546:. Working with the Navy, he helped develop high-powered radars for warships. Then from March 1941 to May 1941, Bainbridge was sent to England to discuss radar development with the English. While he was in England, he was able to see firsthand the various radar equipment that the British had installed being used in combat. Also, while in England Bainbridge met with British scientists and learned about the British’s efforts in developing an atomic bomb. When Bainbridge returned to the United States, he reported to the United States about the British's plans to build an atomic bomb. Bainbridge then continued to work on the development of radar technology at M.I.T.. Bainbridge eventually became the lead of a division of the lab that was responsible for ship-borne interception control radar, ground systems search and warning class radar, ground-based fire control radar, microwave early warning radar, search and fighter control radar, and fire control radar. Many of these radar technologies would find their way onto
2427:
597:. Bainbridge ended up finding a site that was approximately 200 miles away from Los Alamos, located in the Alamogordo Gunnery Range. Bainbridge along with his assistant director, John Williams who was also a physicist planned and oversaw the construction of the needed facilities at the test site. The facilities consisted of observation bunkers, hundreds of miles of wiring, miles of paved roads, as well as housing. Additionally, Bainbridge played a role in the development of bomb detonator equipment and setting up equipment for measuring the yield of the explosion. On July 16, 1945, Bainbridge and his colleagues conducted the
490:
2439:
211:
2391:
573:'s Project Y at Los Alamos. He initially led E-2, the instrumentation group, which developed X-ray instrumentation for examining explosions. In March 1944, he became head of a new group, E-9, which was charged with conducting the first nuclear test. In Oppenheimer's sweeping reorganization of the Los Alamos laboratory in August 1944, the E-9 Group became X-2. He also worked on developing designs for the uranium
44:
2415:
366:. Bainbridge spent four years (1929-1933) at the Franklin Institute’s Bartol laboratories and during his time there Bainbridge learned how to take subtle and difficult mass measurements. Bainbridge married Margaret ("Peg") Pitkin, a member of the Swarthmore teaching faculty, in September 1931. They had a son, Martin Keeler, and two daughters, Joan and Margaret Tomkins.
2451:
641:
Bainbridge returned to
Harvard after the war, and initiated the construction of a 96-inch (2,400 mm) synchro-cyclotron, which has since been dismantled. Also, upon arriving back at Harvard, Bainbridge created a larger mass spectrograph. Utilizing his new device, Bainbridge was able to establish
468:
to help. There was little interest in their work because research was being carried out elsewhere. Bainbridge ended up bringing his
Holweck pump to government authorities in Washington D.C., however the government authorities claimed that scientists working for the government were already working on
389:
By establishing accurate comparisons of the masses of the light particles concerned in nuclear disintegrations, particularly that of Li, discovered by
Cockcroft and Walton, he achieved a noteworthy triumph in the experimental proof of the fundamental theory of Einstein of the equivalence of mass and
654:
for his aggressive defense of his colleagues in academia. As chairman, he was responsible for the renovation of the old
Jefferson Physical Laboratory, and he established the Morris Loeb Lectures in Physics. He also devoted a good deal of his time to improving the laboratory facilities for graduate
541:
to develop this radar technology. In
October, Bainbridge became one of the first scientists to be recruited for the Radiation Laboratory by Ernest Lawrence. Bainbridge spent two and a half years at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology’s Radiation laboratory working on radar development. The
605:
went off without such drama, in what he later described as "a foul and awesome display". He turned to
Oppenheimer and said, "Now we are all sons of bitches." After the conclusion of the Trinity test Bainbridge co-wrote the official account of the Trinity test that was given to the United States
592:
In March 1945, Bainbridge was given the position of director of the
Trinity Test. Bainbridge was tasked with finding a site that was flat in order to be able to take accurate measurements of the explosion. The site also had to be unnoticeable for security reasons, but decently close to
601:. "My personal nightmare", he later wrote, "was knowing that if the bomb didn't go off or hangfired, I, as head of the test, would have to go to the tower first and seek to find out what had gone wrong." To his relief, the explosion of the first
554:
250:
immediately after the test, "Now we are all sons of bitches." This marked the beginning of his dedication to ending the testing of nuclear weapons and to efforts to maintain civilian control of future developments in that field.
414:. Also, during Bainbridge’s time in Cambridge, he produced very advanced mass spectrographs and ended up becoming a leading expert in the field of mass spectroscopy. It was at Cambridge when Bainbridge first began to work with
2266:
2486:
2328:
696:, on July 14, 1996. He was survived by his daughters from his first marriage, Joan Bainbridge Safford and Margaret Bainbridge Robinson. He was buried in the Abel's Hill Cemetery on
615:
article, "I had a feeling of exhilaration that the 'gadget' had gone off properly followed by one of deep relief. I wouldn't have to go to the tower to see what had gone wrong."
555:
556:
2531:
381:, E = mc. Since Bainbridge was the first to successfully test Einstein’s theory of the equivalence of mass and energy, he was awarded the Louis Edward Levy Medal.
2281:
875:
Papers of
Kenneth T. Bainbridge, 1873, 1923-1996, HUGFP 152. Harvard University Archives. https://id.lib.harvard.edu/ead/hua23003/catalog Accessed May 8, 2024.
557:
1470:
1846:
1708:
650:
that had eluded scientists for some time. From 1950 to 1954, he chaired the physics department at
Harvard. During those years, he drew the ire of Senator
2516:
2526:
2511:
2173:
1682:
Oral
History interview transcript for Kenneth Bainbridge on 23 March 1977, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library and Archives - Session II
1677:
Oral History interview transcript for Kenneth Bainbridge on 16 March 1977, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library and Archives - Session I
927:
908:
889:
797:
343:
1371:
2426:
1623:
1585:
538:
441:
272:
102:
558:
421:
When his Guggenheim fellowship expired in September 1934, he returned to the United States, where he accepted an associate professorship at
2521:
2481:
1414:
684:
Bainbridge's wife Margaret died suddenly in January 1967 from a blood clot in a broken wrist. He married Helen Brinkley King, an editor at
655:
students. During Bainbridge’s remaining years at Harvard, he continued to work towards finding new mechanisms to obtain precise yields of
306:
Normally this would have been a promising start to a career at General Electric, but it made Bainbridge aware of how interested he was in
2491:
530:
2496:
1011:
2501:
1726:
630:
611:
1649:
1337:
1701:
1163:
671:
246:, which took place July 16, 1945. Bainbridge described the Trinity explosion as a "foul and awesome display". He remarked to
2506:
954:
623:
2405:
2333:
727:
589:. Additionally, Bainbridge also helped in the development of methods to determine the trajectories of the atomic bombs.
2301:
378:
235:
425:. He started by building a new mass spectrograph that he had designed with at the Cavendish Laboratory. Working with
410:. While there he continued his work developing the mass spectrograph, and became friends with the British physicist
2394:
1694:
685:
2443:
2419:
2276:
2271:
1681:
1676:
1645:
1496:"Bainbridge, Kenneth T. (Kenneth Tompkins), 1904-1996. Papers of Kenneth Tompkins Bainbridge : an inventory"
1312:
347:
700:, in a plot with his first wife Margaret and his son Martin. His papers are in the Harvard University Archives.
373:
with a resolving power of 600 and a relative precision of one part in 10,000. He used this instrument to verify
2358:
1891:
1750:
1517:
961:
693:
87:
2353:
2250:
1805:
489:
415:
2132:
1800:
1795:
1790:
1765:
1576:
Tuxedo Park: A Wall Street Tycoon and the Secret Palace of Science That Changed the Course of World War II
1474:
689:
594:
478:
461:
276:
318:, a consultant to General Electric, was on the faculty. While at Princeton, Bainbridge created his first
2373:
2198:
1941:
1886:
1545:
1367:
626:
395:
382:
296:
260:
247:
230:
research. His accurate measurements of mass differences between nuclear isotopes allowed him to confirm
68:
1379:
923:
904:
885:
2476:
2471:
2183:
2178:
2037:
1911:
1112:
1069:
760:
697:
598:
563:
534:
444:
in 1937. His interest in mass spectroscopy led naturally to an interest in the relative abundance of
407:
403:
311:
243:
193:
141:
120:
116:
1287:
2042:
1997:
1957:
1780:
469:
a process of isotope separation and that he should discontinue his work using the Holweck pump for
292:
280:
106:
2107:
1931:
1901:
1841:
1607:
1128:
1085:
1059:
1016:
709:
570:
470:
422:
355:
351:
331:
264:
223:
183:
171:
1418:
1189:
263:, on July 27, 1904.Bainbridge had one older brother and one younger brother. He was educated at
688:
in New York City, in October 1969. She died in February 1989. A scholarship was established at
210:
2322:
2311:
2218:
2122:
2077:
2072:
2022:
1871:
1866:
1856:
1717:
1629:
1619:
1591:
1581:
1557:
809:
619:
547:
526:
525:, demolished any thoughts the Americans had entertained about their technological leadership.
399:
370:
319:
284:
239:
110:
17:
2455:
2343:
2142:
2127:
2092:
2067:
1921:
1876:
1614:
Critical Assembly: A Technical History of Los Alamos During the Oppenheimer Years, 1943–1945
1603:
1550:
1120:
1077:
768:
506:
465:
288:
178:
2348:
2188:
2152:
2082:
2017:
2007:
1982:
1881:
1861:
1836:
674:
667:
651:
543:
449:
434:
426:
374:
363:
342:
Bainbridge enjoyed a series of prestigious fellowships after graduation. He was awarded a
315:
231:
2097:
1050:
Audi, Georges (April 1, 2006). "The history of nuclidic masses and of their evaluation".
1116:
1073:
764:
662:
Throughout the 1950s, Bainbridge remained an outspoken proponent of civilian control of
326:. In 1929, he was awarded a Ph.D. in his new field, writing his thesis on "A search for
2431:
2291:
2286:
2057:
2002:
1992:
1987:
1906:
1831:
1760:
1612:
1495:
1341:
518:
502:
474:
411:
359:
323:
2465:
2306:
2168:
2137:
2117:
2062:
2052:
1962:
1851:
1826:
1770:
1569:
1132:
751:
678:
663:
609:
Bainbridge was relieved that the Trinity test had been a success, relating in a 1975
1089:
2363:
2245:
2102:
2047:
2027:
2012:
1916:
1740:
1641:
1363:
746:
498:
457:
1167:
43:
2193:
2147:
2112:
2087:
2032:
1936:
1926:
1810:
656:
602:
453:
1574:
1313:"Manhattan Project Scientists: Kenneth Bainbridge (U.S. National Park Service)"
1081:
622:, Bainbridge received two letters of commendation from the project's director,
2296:
2240:
1977:
1967:
1896:
574:
327:
1561:
1124:
813:
2338:
2204:
1972:
1775:
1633:
1595:
1338:"Los Alamos National Laboratory: History: Building the Atomic Bomb: Trinity"
715:
578:
510:
430:
300:
268:
227:
1103:
Bainbridge, Kenneth T. (July 1933). "The Equivalence of Mass and Energy".
2378:
2211:
1745:
643:
586:
514:
445:
1064:
2368:
2235:
582:
505:
brought a number of new technologies to the United States, including a
307:
161:
677:
to declare that the United States would never be the first to use the
433:. They had a design for a 37-inch (940 mm) cyclotron provided by
322:, came up with methods for identifying elements, and started studying
1754:
772:
647:
1686:
437:, but decided to build a 42-inch (1,100 mm) cyclotron instead.
670:. In 1950 he was one of twelve prominent scientists who petitioned
456:
led to an interest in separating this isotope. He proposed using a
552:
522:
488:
1518:"Oppenheimer cast: Full list of actors in Christopher Nolan film"
2316:
1785:
1690:
1453:
1451:
1438:
1436:
1273:
1261:
955:"Kenneth Tompkins Bainbridge (1904–1996) Ph.D. Princeton 1929"
477:
for use by the U. S. Army. It was packed up and carted off to
267:
in New York. While at high school he developed an interest in
542:
scientists divided up the work between them; Bainbridge drew
222:(July 27, 1904 – July 14, 1996) was an American physicist at
1012:"Kenneth Bainbridge, 91, Chief Of First Test of Atomic Bomb"
460:
to produce the vacuum necessary for this work, and enlisted
986:
984:
982:
980:
978:
808:(5). Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science. May 1975.
832:
830:
749:(January 1997). "Obituary: Kenneth Tompkins Bainbridge".
550:
fighting the Japanese in the Pacific as the war went on.
1471:"Endowed and Sponsored Undergraduate Scholarship Funds"
330:
by analysis of positive rays" under the supervision of
1415:"A Brief History of the Harvard University Cyclotrons"
287:(S.M.) degrees. During the summer breaks he worked at
2403:
1164:"Oral History Transcript — Dr. Kenneth T. Bainbridge"
2487:
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
1657:. Biographical Memoirs. National Academy of Sciences
310:. Upon graduating from MIT in 1926, he enrolled at
2259:
2228:
2161:
1950:
1819:
1733:
299:. While there he obtained three patents related to
203:
189:
177:
167:
157:
130:
95:
76:
50:
34:
1611:
1573:
1549:
398:, which he used to travel to England and work at
354:'s Bartol Research Foundation was located on the
1372:"Memorial Minute -- Kenneth Tompkins Bainbridge"
1340:. Los Alamos National Laboratory. Archived from
798:"'All in Our Time' — A Foul and Awesome Display"
473:. In 1943, their cyclotron was requisitioned by
1166:. American Institute of Physics. Archived from
521:. This device, which promised to revolutionize
387:
633:for his work at the MIT Radiation Laboratory.
394:In 1933, Bainbridge was awarded a prestigious
1702:
913: Method of preparing photo-electric tubes
8:
1516:Moss, Molly; Knight, Lewis (July 22, 2023).
358:campus in Pennsylvania, and was directed by
1457:
1442:
1400:
1213:
1037:
990:
941:
836:
681:. Bainbridge retired from Harvard in 1975.
362:, an English physicist with an interest in
1709:
1695:
1687:
1417:. Harvard University Press. Archived from
1052:International Journal of Mass Spectrometry
792:
790:
788:
786:
784:
782:
42:
31:
1063:
2532:Fellows of the American Physical Society
1618:. New York: Cambridge University Press.
259:Kenneth Tompkins Bainbridge was born in
2410:
1651:Kenneth Tompkins Bainbridge 1904 – 1996
1606:; Henriksen, Paul W.; Meade, Roger A.;
1195:. American Academy of Arts and Sciences
1190:"Book of Members, 1780-2010: Chapter B"
1158:
1156:
1154:
1005:
1003:
1001:
999:
738:
509:, a high-powered device that generates
440:Bainbridge was elected a Fellow of the
1249:
1237:
1225:
692:in her memory. He died at his home in
1145:
871:
869:
867:
865:
539:Massachusetts Institute of Technology
513:using the interaction of a stream of
442:American Academy of Arts and Sciences
273:Massachusetts Institute of Technology
103:Massachusetts Institute of Technology
7:
863:
861:
859:
857:
855:
853:
851:
849:
847:
845:
238:concept. He was the Director of the
1288:"In their own words: Trinity at 75"
531:National Defense Research Committee
2174:Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
1580:. New York: Simon & Schuster.
1556:. London: Edward Arnold & Co.
25:
2517:People from Cooperstown, New York
1292:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
1286:Gaulkin, Thomas (July 15, 2020).
802:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
631:Presidential Certificate of Merit
612:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
2527:Scientists from New York (state)
2512:MIT School of Engineering alumni
2449:
2437:
2425:
2413:
2390:
2389:
1010:Freeman, Karen (July 18, 1996).
646:, which is a basic component of
369:In 1932, Bainbridge developed a
209:
569:In May 1943, Bainbridge joined
279:. In five years he earned both
501:raging in Europe, the British
27:American physicist (1904–1996)
18:Now we are all sons of bitches
1:
493:Bainbridge's Los Alamos badge
2334:Oppenheimer security hearing
932: Photoelectric apparatus
728:Bainbridge mass spectrometer
350:fellowship. At the time the
271:which inspired him to enter
2522:Princeton University alumni
2482:American nuclear physicists
220:Kenneth Tompkins Bainbridge
55:Kenneth Tompkins Bainbridge
2548:
2492:Harvard University faculty
1376:Harvard University Gazette
1082:10.1016/j.ijms.2006.01.048
348:Bartol Research Foundation
2497:Horace Mann School alumni
2387:
2277:Bismuth phosphate process
2272:Atomic Energy Act of 1946
1724:
1552:Mass Spectra and Isotopes
429:, he commenced work on a
344:National Research Council
208:
199:
150:
137:Nuclear mass measurements
41:
2502:Manhattan Project people
1125:10.1103/PhysRev.44.123.2
962:University of Notre Dame
894: Photo-electric tube
694:Lexington, Massachusetts
497:In September 1940, with
88:Lexington, Massachusetts
2354:S-1 Executive Committee
2302:Einstein–Szilard letter
1458:Pound & Ramsey 1999
1443:Pound & Ramsey 1999
1401:Pound & Ramsey 1999
1214:Pound & Ramsey 1999
1038:Pound & Ramsey 1999
991:Pound & Ramsey 1999
942:Pound & Ramsey 1999
837:Pound & Ramsey 1999
666:and the abandonment of
416:nuclear chain reactions
379:mass–energy equivalence
275:(MIT) in 1921 to study
236:mass–energy equivalence
1796:Salt Wells Pilot Plant
1608:Westfall, Catherine L.
1546:Aston, Francis William
1475:Sarah Lawrence College
690:Sarah Lawrence College
566:
494:
479:Los Alamos, New Mexico
462:George B. Kistiakowsky
392:
277:electrical engineering
2374:X-10 Graphite Reactor
2329:Nobel Prize laureates
2199:509th Composite Group
714:, he is portrayed by
642:the existence of the
627:Leslie R. Groves, Jr.
561:
492:
396:Guggenheim Fellowship
383:Francis William Aston
297:Schenectady, New York
261:Cooperstown, New York
248:J. Robert Oppenheimer
69:Cooperstown, New York
2507:Mass spectrometrists
2282:British contribution
2184:Operation Peppermint
2179:Operation Crossroads
2038:Maria Goeppert Mayer
1421:on February 26, 2011
1382:on September 6, 2008
1274:Hoddeson et al. 1993
1262:Hoddeson et al. 1993
618:For his work on the
599:Trinity nuclear test
564:Trinity nuclear test
535:Radiation Laboratory
408:Cambridge University
404:Cavendish Laboratory
312:Princeton University
244:Trinity nuclear test
194:Edward Mills Purcell
142:Trinity nuclear test
117:Princeton University
2043:George Kistiakowsky
1998:Charles Critchfield
1366:; Wilson, Richard;
1228:, pp. 209–213.
1117:1933PhRv...44..123B
1074:2006IJMSp.251...85A
765:1997PhT....50a..80P
629:He also received a
448:. The discovery of
301:photoelectric tubes
293:Lynn, Massachusetts
291:'s laboratories in
281:Bachelor of Science
2444:History of science
2420:Nuclear technology
2108:Henry DeWolf Smyth
1887:Robert Oppenheimer
1842:Priscilla Duffield
1344:on August 27, 2010
1170:on January 1, 2014
1017:The New York Times
704:In popular culture
581:and the plutonium
577:design dropped on
571:Robert Oppenheimer
567:
495:
471:isotope separation
423:Harvard University
356:Swarthmore College
352:Franklin Institute
332:Henry DeWolf Smyth
265:Horace Mann School
224:Harvard University
184:Henry DeWolf Smyth
172:Harvard University
36:Kenneth Bainbridge
2401:
2400:
2323:Los Alamos Primer
2312:Interim Committee
2267:African Americans
2219:The Great Artiste
2078:Isidor Isaac Rabi
2073:Norman Ramsey Jr.
1872:Franklin Matthias
1811:Heavy water sites
1718:Manhattan Project
1646:Ramsey, Norman F.
1625:978-0-521-44132-2
1604:Hoddeson, Lillian
1587:978-0-684-87287-2
1460:, pp. 12–13.
1445:, pp. 11–12.
1413:Wilson, Richard.
708:In the 2023 film
698:Martha's Vineyard
620:Manhattan Project
559:
548:aircraft carriers
527:Alfred Lee Loomis
400:Ernest Rutherford
371:mass spectrometer
320:mass spectrograph
285:Master of Science
240:Manhattan Project
217:
216:
190:Doctoral students
152:Scientific career
16:(Redirected from
2539:
2454:
2453:
2452:
2442:
2441:
2440:
2430:
2429:
2418:
2417:
2416:
2409:
2393:
2392:
2344:Quebec Agreement
2128:John von Neumann
2068:George B. Pegram
1877:Dorothy McKibbin
1711:
1704:
1697:
1688:
1666:
1664:
1662:
1656:
1642:Pound, Robert V.
1637:
1617:
1599:
1579:
1565:
1555:
1533:
1532:
1530:
1528:
1513:
1507:
1506:
1504:
1502:
1492:
1486:
1485:
1483:
1481:
1467:
1461:
1455:
1446:
1440:
1431:
1430:
1428:
1426:
1410:
1404:
1398:
1392:
1391:
1389:
1387:
1378:. Archived from
1360:
1354:
1353:
1351:
1349:
1334:
1328:
1327:
1325:
1323:
1309:
1303:
1302:
1300:
1298:
1283:
1277:
1271:
1265:
1259:
1253:
1247:
1241:
1235:
1229:
1223:
1217:
1211:
1205:
1204:
1202:
1200:
1194:
1186:
1180:
1179:
1177:
1175:
1160:
1149:
1143:
1137:
1136:
1100:
1094:
1093:
1067:
1047:
1041:
1040:, pp. 7, 9.
1035:
1029:
1028:
1026:
1024:
1007:
994:
988:
973:
972:
970:
968:
959:
951:
945:
939:
933:
931:
930:
926:
920:
914:
912:
911:
907:
901:
895:
893:
892:
888:
882:
876:
873:
840:
834:
825:
824:
822:
820:
794:
777:
776:
773:10.1063/1.881651
747:Pound, Robert V.
743:
560:
544:pulse modulators
533:established the
507:cavity magnetron
466:E. Bright Wilson
289:General Electric
213:
179:Doctoral advisor
140:Director of the
83:
64:
62:
46:
32:
21:
2547:
2546:
2542:
2541:
2540:
2538:
2537:
2536:
2462:
2461:
2460:
2450:
2448:
2438:
2436:
2424:
2414:
2412:
2404:
2402:
2397:
2383:
2349:RaLa Experiment
2255:
2224:
2189:Project Alberta
2157:
2153:Chien-Shiung Wu
2083:James Rainwater
2018:Richard Feynman
2008:John R. Dunning
1983:Norris Bradbury
1946:
1932:Stafford Warren
1902:William Purnell
1882:Kenneth Nichols
1862:Ernest Lawrence
1837:James B. Conant
1815:
1729:
1720:
1715:
1673:
1660:
1658:
1654:
1640:
1626:
1602:
1588:
1568:
1544:
1541:
1536:
1526:
1524:
1515:
1514:
1510:
1500:
1498:
1494:
1493:
1489:
1479:
1477:
1469:
1468:
1464:
1456:
1449:
1441:
1434:
1424:
1422:
1412:
1411:
1407:
1399:
1395:
1385:
1383:
1370:(May 7, 1998).
1362:
1361:
1357:
1347:
1345:
1336:
1335:
1331:
1321:
1319:
1311:
1310:
1306:
1296:
1294:
1285:
1284:
1280:
1272:
1268:
1260:
1256:
1248:
1244:
1236:
1232:
1224:
1220:
1212:
1208:
1198:
1196:
1192:
1188:
1187:
1183:
1173:
1171:
1162:
1161:
1152:
1144:
1140:
1102:
1101:
1097:
1065:physics/0602050
1049:
1048:
1044:
1036:
1032:
1022:
1020:
1009:
1008:
997:
989:
976:
966:
964:
957:
953:
952:
948:
940:
936:
928:
922:
921:
917:
909:
903:
902:
898:
890:
884:
883:
879:
874:
843:
835:
828:
818:
816:
796:
795:
780:
745:
744:
740:
736:
724:
706:
675:Harry S. Truman
668:nuclear testing
652:Joseph McCarthy
639:
585:design used on
553:
487:
450:nuclear fission
435:Ernest Lawrence
427:J. Curry Street
375:Albert Einstein
364:nuclear physics
340:
316:Karl T. Compton
257:
232:Albert Einstein
146:
126:
91:
85:
81:
72:
66:
60:
58:
57:
56:
37:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2545:
2543:
2535:
2534:
2529:
2524:
2519:
2514:
2509:
2504:
2499:
2494:
2489:
2484:
2479:
2474:
2464:
2463:
2459:
2458:
2446:
2434:
2422:
2399:
2398:
2388:
2385:
2384:
2382:
2381:
2376:
2371:
2366:
2361:
2356:
2351:
2346:
2341:
2336:
2331:
2326:
2319:
2314:
2309:
2304:
2299:
2294:
2292:Chicago Pile-1
2289:
2287:Calutron Girls
2284:
2279:
2274:
2269:
2263:
2261:
2260:Related topics
2257:
2256:
2254:
2253:
2248:
2243:
2238:
2232:
2230:
2226:
2225:
2223:
2222:
2215:
2208:
2201:
2196:
2191:
2186:
2181:
2176:
2171:
2165:
2163:
2159:
2158:
2156:
2155:
2150:
2145:
2140:
2135:
2130:
2125:
2123:Stanisław Ulam
2120:
2115:
2110:
2105:
2100:
2095:
2090:
2085:
2080:
2075:
2070:
2065:
2060:
2058:Edwin McMillan
2055:
2050:
2045:
2040:
2035:
2030:
2025:
2020:
2015:
2010:
2005:
2003:Harry Daghlian
2000:
1995:
1993:John Cockcroft
1990:
1988:James Chadwick
1985:
1980:
1975:
1970:
1965:
1960:
1954:
1952:
1948:
1947:
1945:
1944:
1939:
1934:
1929:
1924:
1919:
1914:
1912:Charles Thomas
1909:
1907:Frank Spedding
1904:
1899:
1894:
1889:
1884:
1879:
1874:
1869:
1867:James Marshall
1864:
1859:
1854:
1849:
1847:Thomas Farrell
1844:
1839:
1834:
1832:Arthur Compton
1829:
1823:
1821:
1820:Administrators
1817:
1816:
1814:
1813:
1808:
1803:
1798:
1793:
1788:
1783:
1778:
1773:
1768:
1763:
1758:
1748:
1743:
1737:
1735:
1731:
1730:
1725:
1722:
1721:
1716:
1714:
1713:
1706:
1699:
1691:
1685:
1684:
1679:
1672:
1671:External links
1669:
1668:
1667:
1638:
1624:
1600:
1586:
1570:Conant, Jennet
1566:
1540:
1537:
1535:
1534:
1508:
1487:
1462:
1447:
1432:
1405:
1393:
1368:Ramsey, Norman
1355:
1329:
1304:
1278:
1276:, p. 174.
1266:
1264:, p. 142.
1254:
1252:, p. 213.
1242:
1240:, p. 201.
1230:
1218:
1206:
1181:
1150:
1138:
1095:
1058:(2–3): 85–94.
1042:
1030:
995:
974:
946:
934:
915:
896:
877:
841:
826:
778:
737:
735:
732:
731:
730:
723:
720:
705:
702:
686:William Morrow
638:
635:
519:magnetic field
503:Tizard Mission
486:
483:
475:Edwin McMillan
412:John Cockcroft
360:W. F. G. Swann
339:
336:
256:
253:
226:who worked on
215:
214:
206:
205:
201:
200:
197:
196:
191:
187:
186:
181:
175:
174:
169:
165:
164:
159:
155:
154:
148:
147:
145:
144:
138:
134:
132:
131:Known for
128:
127:
125:
124:
114:
99:
97:
93:
92:
86:
84:(aged 91)
78:
74:
73:
67:
54:
52:
48:
47:
39:
38:
35:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2544:
2533:
2530:
2528:
2525:
2523:
2520:
2518:
2515:
2513:
2510:
2508:
2505:
2503:
2500:
2498:
2495:
2493:
2490:
2488:
2485:
2483:
2480:
2478:
2475:
2473:
2470:
2469:
2467:
2457:
2447:
2445:
2435:
2433:
2428:
2423:
2421:
2411:
2407:
2396:
2386:
2380:
2377:
2375:
2372:
2370:
2367:
2365:
2362:
2360:
2357:
2355:
2352:
2350:
2347:
2345:
2342:
2340:
2337:
2335:
2332:
2330:
2327:
2325:
2324:
2320:
2318:
2315:
2313:
2310:
2308:
2307:Franck Report
2305:
2303:
2300:
2298:
2295:
2293:
2290:
2288:
2285:
2283:
2280:
2278:
2275:
2273:
2270:
2268:
2265:
2264:
2262:
2258:
2252:
2249:
2247:
2244:
2242:
2239:
2237:
2234:
2233:
2231:
2227:
2221:
2220:
2216:
2214:
2213:
2209:
2207:
2206:
2202:
2200:
2197:
2195:
2192:
2190:
2187:
2185:
2182:
2180:
2177:
2175:
2172:
2170:
2169:Alsos Mission
2167:
2166:
2164:
2160:
2154:
2151:
2149:
2146:
2144:
2143:Robert Wilson
2141:
2139:
2138:Eugene Wigner
2136:
2134:
2131:
2129:
2126:
2124:
2121:
2119:
2118:Edward Teller
2116:
2114:
2111:
2109:
2106:
2104:
2101:
2099:
2096:
2094:
2093:Glenn Seaborg
2091:
2089:
2086:
2084:
2081:
2079:
2076:
2074:
2071:
2069:
2066:
2064:
2063:Mark Oliphant
2061:
2059:
2056:
2054:
2053:Willard Libby
2051:
2049:
2046:
2044:
2041:
2039:
2036:
2034:
2031:
2029:
2026:
2024:
2021:
2019:
2016:
2014:
2011:
2009:
2006:
2004:
2001:
1999:
1996:
1994:
1991:
1989:
1986:
1984:
1981:
1979:
1976:
1974:
1971:
1969:
1966:
1964:
1963:Robert Bacher
1961:
1959:
1956:
1955:
1953:
1949:
1943:
1942:Roscoe Wilson
1940:
1938:
1935:
1933:
1930:
1928:
1925:
1923:
1920:
1918:
1915:
1913:
1910:
1908:
1905:
1903:
1900:
1898:
1895:
1893:
1890:
1888:
1885:
1883:
1880:
1878:
1875:
1873:
1870:
1868:
1865:
1863:
1860:
1858:
1857:John Lansdale
1855:
1853:
1852:Leslie Groves
1850:
1848:
1845:
1843:
1840:
1838:
1835:
1833:
1830:
1828:
1827:Vannevar Bush
1825:
1824:
1822:
1818:
1812:
1809:
1807:
1804:
1802:
1799:
1797:
1794:
1792:
1789:
1787:
1784:
1782:
1779:
1777:
1774:
1772:
1769:
1767:
1764:
1762:
1759:
1756:
1752:
1749:
1747:
1744:
1742:
1739:
1738:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1723:
1719:
1712:
1707:
1705:
1700:
1698:
1693:
1692:
1689:
1683:
1680:
1678:
1675:
1674:
1670:
1653:
1652:
1647:
1643:
1639:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1621:
1616:
1615:
1609:
1605:
1601:
1597:
1593:
1589:
1583:
1578:
1577:
1571:
1567:
1563:
1559:
1554:
1553:
1547:
1543:
1542:
1538:
1523:
1519:
1512:
1509:
1497:
1491:
1488:
1476:
1472:
1466:
1463:
1459:
1454:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1439:
1437:
1433:
1425:September 15,
1420:
1416:
1409:
1406:
1403:, p. 14.
1402:
1397:
1394:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1364:Pound, Robert
1359:
1356:
1343:
1339:
1333:
1330:
1318:
1314:
1308:
1305:
1293:
1289:
1282:
1279:
1275:
1270:
1267:
1263:
1258:
1255:
1251:
1246:
1243:
1239:
1234:
1231:
1227:
1222:
1219:
1215:
1210:
1207:
1191:
1185:
1182:
1169:
1165:
1159:
1157:
1155:
1151:
1148:, p. 85.
1147:
1142:
1139:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1099:
1096:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1075:
1071:
1066:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1046:
1043:
1039:
1034:
1031:
1019:
1018:
1013:
1006:
1004:
1002:
1000:
996:
992:
987:
985:
983:
981:
979:
975:
963:
956:
950:
947:
943:
938:
935:
925:
919:
916:
906:
900:
897:
887:
881:
878:
872:
870:
868:
866:
864:
862:
860:
858:
856:
854:
852:
850:
848:
846:
842:
838:
833:
831:
827:
815:
811:
807:
803:
799:
793:
791:
789:
787:
785:
783:
779:
774:
770:
766:
762:
758:
754:
753:
752:Physics Today
748:
742:
739:
733:
729:
726:
725:
721:
719:
717:
713:
712:
703:
701:
699:
695:
691:
687:
682:
680:
679:hydrogen bomb
676:
673:
669:
665:
664:nuclear power
660:
658:
657:atomic masses
653:
649:
645:
636:
634:
632:
628:
625:
624:Major General
621:
616:
614:
613:
607:
604:
600:
596:
590:
588:
584:
580:
576:
572:
565:
562:Video of the
551:
549:
545:
540:
536:
532:
528:
524:
520:
516:
512:
508:
504:
500:
491:
484:
482:
480:
476:
472:
467:
463:
459:
455:
451:
447:
443:
438:
436:
432:
428:
424:
419:
417:
413:
409:
405:
401:
397:
391:
386:
384:
380:
376:
372:
367:
365:
361:
357:
353:
349:
346:, and then a
345:
337:
335:
333:
329:
325:
321:
317:
313:
309:
304:
302:
298:
294:
290:
286:
282:
278:
274:
270:
266:
262:
254:
252:
249:
245:
241:
237:
233:
229:
225:
221:
212:
207:
202:
198:
195:
192:
188:
185:
182:
180:
176:
173:
170:
166:
163:
160:
156:
153:
149:
143:
139:
136:
135:
133:
129:
122:
118:
115:
112:
108:
104:
101:
100:
98:
94:
89:
80:July 14, 1996
79:
75:
70:
65:July 27, 1904
53:
49:
45:
40:
33:
30:
19:
2379:Y-12 Project
2364:Smyth Report
2359:S-50 Project
2321:
2317:K-25 Project
2246:Pumpkin bomb
2217:
2210:
2203:
2133:John Wheeler
2103:Louis Slotin
2098:Emilio Segrè
2048:George Koval
2028:James Franck
2013:Enrico Fermi
1958:Luis Alvarez
1917:Paul Tibbets
1892:Deak Parsons
1659:. Retrieved
1650:
1613:
1575:
1551:
1525:. Retrieved
1521:
1511:
1499:. Retrieved
1490:
1478:. Retrieved
1465:
1423:. Retrieved
1419:the original
1408:
1396:
1384:. Retrieved
1380:the original
1375:
1358:
1346:. Retrieved
1342:the original
1332:
1320:. Retrieved
1316:
1307:
1295:. Retrieved
1291:
1281:
1269:
1257:
1245:
1233:
1221:
1216:, p. 7.
1209:
1197:. Retrieved
1184:
1172:. Retrieved
1168:the original
1141:
1108:
1104:
1098:
1055:
1051:
1045:
1033:
1021:. Retrieved
1015:
993:, p. 6.
965:. Retrieved
949:
944:, p. 5.
937:
918:
899:
880:
839:, p. 4.
819:February 10,
817:. Retrieved
805:
801:
759:(1): 80–82.
756:
750:
741:
710:
707:
683:
661:
640:
617:
610:
608:
606:government.
591:
568:
499:World War II
496:
485:World War II
458:Holweck pump
439:
420:
393:
388:
385:wrote that:
368:
341:
338:Early career
305:
258:
219:
218:
168:Institutions
151:
82:(1996-07-14)
29:
2477:1996 deaths
2472:1904 births
2194:Silverplate
2148:Leona Woods
2113:Leo Szilard
2088:Bruno Rossi
2033:Klaus Fuchs
1937:Ed Westcott
1927:Harold Urey
1661:February 9,
1522:Radio Times
1501:February 9,
1480:February 8,
1317:www.nps.gov
1250:Conant 2002
1238:Conant 2002
1226:Conant 2002
1174:February 9,
1023:February 9,
967:February 9,
711:Oppenheimer
603:atomic bomb
454:uranium-235
283:(S.B.) and
2466:Categories
2297:Demon core
2241:Little Boy
2162:Operations
1978:Niels Bohr
1968:Hans Bethe
1951:Scientists
1897:Boris Pash
1776:Los Alamos
1539:References
1146:Aston 1933
1111:(2): 123.
924:US 2206713
905:US 1901578
886:US 1901577
595:Los Alamos
575:Little Boy
511:microwaves
328:element 87
255:Early life
61:1904-07-27
2456:Biography
2339:Plutonium
2205:Enola Gay
2023:Val Fitch
1973:Aage Bohr
1922:Bud Uanna
1791:Oak Ridge
1562:859840424
1133:120612103
1105:Phys. Rev
814:0096-3402
716:Josh Peck
672:President
579:Hiroshima
515:electrons
431:cyclotron
269:ham radio
228:cyclotron
204:Signature
96:Education
2395:Category
2251:Thin Man
2212:Bockscar
1806:Wendover
1786:New York
1781:Montreal
1771:Inyokern
1746:Berkeley
1727:Timeline
1648:(1999).
1634:26764320
1610:(1993).
1596:48966735
1572:(2002).
1548:(1933).
1527:July 24,
1386:July 16,
1090:13236732
722:See also
644:neutrino
587:Nagasaki
446:isotopes
390:energy.
314:, where
2432:Physics
2406:Portals
2369:Uranium
2236:Fat Man
2229:Weapons
1801:Trinity
1766:Hanford
1751:Chicago
1348:May 11,
1113:Bibcode
1070:Bibcode
761:Bibcode
637:Postwar
583:Fat Man
537:at the
529:of the
517:with a
308:physics
162:Physics
1761:Dayton
1755:Site A
1632:
1622:
1594:
1584:
1560:
1322:May 8,
1297:May 8,
1199:May 5,
1131:
1088:
929:
910:
891:
812:
648:matter
324:nuclei
158:Fields
90:, U.S.
71:, U.S.
1734:Sites
1655:(PDF)
1193:(PDF)
1129:S2CID
1086:S2CID
1060:arXiv
958:(PDF)
734:Notes
523:radar
1741:Ames
1663:2014
1630:OCLC
1620:ISBN
1592:OCLC
1582:ISBN
1558:OCLC
1529:2023
1503:2014
1482:2014
1427:2008
1388:2009
1350:2009
1324:2024
1299:2024
1201:2011
1176:2014
1025:2014
969:2014
821:2010
810:ISSN
464:and
295:and
77:Died
51:Born
1121:doi
1078:doi
1056:251
769:doi
452:in
406:at
402:'s
377:'s
242:'s
234:'s
121:PhD
2468::
1644:;
1628:.
1590:.
1520:.
1473:.
1450:^
1435:^
1374:.
1315:.
1290:.
1153:^
1127:.
1119:.
1109:44
1107:.
1084:.
1076:.
1068:.
1054:.
1014:.
998:^
977:^
960:.
844:^
829:^
806:31
804:.
800:.
781:^
767:.
757:50
755:.
718:.
659:.
481:.
418:.
334:.
303:.
111:MS
109:,
107:BS
2408::
1757:)
1753:(
1710:e
1703:t
1696:v
1665:.
1636:.
1598:.
1564:.
1531:.
1505:.
1484:.
1429:.
1390:.
1352:.
1326:.
1301:.
1203:.
1178:.
1135:.
1123::
1115::
1092:.
1080::
1072::
1062::
1027:.
971:.
823:.
775:.
771::
763::
123:)
119:(
113:)
105:(
63:)
59:(
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
