1099:
1098:
1094:
1091:
1090:
1086:
1083:
1082:
1078:
1075:
1074:
1070:
1067:
1066:
1062:
1061:
1059:
1057:
1052:
1048:
1041:
1040:
1036:
1033:
1032:
1028:
1025:
1024:
1020:
1019:
1017:
1015:
1011:
1004:
1003:
999:
996:
995:
991:
988:
987:
983:
980:
979:
975:
972:
971:
967:
964:
963:
959:
958:
956:
954:
950:
943:
942:
938:
935:
934:
930:
927:
926:
922:
919:
918:
914:
911:
910:
906:
905:
903:
901:
895:
888:
887:
883:
880:
879:
875:
872:
871:
867:
864:
863:
859:
856:
855:
851:
848:
847:
843:
840:
839:
835:
832:
831:
827:
826:
824:
822:
818:
814:
810:
805:
801:
796:
793:
786:
781:
779:
774:
772:
767:
766:
763:
754:
745:
736:
727:
718:
711:
707:
703:
699:
698:
694:
690:
689:0-7355-2718-0
686:
682:
678:
675:
674:
668:
667:0-314-14928-7
664:
658:
655:
648:
646:
644:
640:
635:
633:
632:
626:
621:
619:
614:
606:
604:
595:
591:
589:
584:
580:
576:
571:
569:
563:
561:
557:
553:
549:
536:
534:
532:
528:
520:
518:
515:
513:
507:
504:
500:
496:
495:
490:
486:
485:
478:
476:
472:
466:
462:
460:
456:
451:
449:
445:
441:
437:
430:
428:
426:
421:
419:
414:
410:
406:
402:
398:
394:
390:
386:
382:
377:
375:
371:
367:
363:
359:
354:
349:
347:
343:
339:
335:
331:
327:
323:
319:
315:
311:
307:
303:
299:
295:
291:
283:
281:
279:
275:
271:
268:
264:
260:
259:
250:
246:
242:
238:
233:
229:
225:
221:
217:
213:
209:
205:
201:
198:Case opinions
196:
191:
187:
183:
179:
175:
171:
167:
163:
159:
155:
151:
147:
144:
141:
139:
136:
134:Chief Justice
133:
132:
130:
125:
120:
115:
111:
107:
103:
99:
94:
89:
85:
81:
75:
74:
69:
66:
62:
58:
55:
52:
48:
41:
37:
27:
22:
16:
2258:
2250:
2242:
2234:
2226:
2218:
2210:
2202:
2171:
2163:
2155:
2118:
2112:
2104:
2096:
2088:
2080:
2061:
2053:
2045:
2037:
2029:
2021:
2013:
2005:
1997:
1989:
1981:
1973:
1965:
1957:
1949:
1943:FEC v. Akins
1941:
1933:
1925:
1917:
1909:
1901:
1893:
1885:
1877:
1869:
1861:
1853:
1845:
1837:
1829:
1821:
1813:
1805:
1797:
1776:
1768:
1760:
1752:
1744:
1723:
1715:
1707:
1686:
1678:
1670:
1662:
1620:
1612:
1604:
1596:
1588:
1580:
1572:
1564:
1557:
1556:
1548:
1540:
1532:
1524:
1516:
1508:
1500:
1492:
1484:
1476:
1468:
1460:
1452:
1444:
1436:
1428:
1420:
1412:
1404:
1396:
1388:
1380:
1372:
1364:
1356:
1348:
1338:Jurisdiction
1311:
1303:
1295:
1287:
1279:
1271:
1263:
1255:
1247:
1239:
1231:
1223:
1215:
1207:
1199:
1191:
1183:
1175:
1167:
1159:
1151:
1143:
1135:
1127:
1119:
1111:
1103:
1095:
1087:
1079:
1071:
1063:
1037:
1029:
1021:
1000:
992:
984:
976:
968:
960:
939:
931:
923:
915:
907:
898:Adequate and
884:
876:
868:
860:
852:
844:
836:
828:
701:
657:
642:
636:
629:
622:
610:
601:
592:
578:
574:
572:
564:
554:and Justice
545:
524:
516:
508:
492:
482:
479:
467:
463:
452:
434:
422:
378:
366:imprisonment
353:jurisdiction
350:
328:were set by
287:
270:jurisdiction
257:
256:
255:
235:Laws applied
185:
173:
161:
149:
96:Case history
71:
53:
15:
795:Article III
521:Concurrence
503:magistrates
358:injunctions
267:Article III
249:§ 1471
211:Concurrence
154:Byron White
2281:Categories
821:Abstention
809:Federalism
649:References
611:The Court
560:textualism
469:under the
418:intervened
385:Chapter 11
338:misconduct
284:Background
109:Subsequent
84:U.S. LEXIS
82:598; 1982
527:Rehnquist
512:state law
475:Article I
389:defendant
381:plaintiff
342:impeached
318:President
308:for each
203:Plurality
80:L. Ed. 2d
60:Citations
1790:Standing
1737:Ripeness
1655:Mootness
797:case law
700:Text of
645:review.
634:review.
546:Justice
531:O’Connor
525:Justice
444:Blackmun
440:Marshall
405:coercion
397:warranty
362:contempt
346:Congress
326:salaries
2145:Treason
717:Findlaw
681:Edition
643:de novo
631:de novo
579:Raddatz
575:Crowell
448:Stevens
413:dismiss
374:appeals
330:statute
227:Dissent
219:Dissent
117:Holding
2263:(2016)
2255:(2011)
2247:(2001)
2239:(1991)
2231:(1989)
2223:(1988)
2215:(1824)
2207:(1803)
2193:Others
2176:(1945)
2168:(1807)
2160:(1807)
2123:(2019)
2109:(2004)
2101:(1986)
2093:(1985)
2085:(1792)
2074:Others
2066:(2024)
2058:(2024)
2050:(2023)
2042:(2021)
2034:(2021)
2026:(2020)
2018:(2020)
2010:(2016)
2002:(2013)
1994:(2011)
1986:(2011)
1978:(2007)
1970:(2007)
1962:(2006)
1954:(2000)
1946:(1998)
1938:(1997)
1930:(1992)
1922:(1986)
1914:(1984)
1906:(1983)
1898:(1982)
1890:(1978)
1882:(1977)
1874:(1975)
1866:(1974)
1858:(1973)
1850:(1972)
1842:(1968)
1834:(1943)
1826:(1937)
1818:(1923)
1810:(1922)
1802:(1805)
1781:(2020)
1773:(1985)
1765:(1972)
1757:(1967)
1749:(1961)
1728:(1993)
1720:(1979)
1712:(1962)
1691:(2023)
1683:(2021)
1675:(2016)
1667:(1974)
1625:(2018)
1617:(2007)
1609:(2005)
1601:(2002)
1593:(1995)
1585:(1986)
1577:(1986)
1569:(1985)
1561:(1982)
1553:(1977)
1545:(1976)
1537:(1974)
1529:(1962)
1521:(1946)
1513:(1932)
1505:(1929)
1497:(1926)
1489:(1921)
1481:(1916)
1473:(1911)
1465:(1908)
1457:(1906)
1449:(1905)
1441:(1898)
1433:(1885)
1425:(1871)
1417:(1869)
1409:(1864)
1401:(1862)
1393:(1850)
1385:(1828)
1377:(1816)
1369:(1805)
1361:(1803)
1353:(1793)
1316:(2024)
1308:(2020)
1300:(2019)
1292:(2019)
1284:(2015)
1276:(2014)
1268:(2012)
1260:(2010)
1252:(2008)
1244:(2007)
1236:(2006)
1228:(2005)
1220:(2004)
1212:(2003)
1204:(2003)
1196:(2001)
1188:(1999)
1180:(1998)
1172:(1997)
1164:(1993)
1156:(1991)
1148:(1987)
1140:(1982)
1132:(1978)
1124:(1964)
1116:(1951)
1108:(1950)
1100:(1894)
1092:(1882)
1084:(1867)
1076:(1812)
1068:(1804)
1042:(2005)
1034:(1983)
1026:(1923)
1005:(1943)
997:(1938)
989:(1938)
981:(1928)
973:(1842)
965:(1812)
944:(1983)
936:(1959)
928:(1935)
920:(1896)
912:(1875)
889:(1983)
881:(1976)
873:(1971)
865:(1964)
857:(1962)
849:(1959)
841:(1943)
833:(1941)
756:
750:
747:
741:
738:
735:Justia
732:
729:
723:
720:
714:
687:
665:
613:stayed
586:also:
556:Powell
552:Burger
446:, and
409:duress
407:, and
322:Senate
247:
222:Burger
188:
186:·
184:
176:
174:·
172:
164:
162:·
160:
152:
150:·
148:
708:
548:White
101:Prior
710:U.S.
685:ISBN
663:ISBN
577:and
395:and
288:The
112:None
73:more
65:U.S.
63:458
1053:and
706:458
590:).
344:by
243:;
88:CCH
2283::
2117:/
704:,
620:.
570:.
442:,
403:,
399:,
68:50
784:e
777:t
770:v
296:(
76:)
70:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.