20:
131:
863:
587:
725:
829:
557:), and a warming effect, insofar as they absorb longwave radiation. For low clouds, the reflection of solar radiation is the larger effect; so, these clouds cool the Earth. In contrast, for high thin clouds in cold air, the absorption of longwave radiation is the more significant effect; so these clouds warm the planet.
462:
absorb 100% of the longwave radiation emitted by the surface. So, at those wavelengths, the emissivity of the atmosphere is 1 and the atmosphere emits thermal radiation much like an ideal blackbody would. However, this applies only at wavelengths where the atmosphere fully absorbs longwave radiation.
708:
to space. Even if 100% of surface emissions are absorbed at a given wavelength, the OLR at that wavelength can still be reduced by increased greenhouse gas concentration, since the increased concentration leads to the atmosphere emitting longwave radiation to space from a higher altitude. If the air
669:
the altitude from which the atmosphere emits that that wavelength to space increases (since the altitude at which the atmosphere becomes transparent to that wavelength increases); if the emission altitude is within the troposphere, the temperature of the emitting air will be lower, which will result
565:
The interaction between emitted longwave radiation and the atmosphere is complicated due to the factors that affect absorption. The path of the radiation in the atmosphere also determines radiative absorption: longer paths through the atmosphere result in greater absorption because of the cumulative
466:
Although greenhouse gases in air have a high emissivity at some wavelengths, this does not necessarily correspond to a high rate of thermal radiation being emitted to space. This is because the atmosphere is generally much colder than the surface, and the rate at which longwave radiation is emitted
267:
In recent decades, energy has been measured to be arriving on Earth at a higher rate than it leaves, corresponding to planetary warming. The energy imbalance has been increasing. It can take decades to centuries for oceans to warm and planetary temperature to shift sufficiently to compensate for an
674:
The size of the reduction in OLR will vary by wavelength. Even if OLR does not decrease at certain wavelengths (e.g., because 100% of surface emissions are absorbed and the emission altitude is in the stratosphere), increased greenhouse gas concentration can still lead to significant reductions in
605:
More specifically, the greenhouse effect may be defined quantitatively as the amount of longwave radiation emitted by the surface that does not reach space. On Earth as of 2015, about 398 W/m of longwave radiation was emitted by the surface, while OLR, the amount reaching space, was 239 W/m. Thus,
249:
is a measure of the amount of thermal energy in matter. So, under these circumstances, temperatures tend to increase overall (though temperatures might decrease in some places as the distribution of energy changes). As temperatures increase, the amount of thermal radiation emitted also increases,
441:
The emissivity of Earth's surface has been measured to be in the range 0.65 to 0.99 (based on observations in the 8-13 micron wavelength range) with the lowest values being for barren desert regions. The emissivity is mostly above 0.9, and the global average surface emissivity is estimated to be
83:
of energy transported by outgoing longwave radiation is typically measured in units of watts per metre squared (W⋅m). In the case of global energy flux, the W/m value is obtained by dividing the total energy flow over the surface of the globe (measured in watts) by the surface area of the Earth,
75:
Longwave radiation generally spans wavelengths ranging from 3–100 micrometres (μm). A cutoff of 4 μm is sometimes used to differentiate sunlight from longwave radiation. Less than 1% of sunlight has wavelengths greater than 4 μm. Over 99% of outgoing longwave radiation has wavelengths
450:
The most common gases in air (i.e., nitrogen, oxygen, and argon) have a negligible ability to absorb or emit longwave thermal radiation. Consequently, the ability of air to absorb and emit longwave radiation is determined by the concentration of trace gases like water vapor and carbon dioxide.
736:
Measurements of outgoing longwave radiation at the top of the atmosphere and of longwave radiation back towards the surface are important to understand how much energy is retained in Earth's climate system: for example, how thermal radiation cools and warms the surface, and how this energy is
878:
by outgoing longwave radiation, suppression of radiative cooling (by downwelling longwave radiation cancelling out energy transfer by upwelling longwave radiation), and radiative heating through incoming solar radiation drive the temperature and dynamics of different parts of the atmosphere.
549:
The OLR balance is affected by clouds, dust, and aerosols in the atmosphere. Clouds tend to block penetration of upwelling longwave radiation, causing a lower flux of long-wave radiation penetrating to higher altitudes. Clouds are effective at absorbing and scattering longwave radiation, and
257:
In this fashion, a planet naturally constantly adjusts its temperature so as to keep the energy imbalance small. If there is more solar radiation absorbed than OLR emitted, the planet will heat up. If there is more OLR than absorbed solar radiation the planet will cool. In both cases, the
691:
If the absorptivity of the gas is high and the gas is present in a high enough concentration, the absorption at certain wavelengths becomes saturated. This means there is enough gas present to completely absorb the radiated energy at that wavelength before the upper atmosphere is reached.
253:
Similarly, if energy arrives at a lower rate than it leaves (i.e., ASR < OLR, so than EEI is negative), the amount of energy in Earth's climate decreases, and temperatures tend to decrease overall. As temperatures decrease, OLR decreases, making the imbalance closer to zero.
577:
The net all-wave radiation is dominated by longwave radiation during the night and in the polar regions. While there is no absorbed solar radiation during the night, terrestrial radiation continues to be emitted, primarily as a result of solar energy absorbed during the day.
475:
The atmosphere is relatively transparent to solar radiation, but it is nearly opaque to longwave radiation. The atmosphere typically absorbs most of the longwave radiation emitted by the surface. Absorption of longwave radiation prevents that radiation from reaching space.
678:
When OLR decreases, this leads to an energy imbalance, with energy received being greater than energy lost, causing a warming effect. Therefore, an increase in the concentrations of greenhouse gases causes energy to accumulate in Earth's climate system, contributing to
699:
argued that this means an increase in the concentration of this gas will have no additional effect on the planet's energy budget. This argument neglects the fact that outgoing longwave radiation is determined not only by the amount of surface radiation that is
2241:
Kyle, H. L.; Arking, A.; Hickey, J. R.; Ardanuy, P. E.; Jacobowitz, H.; Stowe, L. L.; Campbell, G. G.; Vonder Haar, T.; House, F. B.; Maschhoff, R.; Smith, G. L. (May 1993). "The Nimbus Earth
Radiation Budget (ERB) Experiment: 1975 to 1992".
157:
says that energy cannot appear or disappear. Thus, any energy that enters a system but does not leave must be retained within the system. So, the amount of energy retained on Earth (in Earth's climate system) is governed by an equation:
737:
distributed to affect the development of clouds. Observing this radiative flux from a surface also provides a practical way of assessing surface temperatures on both local and global scales. This energy distribution is what drives
503:. The atmospheric window is a region of the electromagnetic wavelength spectrum between 8 and 11 μm where the atmosphere does not absorb longwave radiation (except for the ozone band between 9.6 and 9.8 μm).
479:
At wavelengths where the atmosphere absorbs surface radiation, some portion of the radiation that was absorbed is replaced by a lesser amount of thermal radiation emitted by the atmosphere at a higher altitude.
239:
569:
OLR is affected by Earth's surface skin temperature (i.e, the temperature of the top layer of the surface), skin surface emissivity, atmospheric temperature, water vapor profile, and cloud cover.
352:
590:
Outgoing radiation and greenhouse effect as a function of frequency. The greenhouse effect is visible as the area of the upper red area, and the greenhouse effect associated with CO
1191:
Loeb, Norman G.; Johnson, Gregory C.; Thorsen, Tyler J.; Lyman, John M.; et al. (15 June 2021). "Satellite and Ocean Data Reveal Marked
Increase in Earth's Heating Rate".
754:
533:
The absorption of longwave radiation by gases depends on the specific absorption bands of the gases in the atmosphere. The specific absorption bands are determined by their
924:
There are online interactive tools that allow one to see the spectrum of outgoing longwave radiation that is predicted to reach space under various atmospheric conditions.
423:
2118:
Hanel, Rudolf A.; Conrath, Barney J. (10 October 1970). "Thermal
Emission Spectra of the Earth and Atmosphere from the Nimbus 4 Michelson Interferometer Experiment".
399:
776:
1787:
Wenhui Wang; Shunlin Liang; Augustine, J.A. (May 2009). "Estimating High
Spatial Resolution Clear-Sky Land Surface Upwelling Longwave Radiation From MODIS Data".
666:
the fraction of surface emissions that are absorbed is increased, decreasing OLR (unless 100% of surface emissions at that wavelength are already being absorbed);
977:
Climate Change 2021: The
Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
375:
300:
716:, i.e., erroneous reasoning that results from focusing on energy exchange at the surface, instead of focusing on the top-of-atmosphere (TOA) energy balance.
245:
When energy is arriving at a higher rate than it leaves (i.e., ASR > OLR, so that EEI is positive), the amount of energy in Earth's climate increases.
2214:
Jacobowitz, Herbert; Soule, Harold V.; Kyle, H. Lee; House, Frederick B. (30 June 1984). "The Earth
Radiation Budget (ERB) Experiment: An overview".
2403:
483:
When absorbed, the energy transmitted by this radiation is transferred to the substance that absorbed it. However, overall, greenhouse gases in the
514:
in the atmosphere are responsible for a majority of the absorption of longwave radiation in the atmosphere. The most important of these gases are
455:
2169:
Hanel, Rudolf A.; Conrath, Barney J.; Kunde, Virgil G.; Prabhakara, C. (20 October 1970). "The
Infrared Interferometer Experiment on Nimbus 3".
1100:
566:
absorption by many layers of gas. Lastly, the temperature and altitude of the absorbing gas also affect its absorption of longwave radiation.
2036:
1631:
1565:
1527:
1361:
1230:
1031:
2418:
709:
at that higher altitude is colder (as is true throughout the troposphere), then thermal emissions to space will be reduced, decreasing OLR.
903:
780:
1865:
Schmidt, Gavin A.; Ruedy, Reto A.; Miller, Ron L.; Lacis, Andy A. (2010-10-16). "Attribution of the present-day total greenhouse effect".
467:
scales as the fourth power of temperature. Thus, the higher the altitude at which longwave radiation is emitted, the lower its intensity.
1651:
138:
measurements (2005–2019). A rate of +1.0 W/m summed over the planet's surface equates to a continuous heat uptake of about 500
1843:
178:(ASR). Energy leaves as outgoing longwave radiation (OLR). Thus, the rate of change in the energy in Earth's climate system is given by
797:
749:
Outgoing long-wave radiation (OLR) has been monitored and reported since 1970 by a progression of satellite missions and instruments.
598:
The reduction of the outgoing longwave radiation (OLR), relative to longwave radiation emitted by the surface, is at the heart of the
1006:
938:
772:
258:
temperature change works to shift the energy imbalance towards zero. When the energy imbalance is zero, a planet is said to be in
188:
1307:
19:
429:. The emissivity is a value between zero and one which indicates how much less radiation is emitted compared to what a perfect
1405:
Wei, Peng-Sheng; Hsieh, Yin-Chih; Chiu, Hsuan-Han; Yen, Da-Lun; Lee, Chieh; Tsai, Yi-Cheng; Ting, Te-Chuan (6 October 2018).
833:
402:
2408:
553:
Clouds have both cooling and warming effects. They have a cooling effect insofar as they reflect sunlight (as measured by
1692:
768:
Improved measurements were obtained starting with the Earth
Radiation Balance (ERB) instruments on Nimbus-6 and Nimbus-7.
966:
Matthews, J.B.R.; Möller, V.; van
Diemenn, R.; Fuglesvedt, J.R.; et al. (2021-08-09). "Annex VII: Glossary". In
179:
988:
967:
738:
487:
emit more thermal radiation than they absorb, so longwave radiative heat transfer has a net cooling effect on air.
108:
1917:
316:
40:
2263:
1744:
1709:
1607:
1582:
1173:
1148:
975:
303:
99:
Emitting outgoing longwave radiation is the only way Earth loses energy to space, i.e., the only way the planet
1335:
862:
762:
68:) is the longwave radiation emitted to space from the top of Earth's atmosphere. It may also be referred to as
23:
Spectral intensity of sunlight (average at top of atmosphere) and thermal radiation emitted by Earth's surface.
147:
119:
458:, the emissivity of matter is always equal to its absorptivity, at a given wavelength. At some wavelengths,
1729:
918:
154:
2075:
Price, A. G.; Petzold, D. E. (February 1984). "Surface
Emissivities in a Boreal Forest during Snowmelt".
933:
260:
130:
2448:
2443:
2290:
2251:
2178:
2127:
1959:
1874:
1796:
1721:
1662:
1594:
1420:
1200:
1160:
1112:
837:
732:
spectrum of Earth's infrared emissions (400-1600 cm) measured by IRIS on Nimbus 4 in year 1970.
378:
1734:
943:
534:
115:
103:
itself. Radiative heating from absorbed sunlight, and radiative cooling to space via OLR power the
55:
1466:
2308:
2151:
2100:
1975:
1898:
1820:
1073:
1047:
902:
equations that describe radiation in the atmosphere. Usually the solution is done numerically by
899:
775:
scanners and the non scanner on NOAA-9, NOAA-10 and Earth Radiation Budget Satellite; also, the
279:
is emitted by nearly all matter, in proportion to the fourth power of its absolute temperature.
2053:
1492:
408:
2143:
2092:
2032:
1890:
1812:
1680:
1627:
1561:
1523:
1448:
1027:
1002:
875:
599:
276:
100:
43:
2373:
1994:
1839:
712:
False conclusions about the implications of absorption being "saturated" are examples of the
384:
2298:
2259:
2223:
2194:
2186:
2135:
2084:
1967:
1882:
1804:
1739:
1670:
1602:
1553:
1438:
1428:
1256:
1208:
1168:
1120:
992:
812:
Data on surface longwave radiation and OLR is available from a number of sources including:
586:
538:
175:
118:(energy gained) determines whether the Earth is experiencing global heating or cooling (see
2422:
2412:
2056:. Goddard Earth Sciences Data and Information Services Center (GES DISC), Greenbelt MD USA
1696:
895:
500:
28:
250:
leading to more outgoing longwave radiation (OLR), and a smaller energy imbalance (EEI).
2428:
2294:
2255:
2182:
2131:
1963:
1878:
1800:
1725:
1666:
1598:
1424:
1204:
1164:
1116:
796:. A most notable ground-based network for monitoring surface long-wave radiation is the
1443:
1406:
801:
758:
724:
680:
631:
627:
519:
511:
459:
360:
285:
80:
2437:
1647:
832:
Simulated wavenumber spectrum of the Earth's outgoing longwave radiation (OLR) using
647:
1999:
Global Climate Feedbacks: Proceedings of the Brookhaven National Laboratory Workshop
1916:"Chapter 7: The Earth's Energy Budget, Climate Feedbacks, and Climate Sensitivity".
1902:
1759:
886:
measured from a particular direction by an instrument, atmospheric properties (like
2312:
2155:
1979:
1824:
554:
1433:
1281:
792:
Longwave radiation at the surface (both outward and inward) is mainly measured by
46:
emitted by Earth's surface, atmosphere, and clouds. It may also be referred to as
1362:"ASTER global emissivity database: 100 times more detailed than its predecessor"
1249:
Contributions to Climate Research Using the AIRS Science Team Version-5 Products
971:
887:
874:
Many applications call for calculation of long-wave radiation quantities. Local
793:
655:
541:
that correspond to particular wavelengths of radiation that the gas can absorb.
515:
484:
246:
104:
1407:"Absorption coefficient of carbon dioxide across atmospheric troposphere layer"
1808:
1689:
997:
910:
866:
Simulated wavelength spectrum of Earth's OLR under clear-sky conditions using
848:
729:
426:
2398:
2096:
1894:
1816:
819:
NASA Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System (CERES) project (2000-2022)
2227:
2199:
2190:
1261:
909:
Another common approach is to estimate values using surface temperature and
704:, but also by the altitude (and temperature) at which longwave radiation is
430:
307:
72:. Outgoing longwave radiation plays an important role in planetary cooling.
2326:
2147:
1946:
1452:
1557:
828:
662:
O) and is increased, this has a number of effects. At a given wavelength
2303:
2278:
1886:
1675:
1212:
914:
891:
883:
594:
is directly visible as the large dip near the center of the OLR spectrum.
139:
51:
264:. Planets natural tend to a state of approximate radiative equilibrium.
146:
Outgoing longwave radiation (OLR) constitutes a critical component of
2104:
1411:
974:; Pirani, Anna; Connors, Sarah L.; Péan, Clotilde; et al. (eds.).
867:
639:
523:
135:
2409:
Office of Satellite Data Processing and Distribution, Radiation Budget
1125:
2139:
1971:
537:
and energy levels. Each type of greenhouse gas has a unique group of
2088:
1583:"Thermal Equilibrium of the Atmosphere with a Convective Adjustment"
1383:
800:, which provides crucial well-calibrated measurements for studying
861:
827:
723:
585:
527:
129:
18:
1336:"Stefan–Boltzmann law & Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation"
984:
1247:
Susskind, Joel; Molnar, Gyula; Iredell, Lena (21 August 2011).
779:
instruments aboard Aqua, Terra, Suomi-NPP and NOAA-20, and the
2348:
1842:. NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies - Science Briefs.
783:
instrument on the Meteosat Second Generation (MSG) satellite.
2419:
Meteorological Satellite Center, Japan Meteorological Agency
1652:"The attribution of the present-day total greenhouse effect"
1308:"Oceans Are Absorbing Almost All of the Globe's Excess Heat"
550:
therefore reduce the amount of outgoing longwave radiation.
234:{\displaystyle \mathrm {EEI} =\mathrm {ASR} -\mathrm {OLR} }
2264:
10.1175/1520-0477(1993)074<0815:TNERBE>2.0.CO;2
1745:
10.1175/1520-0477(1997)078<0197:eagmeb>2.0.co;2
1608:
10.1175/1520-0469(1964)021<0361:TEOTAW>2.0.CO;2
1231:"Earth Matters: Earth's Radiation Budget is Out of Balance"
1174:
10.1175/1520-0477(1997)078<0197:EAGMEB>2.0.CO;2
134:
The growth in Earth's energy imbalance from satellite and
1186:
1184:
114:
The balance between OLR (energy lost) and incoming solar
16:
Energy transfer mechanism which enables planetary cooling
2022:
2020:
2018:
2016:
1026:(2. ed.). Madison, Wisc.: Sundog Publ. p. 68.
1995:"Observational determination of the greenhouse effect"
1947:"Observational determination of the greenhouse effect"
781:
Geostationary Earth Radiation Budget instrument (GERB)
675:
OLR at other wavelengths where absorption is weaker.
411:
387:
363:
319:
288:
191:
1486:
1484:
1147:Kiehl, J. T.; Trenberth, Kevin E. (February 1997).
755:
infrared interferometer spectrometer and radiometer
1945:
1789:IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing
417:
393:
369:
346:
294:
233:
54:portion of the spectrum, but is distinct from the
1661:, vol. 115, no. D20, pp. D20106,
1502:. American Institute of Physics. pp. 33–38.
961:
959:
765:were designed to span wavelengths of 5 to 25 μm.
58:(SW) near-infrared radiation found in sunlight.
2244:Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society
1919:Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis
1714:Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society
1153:Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society
816:NASA GEWEX Surface Radiation Budget (1983-2007)
2404:NASA Earth Observatory Outgoing Heat Radiation
2368:
2366:
1493:"Infrared radiation and planetary temperature"
913:, then compare to satellite top-of-atmosphere
761:and deployed on Nimbus-3 and Nimbus-4. These
1840:"Taking the Measure of the Greenhouse Effect"
1224:
1222:
1099:Singh, Martin S.; O'Neill, Morgan E. (2022).
898:. Calculations of these quantities solve the
8:
2429:Planetary Energy Balance, Physical Geography
2216:Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres
1650:; R. Ruedy; R.L. Miller; A.A. Lacis (2010),
1330:
1328:
777:Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System
347:{\displaystyle M=\epsilon \,\sigma \,T^{4}}
2374:"MODTRAN Infrared Light in the Atmosphere"
2279:"Global dimming and brightening: A review"
2054:"IRIS/Nimbus-4 Level 1 Radiance Data V001"
1710:"Earth's Annual Global Mean Energy Budget"
1708:Kiehl, J. T.; Trenberth, Kevin E. (1997).
1522:(2nd ed.). Elsevier. pp. 53–62.
1364:. NASA Earth Observatory. 17 November 2014
1149:"Earth's Annual Global Mean Energy Budget"
618:of surface emissions, not reaching space.
2302:
2198:
1743:
1733:
1674:
1606:
1442:
1432:
1260:
1172:
1124:
996:
798:Baseline Surface Radiation Network (BSRN)
670:in a reduction in OLR at that wavelength.
410:
386:
362:
338:
333:
329:
318:
287:
220:
206:
192:
190:
1276:
1274:
1272:
1048:"What is the Surface Area of the Earth?"
282:In particular, the emitted energy flux,
142:(~0.3% of the incident solar radiation).
2052:Hansel, Rudolf A.; et al. (1994).
1024:A first course in atmospheric radiation
955:
174:Energy arrives in the form of absorbed
1384:"Joint Emissivity Database Initiative"
1242:
1240:
1101:"Thermodynamics of the climate system"
2327:"NASA GEWEX Surface Radiation Budget"
1782:
1780:
1622:Wallace, J. M.; Hobbs, P. V. (2006).
1581:Manabe, S.; Strickler, R. F. (1964).
1543:
1541:
1539:
1513:
1511:
1509:
1491:Pierrehumbert, R. T. (January 2011).
757:(IRIS) instruments developed for the
622:Effect of increasing greenhouse gases
495:Assuming no cloud cover, most of the
7:
1467:"Greenhouse Gas Absorption Spectrum"
904:atmospheric radiative transfer codes
456:Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation
1760:"Clouds & Radiation Fact Sheet"
499:that reach space do so through the
76:between 4 μm and 100 μm.
2425: (archived September 27, 2007)
2027:Pierrehumbert, Raymond T. (2010).
1993:Raval, A.; Ramanathan, V. (1990).
1944:Raval, A.; Ramanathan, V. (1989).
1846:from the original on 21 April 2021
1251:. SPIE Optics and Photonics 2011.
840:for a body at surface temperature
302:(measured in W/m) is given by the
227:
224:
221:
213:
210:
207:
199:
196:
193:
14:
939:Satellite temperature measurement
906:adapted to the specific problem.
773:Earth Radiation Budget Experiment
582:Relationship to greenhouse effect
1386:. NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory
1229:Joseph Atkinson (22 June 2021).
753:Earliest observations were with
2399:NOAA Climate Diagnostics Center
2283:Journal of Geophysical Research
2171:Journal of Geophysical Research
2029:Principles of Planetary Climate
1867:Journal of Geophysical Research
2031:. Cambridge University Press.
1626:(2 ed.). Academic Press.
1286:CIMSS: University of Wisconsin
824:OLR calculation and simulation
1:
2277:Wild, Martin (27 June 2009).
1434:10.1016/j.heliyon.2018.e00785
1253:NASA Technical Reports Server
70:emitted terrestrial radiation
1838:Gavin Schmidt (2010-10-01).
1518:Hartmann, Dennis L. (2016).
1306:Wallace, Tim (12 Sep 2016).
1193:Geophysical Research Letters
626:When the concentration of a
2415: (archived May 5, 2008)
1520:Global Physical Climatology
1282:"Earth's Radiation Balance"
771:These were followed by the
62:Outgoing longwave radiation
50:. This radiation is in the
2465:
2077:Arctic and Alpine Research
989:Cambridge University Press
739:atmospheric thermodynamics
1809:10.1109/TGRS.2008.2005206
1764:earthobservatory.nasa.gov
1548:Oke, T. R. (2002-09-11).
1233:. NASA Earth Observatory.
998:10.1017/9781009157896.022
763:Michelson interferometers
418:{\displaystyle \epsilon }
403:Stefan–Boltzmann constant
1022:Petty, Grant W. (2006).
968:Masson-Delmotte, Valérie
180:Earth's energy imbalance
126:Planetary energy balance
107:that drives atmospheric
2376:. University of Chicago
2228:10.1029/JD089iD04p05021
2191:10.1029/jc075i030p05831
1550:Boundary Layer Climates
1469:. Iowa State University
1080:. University of Calgary
394:{\displaystyle \sigma }
1074:"Earth's Heat Balance"
991:. pp. 2215–2256.
919:brightness temperature
871:
859:
733:
714:surface budget fallacy
687:Surface budget fallacy
595:
471:Atmospheric absorption
419:
395:
371:
348:
296:
235:
155:conservation of energy
143:
24:
1558:10.4324/9780203407219
934:Effective temperature
865:
831:
727:
589:
420:
396:
372:
349:
297:
261:radiative equilibrium
236:
148:Earth's energy budget
133:
120:Earth's energy budget
96:10 sq mi).
48:terrestrial radiation
22:
2304:10.1029/2008JD011470
1887:10.1029/2010jd014287
1676:10.1029/2010JD014287
1213:10.1029/2021GL093047
838:black-body radiation
788:Surface LW radiation
409:
385:
379:absolute temperature
361:
317:
304:Stefan–Boltzmann law
286:
189:
2295:2009JGRD..114.0D16W
2256:1993BAMS...74..815K
2183:1970JGR....75.5831C
2132:1970Natur.228..143H
1964:1989Natur.342..758R
1879:2010JGRD..11520106S
1801:2009ITGRS..47.1559W
1726:1997BAMS...78..197K
1695:4 June 2012 at the
1667:2010JGRD..11520106S
1624:Atmospheric Science
1599:1964JAtS...21..361M
1425:2018Heliy...400785W
1205:2021GeoRL..4893047L
1165:1997BAMS...78..197K
1117:2022PhT....75g..30S
944:Shortwave radiation
535:molecular structure
116:shortwave radiation
1686:on 22 October 2011
1312:The New York Times
1054:. 11 February 2017
900:radiative transfer
896:inversely inferred
872:
860:
836:. In addition the
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501:atmospheric window
491:Atmospheric window
415:
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367:
344:
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268:energy imbalance.
231:
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33:longwave radiation
25:
2222:(D4): 5021–5038.
2177:(30): 5831–5857.
2126:(5267): 143–145.
2038:978-0-521-86556-2
1958:(6251): 758–761.
1633:978-0-12-732951-2
1567:978-0-203-40721-9
1529:978-0-12-328531-7
1126:10.1063/PT.3.5038
1033:978-0-9729033-1-8
876:radiative cooling
804:and brightening.
608:greenhouse effect
600:greenhouse effect
497:surface emissions
370:{\displaystyle T}
295:{\displaystyle M}
277:Thermal radiation
153:The principle of
44:thermal radiation
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1925:. IPCC. 2021
1918:
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1833:
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1766:. 1999-03-01
1763:
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1681:the original
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1461:
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1366:. Retrieved
1356:
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1339:
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1289:. Retrieved
1285:
1252:
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1196:
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1130:. Retrieved
1111:(7): 30–37.
1108:
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1082:. Retrieved
1077:
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1056:. Retrieved
1051:
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1017:
976:
972:Zhai, Panmao
923:
908:
881:
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852:
851:temperature
841:
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794:pyrgeometers
791:
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720:Measurements
713:
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701:
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433:would emit.
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2449:Temperature
2444:Climatology
888:temperature
697:incorrectly
656:water vapor
516:water vapor
485:troposphere
247:Temperature
105:heat engine
2438:Categories
2060:14 October
1850:13 January
1770:2023-05-04
1688:, D20106.
1390:10 October
1368:10 October
950:References
911:emissivity
849:tropopause
730:wavenumber
446:Atmosphere
427:emissivity
2097:0004-0851
2083:(1): 45.
1895:0148-0227
1817:0196-2892
1730:CiteSeerX
1690:Web page
894:) can be
858:is shown.
630:(such as
431:blackbody
413:ϵ
389:σ
331:σ
327:ϵ
308:blackbody
218:−
140:terawatts
56:shortwave
2148:16058447
2005:24 April
1929:24 April
1903:28195537
1844:Archived
1693:Archived
1453:30302408
1291:25 April
928:See also
915:radiance
892:humidity
884:radiance
728:Example
702:absorbed
654:O), and
310:matter:
306:for non-
272:Emission
109:dynamics
52:infrared
2421:at the
2411:at the
2380:12 July
2355:13 July
2333:13 July
2313:5118399
2291:Bibcode
2252:Bibcode
2179:Bibcode
2156:4267086
2128:Bibcode
2105:1551171
1980:4326910
1960:Bibcode
1875:Bibcode
1825:3822497
1797:Bibcode
1722:Bibcode
1663:Bibcode
1595:Bibcode
1473:13 July
1444:6174548
1421:Bibcode
1412:Heliyon
1346:12 July
1317:12 July
1201:Bibcode
1161:Bibcode
1132:12 July
1113:Bibcode
1084:12 July
868:MODTRAN
847:and at
706:emitted
640:methane
612:159 W/m
561:Details
524:methane
437:Surface
425:is the
401:is the
377:is the
182:(EEI):
136:in situ
2351:. NASA
2329:. NASA
2311:
2154:
2146:
2120:Nature
2103:
2095:
2035:
2001:: 5–16
1978:
1952:Nature
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1199:(13).
1058:1 June
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545:Clouds
526:, and
405:, and
357:where
2309:S2CID
2152:S2CID
2101:JSTOR
1976:S2CID
1923:(PDF)
1899:S2CID
1821:S2CID
1684:(PDF)
1655:(PDF)
1496:(PDF)
981:(PDF)
528:ozone
507:Gases
101:cools
39:) is
2382:2023
2357:2023
2335:2023
2144:PMID
2093:ISSN
2062:2022
2033:ISBN
2007:2023
1931:2023
1891:ISSN
1852:2022
1813:ISSN
1628:ISBN
1562:ISBN
1524:ISBN
1475:2023
1449:PMID
1392:2022
1370:2022
1348:2023
1319:2023
1293:2023
1134:2023
1086:2023
1060:2023
1028:ISBN
1003:ISBN
985:IPCC
834:ARTS
808:Data
606:the
81:flux
79:The
2299:doi
2287:114
2260:doi
2224:doi
2195:hdl
2187:doi
2136:doi
2124:228
2085:doi
1968:doi
1956:342
1883:doi
1871:115
1805:doi
1740:doi
1671:doi
1603:doi
1554:doi
1439:PMC
1429:doi
1257:hdl
1209:doi
1169:doi
1121:doi
993:doi
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