518:
578:
64:
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78:
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tribes whose limited resources were used by pilgrims along the major routes from
Damascus and Cairo respectively. The Ottoman Empire, as custodian of Mecca and Medina, was supposed to provide safe passage for all pilgrims traveling to the Holy Cities. However, political alliances and conflicts shaped
505:
There is no record of a ruling Sultan visiting Mecca during the Hajj but according to primary records, Ottoman princes and princesses were sent to make the pilgrimage or visit the Holy Cities during the year. The distance from the center of the empire in
Istanbul, as well as the length and danger of
513:
Aside from customs collected in Jeddah, the inhabitants of the Hijaz did not pay taxes to the empire and the finances of the city were taken care of through various waqf properties across the rest of the empire, dedicated to support the people of Mecca and Medina as an act of charity with religious
639:
In 1902, Ibn Saud seized control of Riyadh in Nejd, reestablishing the dominance of the Al Saud family in the region. He garnered support from the Ikhwan, a tribal army inspired by
Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab and led by Sultan ibn Bijad and Faisal Al-Dawish. Established in 1912, the Ikhwan played a
509:
Regional administration of Mecca and Medina was left in the hands of the
Sharifs, or the stewards of Mecca since the Abbasid caliphate. The Sharifs maintained a level of local autonomy under the rule of the Sultan; however to balance the local influences, the Sultan appointed the kadis and lesser
497:
When the
Ottomans conquered Mamluk territory in 1517, the role of the Ottoman sultan in the Hijaz was first and foremost to take care of the Holy Cities of Mecca and Medina and provide safe passage for the many Muslims from various regions who traveled to Mecca to perform the Hajj. The Sultan was
643:
In 1916, backed by
British encouragement and support (as Britain was engaged in World War I against the Ottomans), the Sharif of Mecca, Hussein bin Ali, initiated a pan-Arab revolt against Ottoman rule, aiming to establish a unified Arab state. The Allied victory in World War I marked the end of
559:
after a flood in 1630 were contentious because of the religious significance of the building itself. These repairs were generally aimed at preserving the structural integrity of the site. Yet, the opinion of local religious scholars on the extent of the repairs meant that the project became
550:
ships in the Indian Ocean; from
Central Asia, wars between the Uzbeks and Safavids also led to complications in caravan routes. Most Central Asian pilgrims went through Istanbul or Delhi to join a pilgrimage caravan. Trade routes often flourished along pilgrimage routes, since the existing
542:, the Ottomans closed the shortest route from Basra (in present-day Iraq) that would have allowed Shi’i pilgrims to cross the Persian Gulf into the Arabian Peninsula. Pilgrims were instead required to use the official caravan routes from Damascus, Cairo or Yemen. From the
635:
In the early 20th century, the
Ottoman Empire maintained control or nominal authority over most of the Arabian Peninsula. Despite this suzerainty, Arabia was governed by a diverse array of tribal leaders, with the Sharif of Mecca holding sway over the Hejaz region.
529:
The central
Ottoman government controlled caravan routes to Mecca and was obligated to protect pilgrims along these routes. This included providing supplies such as food and water for the journey. Additionally, this included providing subsidies to the desert
554:
Construction, repairs, and addition to religious sites in Mecca and Medina were costly, due to the location of the cities and the need for imported materials, but it was a symbol of the power and generosity of the Sultan. Repairs that had to be made to the
628:. A much smaller second "Saudi state", located mainly in Nejd, was established in 1824. Throughout the rest of the 19th century, the Al Saud contested control of the interior of what was to become Saudi Arabia with another Arabian ruling family, the
510:
officials in the region. At first, being appointed the kadi in the region was considered a low position, but as religion grew more important within the culture of the
Ottoman Empire, the role of the kadis in the Mecca and Medina grew in prominence.
483:
who was from the Hanbali school of thought. This alliance formed in the 18th century provided the ideological impetus to Saudi expansion and remains the basis of Saudi Arabian dynastic rule today.
1575:
222:
lasted from 1517 to 1918. The Ottoman degree of control over these lands varied over these four centuries, with the fluctuating strength or weakness of the Empire's central authority.
563:
Other projects included building, repairing, and maintaining water pipes that served pilgrims, and establishing soup kitchens, schools, and charitable foundations within the region.
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politicized because Ridhwan Agha, who was in charge of overseeing the repairs, was a representative of the Sultan as opposed to an elite from the Hijaz.
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sometimes referred to as "Servant of the Holy Places" but since the Ottoman rulers could not claim lineage from the Islamic Prophet
1495:
1408:
1219:
Casale, Giancarlo (2006). "The Ottoman administration of the spice trade in the sixteenth century Red Sea and the Persian Gulf".
396:
235:
1673:
360:
502:, it was important to maintain an image of power and piety through construction projects, financial support and caretaking.
365:
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480:
652:
During the era of Ottoman rule, the territory of modern Saudi Arabia was divided between the following entities:
355:
744:
730:
330:
320:
1553:
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340:
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infrastructure and protections were established, and traveling pilgrims increased the demand for products.
255:
77:
345:
17:
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625:
605:
abandoned the position of imam in 1773, the spread of Saudi control over the whole southern and central
310:
1609:
1115:
601:, rapidly expanded, and briefly controlled most of the present-day territory of Saudi Arabia. When
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386:
300:
1708:
1520:
1512:
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724:
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305:
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1479:
1392:
1371:
1352:
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1180:
1165:
1146:
718:
594:
476:
441:
350:
325:
1386:
640:
pivotal role in Ibn Saud's campaigns, helping him capture al-Hasa from the Ottomans in 1913.
609:
was completed. In the late 1780s, the northern Najd was added to the Saudi emirate. In 1792,
1678:
1504:
1452:
1417:
1228:
506:
the journey, was likely the main factor that prevented Sultans from traveling to the Hijaz.
335:
632:. By 1891, the Al Rashid were victorious and the Al Saud were driven into exile in Kuwait.
1723:
1698:
1683:
1668:
1614:
1599:
629:
461:
315:
45:
1406:
Salibi, Kamal S. (1979). "Middle Eastern parallels: Syria–Iraq–Arabia in Ottoman times".
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1703:
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1204:. Greenwood Histories of the Modern Nations. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group.
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The emergence of what was to become the Saudi royal family, known as the
453:
1516:
1429:
531:
429:
295:
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Wasti, Syed Tanvir (2005). "The Ottoman ceremony of the royal purse".
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The first Saudi state was destroyed by 1818 by the Ottoman viceroy of
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219:
88:
621:
586:
576:
556:
522:
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479:, founder of the dynasty, joined forces with the religious leader
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Harris, Ian; Mews, Stuart; Morris, Paul; Shepherd, John (1992).
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Pilgrims and Sultans: The Hajj under the Ottomans 1517–1683
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significance because of the holy status of the two cities.
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tribes who mounted raids on oases and tribes in the Hejaz.
1143:
Politics in an Arabian oasis: the Rashidis of Saudi Arabia
456:
attempts to attack the Red Sea (hence the Hejaz) and the
1221:
Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient
831:
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fell to the Saudis. The Saudi emirate gained control of
1263:
Islam in revolution: fundamentalism in the Arab world
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The Arab Revolt 1916–18: Lawrence Sets Arabia Ablaze
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1474:Tucker, Spencer; Roberts, Priscilla Mary (2005).
1160:Anderson, Ewan W.; Fisher, William Bayne (2000).
452:over the interior. The main reason was to thwart
1439:"Serving up charity: the Ottoman public kitchen"
665:(968–1916; Ottoman control 1517–1803; 1841–1916)
475:, began in Nejd in central Arabia in 1744, when
1182:A Splendid Exchange: How Trade Shaped the World
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903:
464:launched forays into the desert to punish the
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546:, sea routes were blocked by the presence of
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8:
1584:Administrative regions and provinces of the
1388:Saudi Arabia: Power, Legitimacy and Survival
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888:
428:In the 16th century, the Ottomans added the
37:
960:"Wakf." Brill Encyclopedia of Islam. Online
597:was established in 1744 in the area around
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1162:The Middle East: Geography and Geopolitics
644:Ottoman suzerainty and control in Arabia.
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18:Ottoman era in the history of Saudi Arabia
1752:1517 establishments in the Ottoman Empire
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807:
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1073:by D. Gold, 6 April 2003, NYpost (JCPA)
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733:(1902–1921; became modern Saudi Arabia)
535:the routes that were opened or closed.
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39:الدولة العثمانية في شبه الجزيرة العربية
1286:The future of Islam in the Middle East
1105:"—Library of Congress Country Studies.
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1330:Contemporary Religions: a World Guide
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1444:Journal of Interdisciplinary History
487:Hajj in the 16th and 17th centuries
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27:Ottoman rule in Arabia (1517–1918)
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1103:The Saud Family and Wahhabi Islam
1118:. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
617:in 1802, and of Medina in 1804.
538:Particularly in the case of the
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254:
76:
62:
1535:A Brief History of Saudi Arabia
1476:The Encyclopedia of World War I
1240:Chatterji, Nikshoy C. (1973).
1179:Bernstein, William J. (2008).
657:Ottoman provinces and emirates
167:Ottoman–Mamluk War (1516–1517)
1:
1349:A History of the Arab Peoples
1259:Dekmejian, R. Hrair (1994).
448:) to the Empire and claimed
1202:The History of Saudi Arabia
1141:Al Rasheed, Madawi (1997).
281:Umayyad and Abbasid periods
1773:
1233:10.1163/156852006777502081
603:Muhammad Ibn Abd al-Wahhab
570:
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481:Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab
371:Declaration of unification
1532:Wynbrandt, James (2010).
1509:10.1080/00263200500035116
1422:10.1080/00263207908700396
1305:Faroqhi, Suraiya (1994).
1282:Faksh, Mahmud A. (1997).
1242:Muddle of the Middle East
739:Other states and entities
356:Kingdom of Hejaz and Nejd
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159:
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1458:10.1162/0022195052564252
1347:Hourani, Albert (2005).
1200:Bowen, Wayne H. (2007).
745:Emirate of Jabal Shammar
731:Emirate of Nejd and Hasa
460:. As early as 1578, the
331:Emirate of Nejd and Hasa
321:Emirate of Jabal Shammar
1538:. Infobase Publishing.
751:Idrisid Emirate of Asir
567:Rise of the Saudi state
387:Saudi Arabia portal
361:Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
341:Idrisid Emirate of Asir
1674:Bosnia and Herzegovina
1496:Middle Eastern Studies
1409:Middle Eastern Studies
1366:Murphy, David (2008).
701:(1517–1636; 1849–1872)
677:(1701–1813; 1840–1872)
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346:Sheikdom of Upper Asir
218:era in the history of
1385:Niblock, Tim (2013).
648:Territorial divisions
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85:Common languages
1437:Singer, Amy (2005).
832:Harris et al. (1992)
671:(1517–1701; 1813–40)
1116:"History of Arabia"
1071:"Reining in Riyadh"
493:History of the Hajj
301:Bani Khalid Emirate
271:Early Islamic State
725:Second Saudi State
663:Sharifate of Mecca
626:Mohammed Ali Pasha
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527:
311:Mu'ammarid Imamate
306:Emirate of Diriyah
286:Sharifate of Mecca
276:Rashidun Caliphate
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1545:978-0-8160-7876-9
1485:978-1-85109-420-2
1398:978-1-134-41303-4
1377:978-1-84603-339-1
1358:978-0-571-22664-1
1339:978-0-582-08695-1
1311:I. B. Tauris
1297:978-0-275-95128-3
1274:978-0-8156-2635-0
1211:978-0-313-34012-3
1192:978-0-8021-4416-4
1171:978-0-415-07667-8
719:First Saudi State
595:first Saudi state
573:Ottoman–Saudi War
477:Muhammad bin Saud
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1060:Singer (2005)
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1038:, p. 113
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1014:, p. 187
1013:
1012:Casale (2006)
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999:, p. 135
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978:
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970:Salibi (1979)
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1120:. Retrieved
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882:, p. 74
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198:Saudi Arabia
107:Christianity
870:, p. 7
858:, p. 3
753:(1906–1934)
747:(1836–1921)
727:(1818–1891)
721:(1744–1818)
707:(1872–1918)
695:(1871–1918)
693:Najd Sanjak
689:(1560–1630)
683:(1872–1918)
436:coast (the
366:Unification
245:History of
180:Arab Revolt
1741:Categories
1709:Montenegro
1309:. London:
760:References
571:See also:
548:Portuguese
491:See also:
454:Portuguese
450:suzerainty
125:Government
114:Demonym(s)
1525:143202946
1467:145715799
630:Al Rashid
131:Beylerbey
95:Religion
55:1517–1918
1679:Bulgaria
589:, Arabia
581:Ottoman
525:, Arabia
500:Muhammad
236:a series
234:Part of
1724:Ukraine
1699:Hungary
1684:Croatia
1669:Albania
1651:Lebanon
1615:Tunisia
1600:Algeria
1517:4284357
1430:4282730
611:Al-Hasa
532:Bedouin
473:Al Saud
446:al-Hasa
430:Red Sea
296:Jabrids
226:History
216:Ottoman
178:•
165:•
152:History
103:Judaism
1719:Serbia
1704:Kosovo
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1689:Cyprus
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599:Riyadh
238:on the
220:Arabia
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89:Arabic
46:Arabic
42:
1641:Syria
1605:Egypt
1521:S2CID
1513:JSTOR
1463:S2CID
1426:JSTOR
622:Egypt
587:Uqair
557:Kaaba
523:Uqair
466:Najdi
438:Hejaz
202:Yemen
135:Pasha
99:Islam
1636:Iraq
1624:Asia
1540:ISBN
1480:ISBN
1393:ISBN
1372:ISBN
1353:ISBN
1334:ISBN
1315:ISBN
1292:ISBN
1269:ISBN
1246:ISBN
1206:ISBN
1187:ISBN
1166:ISBN
1147:ISBN
1124:2011
615:Taif
607:Najd
593:The
583:khan
444:and
442:Asir
432:and
214:The
206:Oman
185:1918
172:1517
139:Agha
119:Arab
70:Flag
1505:doi
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143:Dey
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