Oyster farming on Georges River

765: 271: 395: 788: 926: 725: 364: 387:, and the windlass first used to haul in the warp line, both pulling the boat back to its starting position and dragging the dredge along the bottom. The windlass was then used to raise the dredge, containing oysters, and empty its contents into the boat. The dredge itself consisted of an iron frame with a rectangular opening that led into a net, made of interlocking iron rings, closed at the far end. The dredges used on Georges River were around 4 foot six inches wide (1.372 m), but would be substituted with a narrower one, 2 foot six inches (0.762 m) wide, if there were likely to be rocks or other obstructions on the bottom. The water in which dredging operations took place in the Georges River estuary varied between 14 feet (4.3 m) and 50 feet (15.2 m) in depth. In shallower water, 825: 1238: 922:, motivated by their concern that contaminated water would leach into the river and affect water quality. Hurstville Council had plans to reclaim land not only in Lime Kiln Bay but also at Edith Bay (Lugarno) and Jewfish Bay and Gungah Bay (both at Oatley), all oyster growing sites. The council's reasoning was that silting caused by urban runoff was 'naturally' reclaiming the bays, and the reclamation works would just advance a 'natural' process; the same process by which mangroves had advanced over the former salt marshes, during the previous four decades. A public display of the proposed reclamation areas resulted in strong public opposition, and eventually the plans were shelved. 655: 441: 856:. The conferences included competitions for the best commercial oysters (under various categories). Georges River oysters, dominated the competition, sometimes winning in all or most categories. Delegates consumed large amounts of their product and other seafood, and hosted a contest for oyster-eating champion of New South Wales. The 1951 champion, an oyster farmer, consumed 26 dozen rock oysters in 30 minutes, in front of a crowd of 3,000. In 1949, a woman from one of the Georges River oyster-growing families, opened 90 dozen oysters in an hour and a half, a sustained rate of a dozen a minute. 978:

accidentally to other rock oyster producing estuaries led to a ban on movements of any oysters from Port Stephens to other estuaries. At the time, oyster stock from Port Stephens accounted for 70% of the state's oyster production. Unfortunately, the ban came too late to stop some wild Pacific oysters entering Georges River, and in Port Stephens—once the largest producer of Sydney rock oysters in the state—rock oyster farming reduced dramatically, as the wild Pacific oyster infestation largely took over the estuary. Georges River / Botany Bay is one of four estuaries that are considered "

784:, suggested a method to manage, but not eliminate, the disease in 1926, leading the industry to expand greatly on the Georges River. The predominant technique of farming the immature oysters (up to two years) used frames of horizontal sticks, and that for more mature oysters, they used wooden-framed wire netting trays that could be relocated within the estuary. Relocating trays of more mature oysters to locations with less saline water and placing those on frames higher in the inter-tidal zone, during winter, became known as 'wintering', a means of managing 'winter mortality'. 190: 1147: 22: 761:

as late as 1908, divers were still being used to place the oyster-covered roof tiles on the bottom in deeper water, to allow the oysters to mature. Disadvantages of the methods using stone and tiles were that these were labour intensive—harvesting involved knocking off each oyster with a hammer or other tool— it was relatively difficult to relocate the oysters elsewhere in the estuary, and that, at least without using divers, the method could only be used where the bottom was exposed at low tide.

911:, and that major oyster growing area was lost to the industry. Elsewhere in the estuary, space allocated for jetties and boat ramps on waterfront properties, was taken from existing foreshore oyster leases, reducing the area of the leases. Opposition to oyster leases resulted in an end to foreshore leases in some areas, and a requirement that leases needed to be a certain distance from the shoreline. Despite these changes, in 1976, there were around 100 oyster farmers in the estuary. 602:, the mudworm, a serious pest for oysters. The recent silting created ideal conditions for the mudworm. Infestations of mudworms, combined with the impact of earlier silting, permanently destroyed the already depleted sub-tidal oyster reefs and beds in the affected estuaries, effectively ending dredge harvesting of oysters. The few remaining natural sub-tidal oyster beds now occur, on hard bottoms in locations with high estuarine flow, in places such as the southern arm of 809: 548:

found to be well-stocked with oysters and to have been properly worked by the lessee, in accordance with the conditions and requirements of the lease. The act allowed the Crown to suspend a lease, if it had become depleted of oysters, and close it to production for a period of three years to allow replenishment. A royalty payment was placed upon harvested oysters. Burning live oysters for lime was prohibited and made subject to a £50 fine.

460:, caused suitable growing conditions—clean water and slightly reduced salinity— for faster-growing, plump rock oysters. For a short coastal river, Georges River has a relatively large catchment of 930 sq. km. There is a significant freshwater component in the flow of the Georges River itself; at times a small standing wave develops across the narrow part of the river estuary, between Jewfish Point (Oatley) and the opposite southern shore ( 1099:

In 2018–2019, around 76 million individual oysters were harvested in New South Wales, only around the same number that had been harvested in 1955. By 2020, after Port Stephens was hit with Pacific Oyster Mortality Syndrome in 2013-2014, there had been a return to significant production of Sydney Rock Oysters there, but QX disease spread to the estuary for the first time in 2021, and broke out again in 2022, wiping out the rock oysters.

498:, although having some freshwater inflows, have much smaller catchments, and are more saline than the oyster growing areas on the Georges River; oysters that grow there do not fatten sufficiently quickly to support a commercial industry. Sydney Harbour is also relatively deep, limiting the available sites for inter-tidal aquaculture, and its deep-water port and relatively earlier settlement led to the extensive presence of 331:. With hindsight, it was also much more labour-intensive than necessary, under the conditions prevailing on the Georges River. Production actually increased once the flood gates at Gwawley Bay were removed, and some large and good quality oysters were grown. However, the venture was uneconomic, and it ended after a few years. Holt was reported to have spent £10,000 on the venture, a large sum for the time. 1103: 1070:

for commercial viability. Most oyster farmers on Georges River could not survive that long, and most remaining oyster farmers gave up their leases in the estuary in 1996—1997. Prior to QX, there were still 89 oyster farming leases, over an area of 94.6 hectares of the estuary, and around 40 oyster farmers, but by late 1999, only seven oyster farmers remained on working leases.

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arguably, for less sophisticated consumer tastes—within the context of constraints on the supply of Sydney Rock oysters, does not auger well for the indigenous oyster. The future long-term commercial viability of Sydney Rock Oyster production in Australia has been questioned, as growers shift to Pacific Oysters or leave the industry completely. It may be 'a dying art'.

82:, was recorded as being a quarter of a mile (400 m) long by 150 yards (137 m) wide. The Royal Commission's report described the natural beds as, "close set clumps of five or six oysters and two or four clumps thick all over the bed, averaging about eighteen mature oysters beside spat on every 5 square inches over an unbroken bed of shell on a tolerably hard bottom". 1086:

both (infertile) farmed and wild Pacific oysters in the estuary died in great numbers. Fortunately, by 2011, the last oyster farmers on the estuary were able to resume production of Sydney Rock Oysters, which were not only QX-resistant but also much faster maturing than earlier rock oysters. There was optimism about a revival of the industry on the Georges River.

1309:. The reefs, initially artificially constructed from underwater heaps of dumped rocks, will support reintroduced Native flat oysters (locally extinct since 1896) and also the now depleted Sydney Rock Oysters. The last shore facility for oyster farming on Woolooware Bay was closed, in the same year to allow soil decontamination, due to the presence of 537:". Among its regulations was a prohibition on the sale of oysters in the months from October to January (inclusive). The regulations, otherwise, did little more than provide rights to leaseholders and penalties for theft of oysters. The next significant Act was that of 1868; among other things, it prohibited use of live oysters for lime burning. 596:

plunged. The Sydney Rock Oyster occurs naturally in New Zealand. With local spat in short supply, rock oyster spat from New Zealand was imported into estuaries in New South Wales and Southern Queensland, between around 1880 and 1898 to replenish the depleted oyster stocks. It is now generally believed that these New Zealand oysters carried

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Pacific Oysters, which are not susceptible to QX disease, in the Georges River estuary. These measures ensured that a vestige of the Georges River industry survived, while QX resistant Sydney Rock Oysters were being bred. In 2010, the estuary was hit with Pacific Oyster Mortality Syndrome (POMS), and

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QX-resistant Sydney rock oyster strains came too late to save most of the Georges River industry. Although selective breeding of oyster strains can reduce mortality due to QX, it was expected to take four generations of selective breeding to achieve a mortality rate of around 10%, an acceptable level

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overflow upstream, which occurred after a satisfactory water quality test. Sales were banned for a period. The timing was bad because Georges River oysters dominated the market from April to August. Such events damaged the reputation of oysters from the river, causing consumers to shun Georges River

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The oyster leases remained largely in the hands of individuals and families, some of whom, such as the Drake and Derwent families, had worked the river since the 1870s. Farmers on the river generally cooperated with one another as separate, but sometimes related, family businesses. Some of the oyster

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By the early 1920s, some oyster farmers were fattening mature oysters by placing the oysters on wire netting trays, which were in turn placed on timber frames, or 'rails', which kept the trays within the inter-tidal zone and were embedded in the bottom. This method became known as 'tray and rail'. It

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roofing tiles instead of stone slabs. In the inter-tidal zone, the tiles were sometimes placed in an inverted 'V' and sometimes laid against wooden supports. Tiles usually had a larger surface area for their weight, and were easier to relocate than stone slabs. As a variant of the method using tiles,

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Even before the catastrophic arrival of the mudworm, some had begun to farm Sydney Rock Oysters, on rocks near the shoreline or deliberately placed on mudbanks in the estuary, or on upright sticks installed on the mudbanks and shallows, creating an artificial inter-tidal zone habitat for the oysters.

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Report of the Royal Commission, appointed on the 29th September, 1876 : to inquire into the best mode of cultivating the oyster, of utilising, improving, and maintaining the natural oyster beds of the colony, and also as to the legislation necessary to carry out these objects; together with the

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In 2000, the Lime Kiln Bay Wetland project was completed, with the aim to improve the quality of urban runoff water, before it enters the river, and to preserve a threatened foreshore wetland ecosystem. This is one of a number of wetland projects, with similar objectives, in the estuarine portion of

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fishery. Its spread has been due to both accidental and intentional introduction of the species to habitats outside its original range. The Pacific Oyster dominates global oyster production, and it has, by weight, the largest production rate of any marine species (of any kind), by 2003, 4.38 million

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was prohibited. Some estuaries have locations that favour high rates of Sydney rock oyster spat production, but those same locations are usually not ideal for fattening oysters. Oyster farmers on the Georges River had obtained their rock oyster spat from Port Stephens, bringing the spat to grow into

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in bays. The method essentially mimicked the natural inter-tidal growth of oysters on the rocky foreshore. Slabs were sometimes arranged in pairs, stacked like an inverted 'V', as it was found that spat would settle best on the protected underside of the slabs. Once the oysters were established, the

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The most long-lasting and significant changes were made in 1884. Leases for oyster farms on "land below the high tide mark" could be granted, for not more than fifteen years, after which time the lease would go to an auction or tender. However, a lease could be renewed if, after twelve years, it was

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The Aboriginal presence continued for many years after colonisation. An early oyster farmer recalled that there was a lone Aboriginal man living traditionally, in a rock shelter at Audrey Bay, Illawong, as late as the 1880s. There was also an unofficial Aboriginal settlement at Salt Pan Creek, until

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Production of Sydney Rock Oysters in New South Wales plunged, between 1980 and 2018; Georges River production became negligible, Port Stephens production fell by 75%, and QX spread to other estuaries, such as the Hawkesbury. Production never recovered to be anywhere near the previous record levels.

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Oysters that are near maturity, and soon to be harvested, are worst affected by the disease, increasing the impact of any losses. Georges River oyster farmers had limited the impact of winter mortality, by moving their oysters on trays, to more sheltered waters with lower salinity, such as near the

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was refreshed using tidal flows, but is also augmented by rain, keeping it slightly less saline than seawater and so more suitable for fattening oysters. Holt was intending to farm the Sydney Rock Oyster, but the method he used was possibly more appropriate to a sub-tidal species such as the Native

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estuary of New South Wales, Australia, occurred between around 1870 and 2023. Production peaked in the 1970s. In the financial year 1976–1977, the river produced 2,563 tonnes of oysters, over a quarter of the record statewide production total of 9,375 tonnes (the state total being equivalent to 204

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Retail prices of Pacific oysters in Sydney are now generally higher than that of Sydney Rock oysters, with one theory being that the supply chain costs, including transport-to-market costs, of Pacific oysters are higher. However, the continuing demand for Pacific oysters—even at higher prices and,

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river estuaries, since the 1970s, leading to a decline in oyster farming there. When it first appeared in Georges River in 1994, it wiped out 90% of the farmed oysters, in affected areas. Effects of QX were worst in parts of the river with lower salinity. The first area affected was Lugarno and QX

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were found in southern NSW estuaries, and it spread northward as far as Port Stephens by 1973, but the species did not become established in significant numbers. Around 1984, the Pacific oyster was illegally introduced to Port Stephens, and became well-established; the risk of its being introduced

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were grown commercially on the Georges River. Production grew rapidly from the 1930s to the 1960s. One reason for the rapid growth in production was so-called 'highway farming', under which oysters were moved between estuaries by road, taking advantage of the characteristics of different estuaries

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For a time, large harvests were taken, depleting the natural sub-tidal beds. Criticisms of dredging were that it damaged many of the oysters, so that a portion were unsalable, and it was indiscriminate, resulting in many immature oysters being lost. It was also ultimately unsustainable and damaged

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Demand for lime outstripped what could be obtained from dead shells, and live oysters were dredged from the estuary, and burnt to make lime. In 1868, after sources of limestone had been found outside Sydney, and the oyster beds were becoming depleted, the colonial government banned the practice of

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Another method was to build banks over shallow inter-tidal mudflats, excavating the mud between the banks to create channels, and then topping the banks with clean oyster shells, creating artificial inter-tidal oyster banks, close to shore but above the level of the mud; it was also an expedient

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Without a suitable model for oyster farming to emulate, local oyster farmers needed to develop techniques best suited to local conditions. Various methods were used in the earlier years of inter-tidal oyster farming on the Georges River. All the methods relied on setting oyster spat on a suitable

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that empty into the ocean, after flowing through the estuary—had deposited three inches of silt over the natural oyster beds in the Georges River, smothering many oysters. New Zealand oysters were translocated to the Georges River in 1886, and mudworm became a problem there during 1887. After the

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Oyster beds were replenished using small oysters that had settled on rocks and mangroves elsewhere in the estuary, from around 1873. Smaller oysters from Port Hacking were relocated to the Georges River, to replenish the natural oyster beds. However, by the beginning of the 1890s, New South Wales

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As oysters became scarcer, divers were employed by Emerson to harvest the remaining oysters growing in parts of the estuary that were unsuitable for dredging. Diving was used as early as 1876. Divers worked from punts, and up to around forty-five feet of water. An implication of divers working to

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The year 1887, was a particularly bad year for the oyster industry; most New South Wales estuaries were affected by flood water, which carried silt over the oyster beds, and 'spatfall', the formation of new oysters, was poor in that year. With most of the estuaries similarly affected, production

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The focus shifted, from lime production, to dredge harvesting of oysters as a food, taken from the remaining naturally occurring oyster beds. In the 1870s, the natural oyster beds in the estuary were leased to two brothers named Emerson, one of whom, Alfred Emerson, was the proprietor of the Sea

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Because of its large and heavy shell the Native, flat, or mud oyster was preferred for lime production. Colonists had a preference for the taste of the 'cluster' or rock oyster, which also had better keeping characteristics. The sub-tidal oyster beds in the river contained mature oysters of both

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event that was traced to Georges River oysters, in 1978. There were recriminations between oyster farmers and the NSW Government, over the ultimate responsibility for the contaminated oysters reaching the market, and a decrease of the public's confidence in the safety of oysters from the river.

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has also been significant. New Zealand has achieved a significant market share, with snap-frozen raw Pacific oysters on the half shell, a less perishable and more convenient format for smaller retailers. Selective breeding of Pacific Oysters for aquaculture has not only resulted in infertile,

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In 2012, the last of the old Georges River oyster-farming families, the Drakes, sold their leases and business. In 2023, the last oyster farm in the estuary, Robert Hill, who took over from the Drakes. was forced to close, because the landward side of the last oyster farming site needed

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The industry on the Georges River reached its productive peak in the 1970s. In the financial year 1976-1977, the river produced 2,563 tonnes of oysters, over a quarter of the record statewide production total of 9,375 tonnes (that statewide total being equivalent to 204 million oysters).

476:— also had extensive mudbanks and wide shallow bays, exposed at low tide and well suited to inter-tidal oyster cultivation. Overall, conditions in this part of the Georges River estuary and the lower part of its tributary, Woronora River, were once ideal for oyster farming. 997:) was declared a Class 2 Noxious Fish, under the Fisheries Management Act, 1994, for all waters in New South Wales, except Port Stephens, meaning that oyster farmers in other estuaries had to kill any wild Pacific oysters on their leases. Pacific oysters (also known as 45:

in 1994, all but totally destroyed the industry on the Georges River; the development of QX-resistant strains came too late to save much of it. In 2023, the last oyster farm in the estuary was forced to close, and its future as an oyster growing area is now uncertain.

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Over time, the impact of the mud worm became less of a barrier to oyster culture, but the loss of the oyster reefs adversely impacted biodiversity. Mudworm itself affected biodiversity; as well as sub-tidal oysters, other species of bivalves, including Venus clams

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Before the arrival of the first European colonists, Georges River was different in several ways to now. The land adjacent to its shores was not urbanised, nor had there been extensive land clearing within the river catchment. The river itself was less silted.

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Holt's venture was an early attempt at sustainable oyster aquaculture in the estuary, and his oyster beds in the bay were still producing oysters as late as 1888, However, the French technique of oyster growing would never be reattempted in Australia. The

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had the advantage that the level of the oysters was not dictated by the level of the bottom, allowing inter-tidal oyster leases to be extended into deeper water. It also kept the oysters well above the muddy bottom, reducing the risk of mudworm attack.

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for different stages of the oysters' growth. Other reasons were that the widespread adoption of the 'tray and rail' made oyster farming less labour-intensive, increasing productivity, and had also reduced the impacts of mudworm and 'winter mortality'.

339:, locally called 'channels', were still there in the early 1920s, and still discernible in a 1953 aerial photograph of the area. Both Gwawley Bay and Weeney Bay would later be and long remain the sites of commercial oyster farms, using other methods. 468:. The upper part of the river is fluvial, and salinity in the river increases as the river flows downstream. The salinity level is most suitable for rock oysters, in the tidal part of the river that lies downstream from around Soily Bottom Point, at 587:) from other estuaries, to mature and fatten in the Georges River estuary, would become an important aspect of the industry. However, importing spat from New Zealand would cause a crisis for the fledgling industry, and for the ecology of the river. 128:

consisting largely of oyster shells accumulated near the river. The contents of the Aboriginal middens reveal the species of oysters that were present, in the river estuary, prior to colonisation. The middens reveal a mixture of the Native oyster

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In the earlier decades of the colony of New South Wales, oyster shells were burnt to create lime. Because the Georges River was naturally endowed with oysters, some early colonists in the area were lime burners. One was John Alford, after whom

298:, was the site of Holt's oyster farming project. Its shore was also the site of Holt's house, Sutherland House. He had a bridge built across the opening of the bay, into which were incorporated flood gates to control the tidal flow, and had 688:) were previously a fringe on the waterside edge of the salt marsh, but expanded landward as the bays began to be more silted. Much of that change has occurred since 1930. The process appears irreversible and probably was accelerated by 342:

A lasting legacy of Holt's time was that Gwawley and Weeney Bays were, uniquely in New South Wales, privately-owned waterways. Much later, in 1963, that privately-owned status would lead to the end of oyster farming at Gwawley Bay.

2464: 764: 234:, had made a tour of the French oyster farming industry around 1863. Returning to Australia, in 1864, he bought land on the estuary foreshore. On that land, he attempted to emulate the French technique of oyster farming using 502:, some of which were polluting. In the case of Sydney Harbour, by the mid 1880s, there was already too much demand for access to foreshores, for other purposes, and applications for oyster leases there were rejected. In the 4691: 708:

A simple earlier method was to place large sticks, oriented vertically, into the bottom in the inter-tidal zone, providing a surface for spat to set and mature. The sticks were locally-available wood; typically 'swamp oak'

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the river. Although the river estuary is now extensively urbanized, there is an improvement in water quality in the areas with wetland restoration. However, it appears that the loss of most of the estuary's once extensive

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less-invasive, disease-resistant strains but also has improved their eating quality, relative to wild oysters. While the Sydney rock oyster remains a remains a highly regarded oyster, faster growing and generally larger

521:, are further from the main market but, due to the excellent live-storage life of unopened rock oysters, could supply the market. Other estuaries in New South Wales were producing oysters for the Sydney market by 1887. 422:

attracted by broken oysters. A criticism of the divers was that, being paid by the bag, they indiscriminately took both large and small (immature) oysters, inhibiting the breeding of oysters in the natural oyster beds.

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and its estuaries as endangered. It was announced, in 2023, that work would begin on re-establishing three sub-tidal oyster reefs in the Georges River estuary (at Audrey Bay, Coronation Bay and on the eastern side of

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There was a long-standing and lucrative criminal activity involving the theft of oysters from leases in the Georges River estuary. In late 1934, shots were fired at oyster poachers by police patrolling the leases.

544:". Parliament passed the Fisheries Bill in 1881, and the natural oyster beds on the Georges River were closed for a period. The natural oyster beds in the river were reopened to dredge harvesting, in June 1883. 4659: 270: 843:

The oyster farmers of New South Wales formed the NSW Oyster Farmers Association, to advocate for their interests. The annual conference typically was held at a location close to the Georges River, such as

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to inquire into the best mode of cultivating the oyster, of utilising, improving, and maintaining the natural oyster beds of the colony, and also as to the legislation necessary to carry out these objects

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were 22 feet wide (another report stated from 14 to 33 feet wide) and totalled 30 miles in length, with water depth at low tide varying between four inches and two feet. Holt had earlier enclosed nearby

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people who lived along its shorelines. However, the harvesting of seafood from the estuary by the traditional owners had little if any impact on the otherwise pristine state of the estuary environment.

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Gillies, Chris L.; Castine, Sarah A.; Alleway, Heidi K.; Crawford, Christine; Fitzsimons, James A.; Hancock, Boze; Koch, Paul; McAfee, Dominic; McLeod, Ian M.; zu Ermgassen, Philine S.E. (June 2020).

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growths of rock oysters were left. Sydney Rock Oysters, grown in the inter-tidal zone, would become the basis of commercial oyster farming, on the Georges River and other New South Wales estuaries.

568:, in late 1885, allowing their product to be transported to market. Also in 1886, oyster leases were applied for in many locations along the estuary of the Georges River, ranging from Quibray Bay ( 418:, but divers believed that they were able to deter these sharks by opening the wristband of their diving suit and releasing large air bubbles into water; divers were more concerned about annoying 394: 787: 821:, the number of oyster farmers on the estuary was boosted by returning soldiers who took up oyster leases. These new farmers were assisted to become established by the existing oyster farmers. 1090:

decontamination. The second last oyster farmer, John Hedison, had left the industry in late 2017, for similar reasons. The future of the estuary as an oyster growing area is now uncertain.

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It is envisaged that the presence of the oyster reefs in the bay and estuary will increase both water quality and biodiversity, including an increase in the numbers of fish living there.

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faces of the slab were rotated exposing the oysters. The rock slabs were needed in such numbers that stone was quarried specifically for that purpose. The largest of these quarries, at

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The extent of the natural oyster beds in New South Wales was mapped, as part of the work of a Royal Commission into the oyster industry in 1876, but these records were lost in the

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estuary was affected by mudworm, in 1888, dredge harvesting ceased entirely, but divers remained working in the Georges River oyster industry, until at the earliest 1908.

3133: 4677: 3616: 724: 379:. The oyster dredger would row to the dredging location. He would then either anchor his boat or attach it to a stake driven into the bottom. He would then let out a 2991: 3079: 938:

Changes were made; harvesting was suspended after heavy rain events, water quality tested regularly, and oysters were subjected to 36 to 48-hours of filtration and

4941: 4275:"Magallana gigas (Thunberg 1793) Family: OSTREIDAE, FAO Names: En - Pacific cupped oyster, Fr - Huître creuse du Pacifique, Es - Ostión japonés, Crassostrea gigas" 363: 4915: 576:). The applicants included earlier industry participants, Alfred Emerson and interests associated with the Holt family, but also a number of newer entrants. 1237: 2530: 1419: 1234:, but due to opposition to oyster leases from the local and state governments, production ceased at these locations relatively early in the 20th century. 427:

oyster production became unable to fully satisfy domestic demand for oysters, and large numbers of oysters were imported from New Zealand and Queensland.

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spread downstream over the next few years, until all the oyster growing locations in the estuary, apart from Quibray Bay, were affected by late 1999.

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Roughley, T.C., An investigation of the cause of an oyster mortality on the Georges River, New South Wales, 1924–25. Proc. Linn. Soc. NSW 51:446–491.

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In the early 1970s, oyster farmers allied with local conservation and civic groups to fight council reclamation projects at Lime Kiln Bay, where a

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estuaries, to Sydney's immediate north, there were some areas suited to oyster growing, but production there never rivalled that of Georges River.

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as high risk for Pacific Oysters based on the abundance of wild Pacific Oysters from a 2010 statewide survey and extensive industry consultation

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exposure, including in a small cooperative facility at Neverfail Bay, Oatley. A similar facility, based on British practice, has been in use at

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By the mid-1870s, natural oyster beds in the estuary were seriously depleted from the combined effects of lime burning and dredge harvesting.

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Despite the precautions and improvements following the 1978 gastroenteritis event, there was another food poisoning event in May 1990, when

639:), is an entirely sub-tidal species; mudworm and silting—coupled with earlier over-exploitation of the resource—caused the oyster species' 4571: 4492: 487:. In the 1880s, its shoreline was mainly unpopulated and that allowed oyster farming to become established, prior to later urbanisation. 5254:"Oyster farming in the Sutherland Shire, ca. 1900-1920, Photograph: Stone cultivation of oysters at Kangaroo Point, house in background" 2220: 535:

to form or lay down any artificial oyster bed or to improve any natural oyster bed on the shore .... bordering on the sea or any estuary

231: 4598:"The rise and fall of oyster cultivation in the highly urbanized Georges River estuary, Sydney, Australia: A review of lessons learned" 2777:"No. XX. An Act to regulate Oyster Fisheries and to encourage the formation of Oyster-beds. [Assented to, 1st February, 1868.]" 1025:

In 1992, there was a catastrophic outbreak of 'winter mortality', a poorly understood seasonal disease caused by a protozoan parasite,

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fire in 1882. It is known, however, that the natural beds in the Georges River estuary were originally extensive; one natural bed, off

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acknowledges that the Biddegal/Bidjigal/Bedegal clan of the Eora are the original inhabitants and custodians of land and water in the

3594: 1862:"REPORT ON HURSTVILLE COMMUNITY BASED HERITAGE STUDY REVIEW FOR HURSTVILLE CITY COUNCIL (Volume 2): Item Name: Oatley Park and Baths" 777:

method of waste disposal. Some of these oyster shell banks still exist, especially near former oyster processing sites on the river.

5551: 4361: 3862: 2601: 2275: 5154: 2970: 1081:, and fattening them before February and March, when the QX virus was most virulent. Later, approval was given to farm (infertile) 440: 206:. The practice of lime burning gave rise to the name of Lime Kiln Bay, where there were lime kilns near the shore, in what is now 3048: 1062: 908: 295: 5419:

Institute of Public Works Engineering Australia (Ipwea) New South Wales Division, Conference, 5th, 2004, Olympic Park, New Souu

4077:"BEING GREEN - OATLEY FLORA AND FAUNA CONSERVATION SOCIETY, The First 50 Years 1955 - 2005 (Chapter 4: The Battle of the Bays)" 1226:

was an oyster farming location and there were other oyster farming locations on the left (north) bank, east of Oatley, such as

1179: 1122:, and changes in consumer preferences and population demographics. Removal of trade restrictions, such as by implementation of 966: 514: 647:. It was declared locally extinct in the Georges River, in 1896, although its shells may still be found in the area. Only the 3998: 946:, since at latest the mid-1960s. Changes to the sewage system were also made, with discharges from upstream sewage plants at 611: 5387: 3235:"Oyster farming in the Sutherland Shire, ca. 1900-1920, Photograph: Fibro cement roofing sheets and oysters, Woolooware Bay" 1786: 1710: 674:

The silting of the river and nutrient-rich runoff, due to urbanisation, has led over time to the replacement of most of the

654: 2860:"An Act for the amendment of the Fisheries Act 1881 the promotion of Oyster Culture and the Regulation of Oyster Fisheries" 560:

Production using these methods began in earnest around 1880. By 1886, oyster farmers were established at Neverfail Bay, at

479:

The river also had the advantage that it was the only oyster growing area, within the suburban area of the largest market,

166:. The sandstone was useful as a source of stone blocks for building and the shale for making bricks. However, there was no 1154:, looking toward Illawong (left) and Lugarno (right), and showing oyster farming racks (now gone) on left. (Date unknown.) 1058: 644: 2110:"Oyster farming in the Sutherland Shire, ca. 1900-1920, Photograph: Thomas Holt's channels in Gwawley Bay, built in 1870" 383:

line to allow the boat to drift with the tide, out to the length to be dredged. The dredge would then be thrown over the

3852: 2591: 1579:"The Disappearance of Oyster Reefs from Eastern Australian Estuaries—Impact of Colonial Settlement or Mudworm Invasion?" 1302: 1265: 1151: 943: 849: 845: 565: 484: 207: 2157: 2051: 696:

and, from the 1990s, by waterlogged wheel ruts caused by illegal use of recreational vehicles in remnant salt marshes.

5503:

The Disappearance of Oyster Reefs from Eastern Australian Estuaries—Impact of Colonial Settlement or Mudworm Invasion?

4971: 1194: 353: 5039: 3207:"Oyster farming in the Sutherland Shire, ca. 1900-1920 - Photograph: Flat tiles of mature oysters at Carter's Island" 2646:"Oyster culture on the George's River, New South Wales / by T.C.Roughley - Catalogue | National Library of Australia" 4206: 768:

Georges River oyster farmers gathering sticks of immature (two year old) oysters for relocation onto trays. (c.1966)

3408: 1205: 1119: 951: 947: 659: 530: 4994: 3316:"Oyster farming in the Sutherland Shire, ca. 1900-1920, Photograph: Large built-up bed of oysters, Woolooware Bay" 97:. In this part of the river, the right bank of the river (southern side) is a part of the traditional land of the 4770: 2803:"LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY. - WEDNESDAY, MARCH 23. - The Sydney Morning Herald (NSW : 1842 - 1954) - 24 Mar 1881" 2622: 1123: 853: 371:. The dredge is at the stern, to the right of the pile of oysters and the windlass is forward to the man's left. 222:

dredging live oysters for lime. Lime burning continued, resulting in the destruction of some Aboriginal middens.

5223: 5116: 1761: 1110:

On the demand side, changes have included competition—mainly in Pacific oysters—from other states, particularly

899:

By the 1960s, increasing urbanisation around the estuary was becoming a threat to the oyster industry. In 1963,

5065: 3520: 3180: 2441: 1271: 1200: 1184: 955: 569: 469: 368: 3080:"Oyster reefs to be built in Botany Bay and Georges River to boost fish populations and increase biodiversity" 1293:

is now irreversible, and the ecology of the river is now very different to that present even as late as 1930.

985:

To save an oyster industry in Port Stephens, many farmers converted to farming Pacific oysters. The (fertile,

4800:

Demolition and Replacement of Structures at the Oyster Farm, Woolooware Bay. Review of Environmental Factors

1242: 1189: 561: 518: 457: 419: 189: 21: 5541: 3688: 1938: 1346: 1143:

The locations below have been the sites of significant oyster farming leases in the Georges River estuary:

1001:

oysters in Europe) have been associated with the reduction of multiple native oyster fisheries including,

86: 4871: 5311: 5283: 4848: 4541: 4471: 3967: 3610: 3292: 3127: 2946: 2835: 2807: 2753: 2700: 2416: 2328: 1164: 1146: 881: 453: 327:

was gathered there. Oysters were lost due to the climatic temperature and turbidity of the water in the

118: 114: 1489:"Changes in mangrove/salt marsh distribution in the Georges River estuary, southern Sydney, 1930--1970" 5451: 4597: 1450: 5525: 5463: 4823: 4609: 2859: 1590: 1006: 780:

A problem for the industry was a poorly understood condition known as 'winter mortality'. Zoologist,

717: 615: 159: 137: 3264:

Local History - Sutherland Shire Libraries - Photograph: Split stakes for oysters at Carter's Island

817:

farming families remained in the industry on Georges River for three or four generations. After the

5546: 4274: 3819: 3025: 2182: 607: 33: 5253: 3315: 3259: 3234: 3206: 2109: 1676: 808: 728:

Oyster farm at Pelican Point on Woolooware Bay, Georges River, with stone slabs (taken in 1921 by

579:

So depleted had the estuary become that oyster farmers continued to relocate smaller oysters from

4633: 889: 877: 872:

Oyster farming survived opposition from Georges River Oyster Lease Protest Association (GROLPA),

801: 598: 480: 183: 124:

For people living by the estuary, oysters were an important food. Over thousands of years, large

63:

habitat, now vestigial and endangered in the estuary. There were also large, naturally-occurring

5432: 483:. It was also close to transport, even in earlier years, once the railway reached the river, at 5362: 5202:"Describing and analysing the Pacific oyster supply chain in Australia - Final Research Report" 564:, where oyster farming activities would continue until around 1996. The railway had arrived at 5136: 4671: 4625: 3858: 3635: 2597: 2296: 2271: 2086: 1042:, in the 1920s—was not effective, in 1992, with the Georges River oyster harvest down by 70%. 1039: 781: 732:). This lease alone had half a million slabs. Slabs were arranged in pairs as an inverted-'V'. 380: 105:

people. Opposite, on the left bank (northern side), are traditional lands belonging to either

2270:, Compiled by Frances Pollon, Angus & Robertson Publishers, 1990, Published in Australia 5556: 5479: 5471: 5235: 5128: 4617: 4472:"Control of Winter Mortality and QX Disease m Sydney rock oysters - FRDC Project No. 93/153" 4124: 4047: 3744: 3548: 3115: 3101:"ECOLOGICAL IMPACTS OF RECREATIONAL VEHICLE USE ON SALTMARSHES OF THE GEORGES RIVER, SYDNEY" 2879: 2387: 2028: 1884: 1606: 1598: 711: 684: 640: 503: 203: 163: 41:

million individual oysters). Following a series of setbacks after that year, an outbreak of

3937: 2913: 2243: 958:. However, the decline in the industry in the Georges River estuary had begun around 1978. 614:. It is estimated that 99% of the now vastly reduced natural oyster reefs in Australia are 3466: 1912: 1736: 1115: 1035: 962: 934: 873: 818: 679: 648: 610:, and some remnant natural inter-tidal oyster reefs still exist, the largest being in the 584: 533:, from 1862, when the Oyster Fisheries Act was passed. It made it lawful for a lessee to " 324: 171: 56: 4318:"Return of a native: Olympia oysters are making a comeback | Encyclopedia of Puget Sound" 5467: 4613: 2135: 1594: 896:, increasing urbanisation, river silting, and increasing water turbidity and pollution. 238:, which are long rectangular ponds excavated into former salt marshes. The water in the 5090: 4514: 4447: 4419: 4391: 4182: 4154: 4095: 4076: 1227: 1216: 1128: 1074: 1054: 1002: 974: 893: 832: 693: 689: 507: 449: 357: 94: 79: 2411: 1735:

Studies, Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander (8 June 2021).

618:, meaning that those reefs no longer play any significant function in the ecosystem. 302:

dug into low-lying land bordering the eastern side of the bay. The land alongside the

5535: 5484: 5339: 4637: 4343: 3914: 3886: 3772: 3716: 3438: 3348: 2567: 2359: 1811: 1578: 1488: 1241:

Oyster trays and tar tank at the small abandoned oyster farming site on Jewfish Bay,

729: 635: 603: 279: 264: 255: 245: 199: 131: 75: 37: 5452:"Conservation status of the Oyster Reef Ecosystem of Southern and Eastern Australia" 2412:"THE FISHERIES BILL.—PRACTICAL OYSTER CULTURE ON GEORGE'S RIVER. (Letter to editor)" 1991: 3658: 2670: 1014: 915: 904: 791:

Boat towing barges, loaded with sticks of immature oysters, up Georges River c.1966

757: 580: 495: 491: 291: 1966: 1787:"Aboriginal People on Sydney's Georges River from 1820 | The Dictionary of Sydney" 1711:"Aboriginal People on Sydney's Georges River from 1820 | The Dictionary of Sydney" 5391: 1045:

Oyster farming on the river finally succumbed in the mid-1990s, to the spread of

5475: 1420:"'Disgraceful example of government bureaucracy': Last oyster farmer forced out" 1169: 1078: 939: 900: 885: 626: 287: 211: 175: 141:). The Native oyster has been locally extinct in the Georges River, since 1896. 64: 4720: 4621: 2645: 2563:"NEW DANGER TO OYSTERS. Woronora Dam Blamed. Scientist Supports Growers' Claim" 2482: 1131:

are displacing it—geographically and commercially—to a now significant extent.

375:

Each oyster dredger typically had their own boat, equipped with a dredge and a

202:

is named, who supplied lime from the Georges River for the construction of the

5515: 5334: 5306: 5278: 5224:"History, status and future of Australia's native Sydney rock oyster industry" 5175: 5117:"History, status and future of Australia's native Sydney rock oyster industry" 4746: 4509: 4442: 4414: 4386: 4177: 4149: 4090: 3993: 3909: 3881: 3767: 3739: 3711: 3683: 3630: 3543: 3515: 3461: 3433: 3343: 3175: 3020: 2830: 2776: 2671:"What hides in the murky waters of Lane Cove River? | Simon & Schuster AU" 2562: 2382: 2354: 2323: 2081: 1907: 1879: 1602: 1306: 1297: 1290: 1223: 1211: 1159: 1102: 1031: 919: 749: 675: 415: 320: 68: 60: 42: 5140: 4629: 3962: 3857:. Acton ACT: Australian National University Press. pp. 99–117, 257–260. 3287: 2941: 2802: 2748: 2726: 2695: 2617: 2596:. Acton ACT: Australian National University Press. pp. 99–117, 257–260. 2436: 2291: 2215: 5200:

Schrobback, Peggy; Rust, Steven; Ugalde, Sarah; Rolfe, John (October 2020).

3156: 2023: 1046: 668: 408: 167: 1150:

View of the mouth of Lime Kiln Bay, from Hills Lookout, on Lime Kiln Head,

5239: 5132: 4035:. The Georges River Combined Councils Riverkeeper Program. pp. 11–27. 736:

Other earlier oyster farms used rock slabs placed on river mudbanks or on

1693: 1310: 1259: 1231: 1174: 1111: 1082: 742: 461: 376: 102: 3963:"OYSTER FARMERS' PROBLEM. Insufficient Fresh Water. WORONORA DAM BLAMED" 5522:

Last of His Kind: Uncertain future for last Georges River oyster farmer

1314: 986: 737: 622: 573: 179: 98: 4301:"NSW Oyster Industry Sustainable Aquaculture Strategy (Third Edition)" 1611: 1038:. This 'wintering' method—first proposed by eminent oyster zoologist, 278:' or 'channels' at Gwawley Bay, photographed in April or May 1921, by 59:

were not as extensive, and much of their ultimate area was originally

1077:, initially by bringing in immature oysters, from the Hawkesbury and 1018: 880:, reduced freshwater flows from the Woronora River, dredging for the 829: 311: 135:), also known as the flat or mud oyster, and the Sydney Rock Oyster ( 125: 106: 4024:

Florence, T. Mark; Moody, Glen D.; Whitelaw, Graham J. (July 1999).

3854:

GEORGES RIVER BLUES SWAMPS, MANGROVES AND RESIDENT ACTION, 1945–1980

3119: 2593:

GEORGES RIVER BLUES SWAMPS, MANGROVES AND RESIDENT ACTION, 1945–1980

1520: 961:

Another blow to the industry occurred in 1985, when the movement of

5414: 633:

In its mature phase, the naturally-occurring Native or Mud oyster (

444:

Sydney Rock Oyster, on the half shell, with two empty lower valves.

4692:"85% Triploid Pacific Oyster - Georges River and Hawkesbury River" 1254:

Remnants of the oyster farming industry exist at these locations:

836: 828:

Loading bagged Georges River oysters (c.1966) Each standard three

823: 807: 786: 763: 753: 653: 388: 384: 362: 269: 188: 4942:"Australia-New Zealand Closer Economic Relations Trade Agreement" 1296:

A scientific paper in 2020, listed the sub-tidal oyster reefs of

1053:, which affects Sydney Rock Oysters. It had been present, in the 572:) upstream to Little Moon Bay (on the western side of modern-day 403:

the natural oyster beds and disturbed the bottom of the estuary.

352:

Breeze Hotel, at Tom Uglys Point, now the most southerly part of

16:

Aquaculture industry on Georges River, New South Wales, Australia

5433:"NSW Water Quality and River Flow Objectives (Map - Full Scale)" 4844:"Why your Christmas lunch is under threat from an oyster killer" 465: 110: 5115:

Schrobback, Peggy; Pascoe, Sean; Coglan, Louisa (1 July 2014).

3593:

Facey, J.H, Secretary, Oyster Farmers' Association (May 1957).

367:

A rare photograph of an oyster dredging boat, taken in 1926 at

540:

On the 29 September 1876, a Royal Commissioner was appointed "

473: 411:

of the river water, in those times, was lower than it is now.

170:, conveniently near to Sydney, which could be burnt to create 4904:. NSW Department of Primary Industries. 2016. pp. 6–10. 4362:"All you want to know about Pacific oysters | Ecomare Texel" 1379:. NSW Department of Primary Industries. 2016. pp. 6–10. 1317:, in which wooden oyster trays and barges were once coated. 356:. He established his depot on O'Connells Bay, now known as 253:

has a superficial resemblance to the European flat oyster (

4091:"Trying to find solutions in the wake of the oyster scare" 4946:

Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT), Australia

4048:"History of Sylvania Waters - The Sylvania Waters Estate" 1017:

failed to advise Georges River oyster farmers of a large

671:), once found in profusion, disappeared from estuaries. 464:), when the flow of the Georges River meets the incoming 5222:

Schrobback, Peggy; Pascoe, Sean; Coglan, Louisa (2014).

3808:. NSW Department of Primary Industries. 2016. p. 6. 1577:

Ogburn, Damian; White, Ian; Mcphee, Daryl (March 2007).

1401:. NSW Department of Primary Industries. 2016. p. 6. 705:

surface, where the oysters could then grow to maturity.

658:

Salt marsh interspersed with stands of young mangroves,

3938:"Lugarno History - Oyster Culture in the Georges River" 3260:"Oyster farming in the Sutherland Shire, ca. 1900-1920" 214:, which used shells from Botany Bay and Georges River. 5516:

Bob Drake - Innovation in the NSW Aquaculture Industry

4748:

Bob Drake - Innovation in the NSW Aquaculture Industry

4253:

NSW Department of Primary Industries (11 March 2016).

1005:, Sydney Rock Oysters in New Zealand, and much of the 2137:

Sylvania & Taren Point 1953 - Sydney aerial photo

4898:

NSW Oyster Industry Sustainable Aquaculture Strategy

3802:

NSW Oyster Industry Sustainable Aquaculture Strategy

2540:. Sydney Metropolitan Catchment Management Authority 1395:

NSW Oyster Industry Sustainable Aquaculture Strategy

1373:

NSW Oyster Industry Sustainable Aquaculture Strategy

5022:"Why Sydney rock oysters are the best in the world" 4967:"Which Australian oyster is best: Rock or Pacific?" 3338: 3336: 5066:"Ever Wondered Which Australian Oysters are Best?" 4026:"An Assessment of the Health of the Georges River" 2880:"Neverfail Bay, Oatley | The Dictionary of Sydney" 2324:"NEW SOUTH WALES OYSTER FISHERIES (Illustrations)" 591:Silting, mudworm, and changes in the river ecology 4493:"PRIMEFACT 589 - Diseases of Sydney rock oysters" 4387:"Bacteria levels keep oysters from dinner tables" 4255:"Draft Diploid Pacific Oyster Cultivation Policy" 4229:"Spread of Pacific oyster worries NSW culturists" 700:Techniques, local experience and scientific study 306:, which had been raised using spoil dug from the 4721:"Turning the tide against a deadly oyster virus" 3820:"Georges River Oyster Lease Protest Association" 158:The predominant bedrock of the Sydney region is 2749:"A BILL FOR THE REGULATION OF OYSTER FISHERIES" 1034:, and placing the trays on racks higher in the 812:Maturing oysters on trays (Georges River, 1989) 529:The industry had been covered by an act of the 452:, a tributary that joins the Georges River, at 113:people, both of whom spoke a common language. 2858:Parliament of New South Wales (21 July 1884). 583:. Over time, the relocation of small oysters ( 5415:"Rehabilitation of Edith Bay Reserve Wetland" 5367:Oatley Flora & Fauna Conservation Society 4299:NSW Department of Primary Industries (2016). 3132:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of March 2024 ( 2244:"Sea Breeze Hotel | The Dictionary of Sydney" 182:building work. Lime was also needed to treat 8: 4676:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 4660:"Private Members Business - Oyster Industry" 3615:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 1519:Jackson, Greg; Forbes, Pam (December 2018). 4995:"Sydney rock oyster - Saccostrea glomerata" 3631:"OYSTER EATING CHAMPION SAYS NOT A GLUTTON" 3176:"WHERE THE SUCCULENT BIVALVE IS CULTIVATED" 2903:Historical marker at Neverfail Bay, Oatley. 2158:"Kurnell - A Pictorial History, Occupation" 1762:"Georges River Council - Aboriginal People" 93:Oysters thrive in the waters downstream of 85:The river was used as a food source by the 5258:Local History - Sutherland Shire Libraries 4033:NSW Department of Environment and Planning 3824:Local History - Sutherland Shire Libraries 3495:"Oyster Harvesting, Georges River, N.S.W." 3320:Local History - Sutherland Shire Libraries 3239:Local History - Sutherland Shire Libraries 3211:Local History - Sutherland Shire Libraries 2187:Local History - Sutherland Shire Libraries 2114:Local History - Sutherland Shire Libraries 5483: 4797:APP Corporation Pty Limited (July 2022). 4596:Reid, D. J.; Bone, E. K. (1 March 2020). 3391:(7): 24, 25. July 1966 – via Trove. 3381:"Oyster Harvesting, Georges River, N.S.W" 1610: 1219:(including Shell Point and Pelican Point) 1049:. QX is caused by a protozoan parasite, 4227:Medcof, J. C.; Wolf, P. H. (July 1975). 3659:"Moorefields | The Dictionary of Sydney" 3409:"History of Oyster Farming in Australia" 1236: 1145: 1101: 973:From around 1967, small numbers of wild 924: 745:, supplied over half a million rocks. 723: 552:Beginnings of inter-tidal oyster farming 439: 393: 20: 5155:"New South Wales Pacific Oyster Survey" 4715: 4713: 4653: 4651: 4649: 4647: 4566: 4564: 4535: 4533: 4269: 4267: 4248: 4246: 4207:"Aspects of the Oatley Oyster Industry" 4118: 4116: 4114: 4070: 4068: 2531:"Georges River Catchment Geology (Map)" 1670: 1668: 1666: 1664: 1662: 1660: 1658: 1656: 1654: 1652: 1650: 1648: 1646: 1644: 1642: 1329: 929:Purification tanks, Taren Point (1966). 4872:"The future for Port Stephens oysters" 4669: 4486: 4484: 3988: 3986: 3876: 3874: 3795: 3793: 3791: 3608: 3489: 3487: 3485: 3462:"OYSTER CULTURE FOR RETURNED SOLDIERS" 3402: 3400: 3398: 3282: 3280: 3229: 3227: 3201: 3199: 3145: 3143: 3125: 3073: 3071: 3069: 3015: 3013: 2874: 2872: 2721: 2719: 2557: 2555: 2437:"OYSTERS THRIVE ON THE GEORGE'S RIVER" 2431: 2429: 2427: 2349: 2347: 2322:Collingridge, Arthur (14 March 1883). 2317: 2315: 2286: 2284: 2209: 2207: 2205: 2203: 2076: 2074: 2072: 2018: 2016: 2014: 2012: 1961: 1959: 1640: 1638: 1636: 1634: 1632: 1630: 1628: 1626: 1624: 1622: 1544:"Restoring oyster reefs in Botany Bay" 1514: 1512: 1510: 1508: 1506: 230:A colonial politician and landholder, 5040:"A Guide to Oysters Around the Globe" 5020:Huckstep, Anthony (1 November 2017). 4776:St George and Sutherland Shire Leader 4547:St George and Sutherland Shire Leader 4498:. NSW Department of Primary Industry. 4019: 4017: 3846: 3844: 3842: 3840: 3288:"Trials And Adventures Of The Oyster" 3085:St George and Sutherland Shire Leader 2942:"OYSTER LEASES ON THE GEORGE'S RIVER" 2936: 2934: 2618:"Oyster Culture on the Georges River" 1933: 1931: 1688: 1686: 1677:"Oyster Culture On The Georges River" 1572: 1570: 1568: 1566: 1564: 1538: 1536: 1534: 1482: 1480: 1478: 1476: 1474: 1456:St George and Sutherland Shire Leader 1425:St George and Sutherland Shire Leader 1388: 1386: 1341: 1339: 1337: 1335: 1333: 7: 4771:"Woolooware Bay oyster farm closing" 4658:Baird, Bruce, MP (11 October 1999). 4342:Walsby, John (July–September 1989). 3582:(3): 7. June 1947 – via Trove. 3078:Trembath, Murray (18 October 2023). 1837:"Bricks! | The Dictionary of Sydney" 1445: 1443: 1414: 1412: 1410: 1408: 970:plump oysters on the Georges River. 5509:Oyster Culture on the Georges River 5388:"Moore Reserve Constructed Wetland" 4769:Trembath, Murray (5 October 2017). 3150:Roughley, T.C. (1 September 1937). 3021:"OYSTER CULTURE IN NEW SOUTH WALES" 2992:"Where have the oyster reefs gone?" 2221:Australian Town and Country Journal 2183:"Gwawley Bay - KIRKBY CARD 0075075" 2082:"Oyster Culture in New South Wales" 1696:Minutes of evidence, and appendices 954:redirected to the ocean outfall at 490:Other estuaries in Sydney, such as 25:Oyster farm on Georges River (1989) 4602:Regional Studies in Marine Science 3740:"OYSTER RAIDERS ARE WRECKING BEDS" 2978:NSW Department of Primary Industry 2781:New South Wales Government Gazette 2696:"OYSTER CULTURE IN SYDNEY HARBOUR" 1264:Jewfish Bay, Oatley, just outside 513:Other suitable estuaries, such as 310:, was used for grazing cattle and 226:An early attempt at oyster farming 14: 5518:- an optimistic video from c.2011 5091:"NSW Oysters - Industry Snapshot" 4842:Chung, Laura (5 September 2022). 1499:(2) – via researchgate.net. 1106:Pacific oysters on the half shell 868:Decline and end of oyster farming 249:); although a different species, 210:. There were also lime kilns, on 5390:. 1 October 2009. Archived from 5211:. Central Queensland University. 4819:"Oyster Growing is Big Business" 4664:Parliament of Australia, Hansard 4572:"Diseases of Sydney Rock Oyster" 4540:Trembath, Murray (6 July 2018). 4150:"Oyster picking subject to rain" 2971:"Controlling mudworm in oysters" 2509:"Oyster Growing is Big Business" 2410:Emerson, A. (28 February 1881). 1548:The Nature Conservancy Australia 1073:Farming continued downstream at 398:Divers gathering oysters, c.1883 193:Lime kiln on Cooks River (1870s) 5456:Global Ecology and Conservation 4279:FAO Fisheries & Aquaculture 3516:"JUDGING OYSTERS AT CONFERENCE" 3498:Australian Fisheries Newsletter 3385:Australian Fisheries Newsletter 3049:"Kurnell - A Pictorial History" 2300:. 29 September 1926. p. 13 2134:Brill, Andy (3 November 2013), 2052:"Kurnell - A Pictorial History" 30:Oyster farming on Georges River 4415:"Oyster scare 'over-reaction'" 4178:"Oyster risk was known: Punch" 3029:. 12 December 1908. p. 32 2729:. 5 March 1887. pp. 10–11 1521:"Oysters on the Georges River" 1030:Woronora River confluence and 662:, Georges River estuary, 2018. 50:Before commercial exploitation 1: 4870:Burt, Michael (26 May 2023). 4817:Roughley, T.C. (1 May 1956). 4470:Lester, R.J.G.; Adlard, R.D. 4239:(7): 32–36 – via Trove. 3910:"OPPOSITION TO OYSTER LEASES" 3639:. 25 November 1953. p. 6 3442:. 20 December 1918. p. 2 3152:"Oyster culture in Australia" 2626:. 21 January 1922. p. 13 2519:(5): 10–15 – via Trove. 2507:Roughley, T.C. (1 May 1956). 2445:. 21 October 1937. p. 51 2216:"Oystering on George's River" 1737:"Map of Indigenous Australia" 4443:"Oyster ban 'ruins farmers'" 3748:. 2 December 1934. p. 3 3595:"OYSTER FARMERS' CONFERENCE" 2032:. 26 January 1891. p. 7 1916:. 2 November 1867. p. 4 748:A similar method was to use 472:. The lower Georges River—a 347:Dredge harvesting and diving 32:, commercial aquaculture of 5488:– via Science Direct. 5476:10.1016/j.gecco.2020.e00988 4972:Australian Financial Review 4542:"Oyster industry collapses" 4205:Leach, Alec (August 1999). 3918:. 1 January 1942. p. 1 3572:"Oyster Farmers Conference" 3470:. 17 August 1918. p. 6 3434:"Soldier Oyster Culturists" 3352:. 1 October 1926. p. 7 2727:"The Sydney Morning Herald" 2675:www.simonandschuster.com.au 2391:. 15 April 1922. p. 50 2090:. 3 January 1873. p. 4 1878:Hill, E.S. (6 April 1867). 882:shipping port in Botany Bay 621:In 1887, a series of heavy 290:, since redeveloped as the 149:Early commercial activities 5573: 5437:www.environment.nsw.gov.au 5413:Edwards-Davis, C. (2004). 5287:. 7 August 1908. p. 8 4622:10.1016/j.rsma.2020.101246 4518:. 18 April 1995. p. 4 4158:. 9 August 1978. p. 9 4002:. 31 March 1976. p. 6 3994:"Botany Bay: SUPERTANKERS" 3971:. 17 June 1939. p. 16 3768:"OYSTER-FARMERS' PROBLEMS" 3720:. 21 March 1919. p. 1 3684:"Fast Worker With Oysters" 3605:(5): 29 – via Trove. 3524:. 15 April 1936. p. 8 3296:. 12 April 1947. p. 9 2704:. 23 April 1885. p. 5 2268:The Book of Sydney Suburbs 2024:"OYSTERS IN AUSTRALIA.—II" 715:) or 'white honeysuckle' ( 678:, along the estuary, with 531:New South Wales Parliament 323:, using piles, and oyster 259:), which when finished in 5315:. 25 June 1908. p. 3 5279:"FISHERIES BOARD MATTERS" 4186:. 29 July 1978. p. 9 4123:Robertson, Roger (2014). 3882:"OYSTER LEASE OBJECTIONS" 3851:Goodall, Heather (2021). 3552:. 7 April 1947. p. 3 3184:. 24 July 1913. p. 9 3122:(inactive 21 March 2024). 2950:. 12 May 1886. p. 10 2839:. 16 June 1883. p. 6 2623:The Advertiser (Adelaide) 2590:Goodall, Heather (2021). 2571:. 15 June 1939. p. 7 2363:. 9 April 1936. p. 2 2214:O. P. (19 January 1878). 1615:– via Researchgate. 1603:10.1080/08920750601169618 1451:"Oyster industry revival" 1284:Environmental restoration 1124:Closer Economic Relations 892:for boats, invasive wild 407:those depths is that the 5552:Aquaculture in Australia 5228:Aquatic Living Resources 5121:Aquatic Living Resources 4491:Nell, John (July 2007). 4451:. 19 May 1990. p. 7 4395:. 18 May 1990. p. 5 4214:Oatley Heritage Projects 3890:. 4 June 1942. p. 7 3776:. 3 July 1941. p. 6 3521:Daily Telegraph (Sydney) 3181:Daily Telegraph (Sydney) 2969:Nell, John (July 2007). 2757:. 30 May 1862. p. 2 2442:The Chronicle (Adelaide) 1139:Oyster farming locations 796:Heyday of oyster farming 5064:Peter (5 August 2020). 4423:. 9 May 1990. p. 7 4125:"Neverfail Bay, Oatley" 3544:"Oyster Is Their World" 3416:Marine Fisheries Review 3099:Kelleway, Jeff (2005). 2355:"OYSTERS OF OTHER DAYS" 2297:Northern Star (Lismore) 1967:"Belon (France) Oyster" 1939:"Georges River oysters" 1766:Georgesriver.nsw.gov.au 1675:Roughley, T.C. (1922). 1347:"Georges River oysters" 876:and—to a lesser extent— 5335:"KOGARAH POLICE COURT" 4348:New Zealand Geographic 4129:dictionaryofsydney.org 3689:The Herald (Melbourne) 3663:dictionaryofsydney.org 2884:dictionaryofsydney.org 2465:"Jewfish Bay / Oatley" 2248:dictionaryofsydney.org 1841:dictionaryofsydney.org 1812:"Harvesting Sandstone" 1791:dictionaryofsydney.org 1715:dictionaryofsydney.org 1246: 1155: 1107: 930: 903:, was turned into the 840: 813: 792: 769: 733: 663: 445: 399: 372: 283: 194: 26: 5511:(T.C. Roughley, 1922) 5485:10536/DRO/DU:30139182 5209:ruraleconomies.org.au 4849:Sydney Morning Herald 4344:"The Cultured Oyster" 3968:Sydney Morning Herald 3293:Sydney Morning Herald 2947:Sydney Morning Herald 2836:Evening News (Sydney) 2808:Sydney Morning Herald 2754:Sydney Morning Herald 2701:Sydney Morning Herald 2417:Sydney Morning Herald 2329:Australasian Sketcher 1816:Pyrmont History Group 1276:Neverfail Bay, Oatley 1240: 1149: 1105: 1027:Mikiocytos roughleyi. 928: 890:anti-fouling compound 827: 811: 790: 767: 727: 657: 443: 397: 366: 273: 263:becomes the renowned 192: 115:Georges River Council 24: 5095:Oceanwatch Australia 4322:www.eopugetsound.org 4233:Australian Fisheries 3599:Fisheries Newsletter 3576:Fisheries Newsletter 3157:Walkabout (magazine) 3108:Wetlands (Australia) 2831:"Government Gazette" 2650:catalogue.nla.gov.au 1493:Wetlands (Australia) 1007:European flat oyster 800:For over a century, 718:Banksia integrifolia 616:functionally extinct 517:, especially around 500:foreshore industries 448:Freshwater from the 243:flat or mud oyster ( 162:and, in some areas, 160:Hawkesbury Sandstone 138:Saccostrea glomerata 5524:- an item on ABC's 5468:2020GEcoC..2200988G 5240:10.1051/alr/2014011 5133:10.1051/alr/2014011 4876:The Farmer Magazine 4751:, 20 September 2010 4614:2020RSMS...3501246R 3504:(7): 25. July 1966. 3026:Observer (Adelaide) 2538:georgesriver.org.au 1992:"Salt Pond Oysters" 1943:Georges Riverkeeper 1595:2007CoasM..35..271O 1351:Georges Riverkeeper 802:Sydney Rock Oysters 436:Suitable conditions 67:in the estuary and 34:Sydney Rock Oysters 5307:"N.S.W. FISHERIES" 5180:Good Fish Bad Fish 4999:www.dpi.nsw.gov.au 4975:. 18 December 2018 4922:. 21 December 2023 4696:www.dpi.nsw.gov.au 4046:Waters, Sylvania. 3712:"Theft of Oysters" 3344:"OYSTER MORTALITY" 2998:. 8 September 2023 1583:Coastal Management 1305:), and another in 1247: 1156: 1108: 991:Crassostrea gigas, 989:) Pacific Oyster ( 931: 878:Hurstville Council 841: 835:bag contained 100 814: 793: 770: 734: 664: 446: 400: 373: 284: 195: 109:people or coastal 27: 5394:on 1 October 2009 4725:CSIRO Aquaculture 3636:The Macleay Argus 2783:. 4 February 1868 2087:Illawarra Mercury 1867:. September 2013. 1487:Haworth, Robert. 1051:Marteilia sydneyi 1040:Theodore Roughley 1010:tonnes per year. 918:was planned, and 782:Theodore Roughley 694:rising sea levels 682:; the mangroves ( 599:Polydora websteri 204:Landsdowne Bridge 186:for agriculture. 145:the early 1940s. 119:Georges River LGA 5564: 5490: 5489: 5487: 5447: 5441: 5440: 5429: 5423: 5422: 5410: 5404: 5403: 5401: 5399: 5384: 5378: 5377: 5375: 5373: 5359: 5353: 5352: 5350: 5348: 5331: 5325: 5324: 5322: 5320: 5303: 5297: 5296: 5294: 5292: 5275: 5269: 5268: 5266: 5264: 5250: 5244: 5243: 5234:(3–4): 153–165. 5219: 5213: 5212: 5206: 5197: 5191: 5190: 5188: 5186: 5172: 5166: 5165: 5159: 5151: 5145: 5144: 5127:(3–4): 153–165. 5112: 5106: 5105: 5103: 5101: 5087: 5081: 5080: 5078: 5076: 5070:The Star Moments 5061: 5055: 5054: 5052: 5050: 5036: 5030: 5029: 5017: 5011: 5010: 5008: 5006: 4991: 4985: 4984: 4982: 4980: 4963: 4957: 4956: 4954: 4952: 4938: 4932: 4931: 4929: 4927: 4916:"Pacific Oyster" 4912: 4906: 4905: 4903: 4893: 4887: 4886: 4884: 4882: 4867: 4861: 4860: 4858: 4856: 4839: 4833: 4832: 4814: 4808: 4807: 4805: 4794: 4788: 4787: 4785: 4783: 4766: 4760: 4759: 4758: 4756: 4743: 4737: 4736: 4734: 4732: 4717: 4708: 4707: 4705: 4703: 4688: 4682: 4681: 4675: 4667: 4655: 4642: 4641: 4593: 4587: 4586: 4584: 4582: 4576: 4568: 4559: 4558: 4556: 4554: 4537: 4528: 4527: 4525: 4523: 4506: 4500: 4499: 4497: 4488: 4479: 4478: 4476: 4467: 4461: 4460: 4458: 4456: 4439: 4433: 4432: 4430: 4428: 4411: 4405: 4404: 4402: 4400: 4383: 4377: 4376: 4374: 4372: 4358: 4352: 4351: 4339: 4333: 4332: 4330: 4328: 4314: 4308: 4307: 4305: 4296: 4290: 4289: 4287: 4285: 4271: 4262: 4261: 4259: 4250: 4241: 4240: 4224: 4218: 4217: 4211: 4202: 4196: 4195: 4193: 4191: 4174: 4168: 4167: 4165: 4163: 4146: 4140: 4139: 4137: 4135: 4120: 4109: 4108: 4106: 4104: 4087: 4081: 4080: 4072: 4063: 4062: 4060: 4058: 4043: 4037: 4036: 4030: 4021: 4012: 4011: 4009: 4007: 3990: 3981: 3980: 3978: 3976: 3959: 3953: 3952: 3950: 3948: 3942:sites.google.com 3934: 3928: 3927: 3925: 3923: 3906: 3900: 3899: 3897: 3895: 3878: 3869: 3868: 3848: 3835: 3834: 3832: 3830: 3816: 3810: 3809: 3807: 3797: 3786: 3785: 3783: 3781: 3764: 3758: 3757: 3755: 3753: 3745:The Sun (Sydney) 3736: 3730: 3729: 3727: 3725: 3708: 3702: 3701: 3699: 3697: 3680: 3674: 3673: 3671: 3669: 3655: 3649: 3648: 3646: 3644: 3627: 3621: 3620: 3614: 3606: 3590: 3584: 3583: 3568: 3562: 3561: 3559: 3557: 3549:The Sun (Sydney) 3540: 3534: 3533: 3531: 3529: 3512: 3506: 3505: 3491: 3480: 3479: 3477: 3475: 3458: 3452: 3451: 3449: 3447: 3430: 3424: 3423: 3413: 3404: 3393: 3392: 3377: 3371: 3368: 3362: 3361: 3359: 3357: 3340: 3331: 3330: 3328: 3326: 3312: 3306: 3305: 3303: 3301: 3284: 3275: 3274: 3272: 3270: 3256: 3250: 3249: 3247: 3245: 3231: 3222: 3221: 3219: 3217: 3203: 3194: 3193: 3191: 3189: 3172: 3166: 3165: 3147: 3138: 3137: 3131: 3123: 3105: 3096: 3090: 3089: 3075: 3064: 3063: 3061: 3059: 3045: 3039: 3038: 3036: 3034: 3017: 3008: 3007: 3005: 3003: 2988: 2982: 2981: 2975: 2966: 2960: 2959: 2957: 2955: 2938: 2929: 2928: 2926: 2924: 2910: 2904: 2901: 2895: 2894: 2892: 2890: 2876: 2867: 2866: 2864: 2855: 2849: 2848: 2846: 2844: 2827: 2821: 2820: 2818: 2816: 2799: 2793: 2792: 2790: 2788: 2773: 2767: 2766: 2764: 2762: 2745: 2739: 2738: 2736: 2734: 2723: 2714: 2713: 2711: 2709: 2692: 2686: 2685: 2683: 2681: 2667: 2661: 2660: 2658: 2656: 2642: 2636: 2635: 2633: 2631: 2614: 2608: 2607: 2587: 2581: 2580: 2578: 2576: 2559: 2550: 2549: 2547: 2545: 2535: 2527: 2521: 2520: 2504: 2498: 2497: 2495: 2493: 2487:oystersaustralia 2479: 2473: 2472: 2461: 2455: 2454: 2452: 2450: 2433: 2422: 2421: 2407: 2401: 2400: 2398: 2396: 2388:The Australasian 2379: 2373: 2372: 2370: 2368: 2351: 2342: 2341: 2339: 2337: 2319: 2310: 2309: 2307: 2305: 2288: 2279: 2265: 2259: 2258: 2256: 2254: 2240: 2234: 2233: 2231: 2229: 2211: 2198: 2197: 2195: 2193: 2179: 2173: 2172: 2170: 2168: 2154: 2148: 2147: 2146: 2144: 2131: 2125: 2124: 2122: 2120: 2106: 2100: 2099: 2097: 2095: 2078: 2067: 2066: 2064: 2062: 2048: 2042: 2041: 2039: 2037: 2029:Brisbane Courier 2020: 2007: 2006: 2004: 2002: 1988: 1982: 1981: 1979: 1977: 1963: 1954: 1953: 1951: 1949: 1935: 1926: 1925: 1923: 1921: 1904: 1898: 1897: 1895: 1893: 1885:The Australasian 1875: 1869: 1868: 1866: 1858: 1852: 1851: 1849: 1847: 1833: 1827: 1826: 1824: 1822: 1808: 1802: 1801: 1799: 1797: 1783: 1777: 1776: 1774: 1772: 1758: 1752: 1751: 1749: 1747: 1732: 1726: 1725: 1723: 1721: 1707: 1701: 1700: 1690: 1681: 1680: 1672: 1617: 1616: 1614: 1589:(2–3): 271–287. 1574: 1559: 1558: 1556: 1554: 1540: 1529: 1528: 1516: 1501: 1500: 1484: 1469: 1468: 1466: 1464: 1459:. 2 October 2022 1447: 1438: 1437: 1435: 1433: 1416: 1403: 1402: 1400: 1390: 1381: 1380: 1378: 1368: 1362: 1361: 1359: 1357: 1343: 1208:(Carters Island) 712:Casuarina glauca 685:Avicennia marina 680:mangrove forests 641:local extinction 504:Hawkesbury River 164:Wianamatta shale 57:Mangrove forests 5572: 5571: 5567: 5566: 5565: 5563: 5562: 5561: 5532: 5531: 5499: 5494: 5493: 5449: 5448: 5444: 5431: 5430: 5426: 5412: 5411: 5407: 5397: 5395: 5386: 5385: 5381: 5371: 5369: 5363:"Lime Kiln Bay" 5361: 5360: 5356: 5346: 5344: 5333: 5332: 5328: 5318: 5316: 5305: 5304: 5300: 5290: 5288: 5277: 5276: 5272: 5262: 5260: 5252: 5251: 5247: 5221: 5220: 5216: 5204: 5199: 5198: 5194: 5184: 5182: 5174: 5173: 5169: 5157: 5153: 5152: 5148: 5114: 5113: 5109: 5099: 5097: 5089: 5088: 5084: 5074: 5072: 5063: 5062: 5058: 5048: 5046: 5038: 5037: 5033: 5019: 5018: 5014: 5004: 5002: 4993: 4992: 4988: 4978: 4976: 4965: 4964: 4960: 4950: 4948: 4940: 4939: 4935: 4925: 4923: 4914: 4913: 4909: 4901: 4895: 4894: 4890: 4880: 4878: 4869: 4868: 4864: 4854: 4852: 4841: 4840: 4836: 4816: 4815: 4811: 4803: 4796: 4795: 4791: 4781: 4779: 4768: 4767: 4763: 4754: 4752: 4745: 4744: 4740: 4730: 4728: 4719: 4718: 4711: 4701: 4699: 4690: 4689: 4685: 4668: 4657: 4656: 4645: 4595: 4594: 4590: 4580: 4578: 4574: 4570: 4569: 4562: 4552: 4550: 4539: 4538: 4531: 4521: 4519: 4508: 4507: 4503: 4495: 4490: 4489: 4482: 4474: 4469: 4468: 4464: 4454: 4452: 4441: 4440: 4436: 4426: 4424: 4413: 4412: 4408: 4398: 4396: 4385: 4384: 4380: 4370: 4368: 4360: 4359: 4355: 4341: 4340: 4336: 4326: 4324: 4316: 4315: 4311: 4303: 4298: 4297: 4293: 4283: 4281: 4273: 4272: 4265: 4257: 4252: 4251: 4244: 4226: 4225: 4221: 4209: 4204: 4203: 4199: 4189: 4187: 4176: 4175: 4171: 4161: 4159: 4148: 4147: 4143: 4133: 4131: 4122: 4121: 4112: 4102: 4100: 4099:. 4 August 1978 4089: 4088: 4084: 4075:Fairley, Alan. 4074: 4073: 4066: 4056: 4054: 4052:Sylvania Waters 4045: 4044: 4040: 4028: 4023: 4022: 4015: 4005: 4003: 3992: 3991: 3984: 3974: 3972: 3961: 3960: 3956: 3946: 3944: 3936: 3935: 3931: 3921: 3919: 3908: 3907: 3903: 3893: 3891: 3880: 3879: 3872: 3865: 3850: 3849: 3838: 3828: 3826: 3818: 3817: 3813: 3805: 3799: 3798: 3789: 3779: 3777: 3766: 3765: 3761: 3751: 3749: 3738: 3737: 3733: 3723: 3721: 3710: 3709: 3705: 3695: 3693: 3692:. 21 April 1949 3682: 3681: 3677: 3667: 3665: 3657: 3656: 3652: 3642: 3640: 3629: 3628: 3624: 3607: 3592: 3591: 3587: 3570: 3569: 3565: 3555: 3553: 3542: 3541: 3537: 3527: 3525: 3514: 3513: 3509: 3493: 3492: 3483: 3473: 3471: 3467:St. George Call 3460: 3459: 3455: 3445: 3443: 3432: 3431: 3427: 3411: 3406: 3405: 3396: 3379: 3378: 3374: 3369: 3365: 3355: 3353: 3342: 3341: 3334: 3324: 3322: 3314: 3313: 3309: 3299: 3297: 3286: 3285: 3278: 3268: 3266: 3258: 3257: 3253: 3243: 3241: 3233: 3232: 3225: 3215: 3213: 3205: 3204: 3197: 3187: 3185: 3174: 3173: 3169: 3149: 3148: 3141: 3124: 3120:10.31646/wa.252 3103: 3098: 3097: 3093: 3077: 3076: 3067: 3057: 3055: 3053:dws.ssec.org.au 3047: 3046: 3042: 3032: 3030: 3019: 3018: 3011: 3001: 2999: 2990: 2989: 2985: 2973: 2968: 2967: 2963: 2953: 2951: 2940: 2939: 2932: 2922: 2920: 2918:www.nswrail.net 2912: 2911: 2907: 2902: 2898: 2888: 2886: 2878: 2877: 2870: 2862: 2857: 2856: 2852: 2842: 2840: 2829: 2828: 2824: 2814: 2812: 2811:. 24 March 1881 2801: 2800: 2796: 2786: 2784: 2775: 2774: 2770: 2760: 2758: 2747: 2746: 2742: 2732: 2730: 2725: 2724: 2717: 2707: 2705: 2694: 2693: 2689: 2679: 2677: 2669: 2668: 2664: 2654: 2652: 2644: 2643: 2639: 2629: 2627: 2616: 2615: 2611: 2604: 2589: 2588: 2584: 2574: 2572: 2561: 2560: 2553: 2543: 2541: 2533: 2529: 2528: 2524: 2506: 2505: 2501: 2491: 2489: 2481: 2480: 2476: 2463: 2462: 2458: 2448: 2446: 2435: 2434: 2425: 2409: 2408: 2404: 2394: 2392: 2381: 2380: 2376: 2366: 2364: 2353: 2352: 2345: 2335: 2333: 2321: 2320: 2313: 2303: 2301: 2290: 2289: 2282: 2266: 2262: 2252: 2250: 2242: 2241: 2237: 2227: 2225: 2213: 2212: 2201: 2191: 2189: 2181: 2180: 2176: 2166: 2164: 2162:dws.ssec.org.au 2156: 2155: 2151: 2142: 2140: 2133: 2132: 2128: 2118: 2116: 2108: 2107: 2103: 2093: 2091: 2080: 2079: 2070: 2060: 2058: 2056:dws.ssec.org.au 2050: 2049: 2045: 2035: 2033: 2022: 2021: 2010: 2000: 1998: 1990: 1989: 1985: 1975: 1973: 1965: 1964: 1957: 1947: 1945: 1937: 1936: 1929: 1919: 1917: 1913:The Sydney Mail 1906: 1905: 1901: 1891: 1889: 1877: 1876: 1872: 1864: 1860: 1859: 1855: 1845: 1843: 1835: 1834: 1830: 1820: 1818: 1810: 1809: 1805: 1795: 1793: 1785: 1784: 1780: 1770: 1768: 1760: 1759: 1755: 1745: 1743: 1734: 1733: 1729: 1719: 1717: 1709: 1708: 1704: 1692: 1691: 1684: 1674: 1673: 1620: 1576: 1575: 1562: 1552: 1550: 1542: 1541: 1532: 1518: 1517: 1504: 1486: 1485: 1472: 1462: 1460: 1449: 1448: 1441: 1431: 1429: 1428:. 13 March 2023 1418: 1417: 1406: 1398: 1392: 1391: 1384: 1376: 1370: 1369: 1365: 1355: 1353: 1345: 1344: 1331: 1326: 1286: 1252: 1141: 1129:Pacific oysters 1116:South Australia 1096: 1036:intertidal zone 1003:Olympia oysters 995:Magallana gigas 975:Pacific oysters 935:gastroenteritis 909:Sylvania Waters 894:Pacific Oysters 874:Kogarah Council 870: 819:First World War 798: 702: 643:, north of the 593: 554: 527: 438: 433: 349: 296:Sylvania Waters 228: 174:, used to make 156: 151: 52: 17: 12: 11: 5: 5570: 5568: 5560: 5559: 5554: 5549: 5544: 5534: 5533: 5530: 5529: 5519: 5513: 5505: 5498: 5497:External links 5495: 5492: 5491: 5442: 5424: 5405: 5379: 5354: 5326: 5298: 5270: 5245: 5214: 5192: 5167: 5146: 5107: 5082: 5056: 5044:MICHELIN Guide 5031: 5012: 4986: 4958: 4933: 4907: 4888: 4862: 4834: 4809: 4789: 4761: 4738: 4727:. 5 April 2018 4709: 4683: 4643: 4588: 4560: 4529: 4515:Canberra Times 4501: 4480: 4462: 4448:Canberra Times 4434: 4420:Canberra Times 4406: 4392:Canberra Times 4378: 4353: 4334: 4309: 4291: 4263: 4242: 4219: 4197: 4183:Canberra Times 4169: 4155:Canberra Times 4141: 4110: 4096:Canberra Times 4082: 4064: 4038: 4013: 3982: 3954: 3929: 3901: 3870: 3863: 3836: 3811: 3787: 3759: 3731: 3703: 3675: 3650: 3622: 3585: 3563: 3535: 3507: 3481: 3453: 3425: 3407:Nell, John A. 3394: 3372: 3363: 3332: 3307: 3276: 3251: 3223: 3195: 3167: 3139: 3091: 3065: 3040: 3009: 2983: 2961: 2930: 2914:"Como Station" 2905: 2896: 2868: 2850: 2822: 2794: 2768: 2740: 2715: 2687: 2662: 2637: 2609: 2602: 2582: 2551: 2522: 2499: 2474: 2456: 2423: 2402: 2374: 2343: 2311: 2280: 2260: 2235: 2199: 2174: 2149: 2126: 2101: 2068: 2043: 2008: 1983: 1955: 1927: 1899: 1870: 1853: 1828: 1803: 1778: 1753: 1741:aiatsis.gov.au 1727: 1702: 1682: 1618: 1560: 1530: 1502: 1470: 1439: 1404: 1382: 1363: 1328: 1327: 1325: 1322: 1285: 1282: 1281: 1280: 1279:Woolooware Bay 1277: 1274: 1269: 1262: 1251: 1248: 1228:Connells Point 1221: 1220: 1217:Woolooware Bay 1214: 1209: 1203: 1197: 1192: 1187: 1182: 1180:Kangaroo Point 1177: 1172: 1167: 1162: 1140: 1137: 1095: 1092: 1075:Woolooware Bay 993:also known as 884:, impacts of 869: 866: 797: 794: 701: 698: 690:climate change 592: 589: 553: 550: 526: 523: 508:Brisbane Water 492:Sydney Harbour 450:Woronora River 437: 434: 432: 431:Oyster farming 429: 414:The river has 348: 345: 227: 224: 155: 152: 150: 147: 95:Salt Pan Creek 80:Connells Point 51: 48: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5569: 5558: 5555: 5553: 5550: 5548: 5545: 5543: 5542:Georges River 5540: 5539: 5537: 5527: 5523: 5520: 5517: 5514: 5512: 5510: 5506: 5504: 5501: 5500: 5496: 5486: 5481: 5477: 5473: 5469: 5465: 5461: 5457: 5453: 5446: 5443: 5438: 5434: 5428: 5425: 5420: 5416: 5409: 5406: 5393: 5389: 5383: 5380: 5368: 5364: 5358: 5355: 5343:. 9 June 1916 5342: 5341: 5340:The Propeller 5336: 5330: 5327: 5314: 5313: 5308: 5302: 5299: 5286: 5285: 5280: 5274: 5271: 5259: 5255: 5249: 5246: 5241: 5237: 5233: 5229: 5225: 5218: 5215: 5210: 5203: 5196: 5193: 5181: 5177: 5171: 5168: 5163: 5156: 5150: 5147: 5142: 5138: 5134: 5130: 5126: 5122: 5118: 5111: 5108: 5096: 5092: 5086: 5083: 5071: 5067: 5060: 5057: 5045: 5041: 5035: 5032: 5027: 5023: 5016: 5013: 5000: 4996: 4990: 4987: 4974: 4973: 4968: 4962: 4959: 4947: 4943: 4937: 4934: 4921: 4917: 4911: 4908: 4900: 4899: 4892: 4889: 4877: 4873: 4866: 4863: 4851: 4850: 4845: 4838: 4835: 4830: 4826: 4825: 4820: 4813: 4810: 4802: 4801: 4793: 4790: 4778: 4777: 4772: 4765: 4762: 4750: 4749: 4742: 4739: 4726: 4722: 4716: 4714: 4710: 4697: 4693: 4687: 4684: 4679: 4673: 4665: 4661: 4654: 4652: 4650: 4648: 4644: 4639: 4635: 4631: 4627: 4623: 4619: 4615: 4611: 4607: 4603: 4599: 4592: 4589: 4573: 4567: 4565: 4561: 4549: 4548: 4543: 4536: 4534: 4530: 4517: 4516: 4511: 4505: 4502: 4494: 4487: 4485: 4481: 4473: 4466: 4463: 4450: 4449: 4444: 4438: 4435: 4422: 4421: 4416: 4410: 4407: 4394: 4393: 4388: 4382: 4379: 4367: 4363: 4357: 4354: 4349: 4345: 4338: 4335: 4323: 4319: 4313: 4310: 4306:. p. 40. 4302: 4295: 4292: 4280: 4276: 4270: 4268: 4264: 4256: 4249: 4247: 4243: 4238: 4234: 4230: 4223: 4220: 4215: 4208: 4201: 4198: 4185: 4184: 4179: 4173: 4170: 4157: 4156: 4151: 4145: 4142: 4130: 4126: 4119: 4117: 4115: 4111: 4098: 4097: 4092: 4086: 4083: 4078: 4071: 4069: 4065: 4053: 4049: 4042: 4039: 4034: 4027: 4020: 4018: 4014: 4001: 4000: 3995: 3989: 3987: 3983: 3970: 3969: 3964: 3958: 3955: 3943: 3939: 3933: 3930: 3917: 3916: 3915:The Propeller 3911: 3905: 3902: 3889: 3888: 3887:The Propeller 3883: 3877: 3875: 3871: 3866: 3864:9781760464639 3860: 3856: 3855: 3847: 3845: 3843: 3841: 3837: 3825: 3821: 3815: 3812: 3804: 3803: 3796: 3794: 3792: 3788: 3775: 3774: 3773:The Propeller 3769: 3763: 3760: 3747: 3746: 3741: 3735: 3732: 3719: 3718: 3717:The Propeller 3713: 3707: 3704: 3691: 3690: 3685: 3679: 3676: 3664: 3660: 3654: 3651: 3638: 3637: 3632: 3626: 3623: 3618: 3612: 3604: 3600: 3596: 3589: 3586: 3581: 3577: 3573: 3567: 3564: 3551: 3550: 3545: 3539: 3536: 3523: 3522: 3517: 3511: 3508: 3503: 3499: 3496: 3490: 3488: 3486: 3482: 3469: 3468: 3463: 3457: 3454: 3441: 3440: 3439:The Propeller 3435: 3429: 3426: 3421: 3417: 3410: 3403: 3401: 3399: 3395: 3390: 3386: 3382: 3376: 3373: 3367: 3364: 3351: 3350: 3349:The Propeller 3345: 3339: 3337: 3333: 3321: 3317: 3311: 3308: 3295: 3294: 3289: 3283: 3281: 3277: 3265: 3261: 3255: 3252: 3240: 3236: 3230: 3228: 3224: 3212: 3208: 3202: 3200: 3196: 3183: 3182: 3177: 3171: 3168: 3163: 3159: 3158: 3153: 3146: 3144: 3140: 3135: 3129: 3121: 3117: 3113: 3109: 3102: 3095: 3092: 3087: 3086: 3081: 3074: 3072: 3070: 3066: 3054: 3050: 3044: 3041: 3028: 3027: 3022: 3016: 3014: 3010: 2997: 2996:Marine Estate 2993: 2987: 2984: 2979: 2972: 2965: 2962: 2949: 2948: 2943: 2937: 2935: 2931: 2919: 2915: 2909: 2906: 2900: 2897: 2885: 2881: 2875: 2873: 2869: 2861: 2854: 2851: 2838: 2837: 2832: 2826: 2823: 2810: 2809: 2804: 2798: 2795: 2782: 2778: 2772: 2769: 2756: 2755: 2750: 2744: 2741: 2728: 2722: 2720: 2716: 2703: 2702: 2697: 2691: 2688: 2676: 2672: 2666: 2663: 2651: 2647: 2641: 2638: 2625: 2624: 2619: 2613: 2610: 2605: 2603:9781760464639 2599: 2595: 2594: 2586: 2583: 2570: 2569: 2568:The Propeller 2564: 2558: 2556: 2552: 2539: 2532: 2526: 2523: 2518: 2514: 2510: 2503: 2500: 2488: 2484: 2483:"OYSTER INFO" 2478: 2475: 2470: 2466: 2460: 2457: 2444: 2443: 2438: 2432: 2430: 2428: 2424: 2419: 2418: 2413: 2406: 2403: 2390: 2389: 2384: 2378: 2375: 2362: 2361: 2360:The Propeller 2356: 2350: 2348: 2344: 2331: 2330: 2325: 2318: 2316: 2312: 2299: 2298: 2293: 2287: 2285: 2281: 2277: 2276:0-207-14495-8 2273: 2269: 2264: 2261: 2249: 2245: 2239: 2236: 2223: 2222: 2217: 2210: 2208: 2206: 2204: 2200: 2188: 2184: 2178: 2175: 2163: 2159: 2153: 2150: 2139: 2138: 2130: 2127: 2115: 2111: 2105: 2102: 2089: 2088: 2083: 2077: 2075: 2073: 2069: 2057: 2053: 2047: 2044: 2031: 2030: 2025: 2019: 2017: 2015: 2013: 2009: 1997: 1993: 1987: 1984: 1972: 1968: 1962: 1960: 1956: 1944: 1940: 1934: 1932: 1928: 1915: 1914: 1909: 1903: 1900: 1887: 1886: 1881: 1874: 1871: 1863: 1857: 1854: 1842: 1838: 1832: 1829: 1817: 1813: 1807: 1804: 1792: 1788: 1782: 1779: 1767: 1763: 1757: 1754: 1742: 1738: 1731: 1728: 1716: 1712: 1706: 1703: 1698: 1697: 1689: 1687: 1683: 1678: 1671: 1669: 1667: 1665: 1663: 1661: 1659: 1657: 1655: 1653: 1651: 1649: 1647: 1645: 1643: 1641: 1639: 1637: 1635: 1633: 1631: 1629: 1627: 1625: 1623: 1619: 1613: 1608: 1604: 1600: 1596: 1592: 1588: 1584: 1580: 1573: 1571: 1569: 1567: 1565: 1561: 1549: 1545: 1539: 1537: 1535: 1531: 1526: 1522: 1515: 1513: 1511: 1509: 1507: 1503: 1498: 1494: 1490: 1483: 1481: 1479: 1477: 1475: 1471: 1458: 1457: 1452: 1446: 1444: 1440: 1427: 1426: 1421: 1415: 1413: 1411: 1409: 1405: 1397: 1396: 1389: 1387: 1383: 1375: 1374: 1367: 1364: 1352: 1348: 1342: 1340: 1338: 1336: 1334: 1330: 1323: 1321: 1318: 1316: 1312: 1308: 1304: 1299: 1294: 1292: 1283: 1278: 1275: 1273: 1270: 1267: 1263: 1261: 1257: 1256: 1255: 1249: 1245:(April 2019). 1244: 1239: 1235: 1233: 1229: 1225: 1218: 1215: 1213: 1210: 1207: 1204: 1202: 1199:Quibray Bay, 1198: 1196: 1193: 1191: 1188: 1186: 1183: 1181: 1178: 1176: 1173: 1171: 1168: 1166: 1163: 1161: 1158: 1157: 1153: 1148: 1144: 1138: 1136: 1132: 1130: 1125: 1121: 1117: 1113: 1104: 1100: 1093: 1091: 1087: 1084: 1080: 1076: 1071: 1067: 1064: 1060: 1056: 1052: 1048: 1043: 1041: 1037: 1033: 1028: 1023: 1020: 1016: 1011: 1008: 1004: 1000: 996: 992: 988: 983: 981: 976: 971: 968: 967:Port Stephens 964: 959: 957: 953: 949: 945: 941: 936: 927: 923: 921: 917: 912: 910: 906: 902: 897: 895: 891: 887: 883: 879: 875: 867: 865: 861: 857: 855: 851: 847: 838: 834: 831: 826: 822: 820: 810: 806: 803: 795: 789: 785: 783: 778: 774: 766: 762: 759: 755: 751: 746: 744: 739: 731: 730:T.C. Roughley 726: 722: 720: 719: 714: 713: 706: 699: 697: 695: 691: 687: 686: 681: 677: 672: 670: 661: 656: 652: 650: 646: 642: 638: 637: 636:Ostrea angasi 631: 628: 624: 619: 617: 613: 609: 608:Berry's Canal 605: 604:Manning River 601: 600: 590: 588: 586: 582: 577: 575: 571: 567: 563: 557: 551: 549: 545: 543: 538: 536: 532: 524: 522: 520: 516: 515:Port Stephens 511: 509: 505: 501: 497: 493: 488: 486: 482: 477: 475: 471: 467: 463: 459: 455: 451: 442: 435: 430: 428: 424: 421: 417: 412: 410: 404: 396: 392: 390: 386: 382: 378: 370: 365: 361: 359: 355: 346: 344: 340: 338: 332: 330: 326: 322: 317: 313: 309: 305: 301: 297: 293: 289: 286:Around 1870, 281: 280:T.C. Roughley 277: 274:Remnants of ' 272: 268: 266: 262: 258: 257: 256:Ostrea edulis 252: 251:Ostrea angasi 248: 247: 246:Ostrea angasi 241: 237: 233: 225: 223: 219: 215: 213: 209: 205: 201: 200:Alfords Point 191: 187: 185: 181: 177: 173: 169: 165: 161: 153: 148: 146: 142: 140: 139: 134: 133: 132:Ostrea angasi 127: 122: 120: 116: 112: 108: 104: 100: 96: 91: 88: 83: 81: 77: 72: 70: 66: 62: 58: 49: 47: 44: 39: 38:Georges River 35: 31: 23: 19: 5508: 5459: 5455: 5445: 5436: 5427: 5418: 5408: 5396:. Retrieved 5392:the original 5382: 5370:. Retrieved 5366: 5357: 5345:. Retrieved 5338: 5329: 5317:. Retrieved 5312:Evening News 5310: 5301: 5289:. Retrieved 5284:Evening News 5282: 5273: 5261:. Retrieved 5257: 5248: 5231: 5227: 5217: 5208: 5195: 5183:. Retrieved 5179: 5170: 5161: 5149: 5124: 5120: 5110: 5098:. Retrieved 5094: 5085: 5073:. Retrieved 5069: 5059: 5047:. Retrieved 5043: 5034: 5025: 5015: 5003:. Retrieved 4998: 4989: 4977:. Retrieved 4970: 4961: 4949:. Retrieved 4945: 4936: 4924:. 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Retrieved 3687: 3678: 3666:. Retrieved 3662: 3653: 3641:. Retrieved 3634: 3625: 3611:cite journal 3602: 3598: 3588: 3579: 3575: 3566: 3554:. Retrieved 3547: 3538: 3526:. Retrieved 3519: 3510: 3501: 3497: 3472:. Retrieved 3465: 3456: 3444:. Retrieved 3437: 3428: 3419: 3415: 3388: 3384: 3375: 3366: 3354:. Retrieved 3347: 3323:. Retrieved 3319: 3310: 3298:. Retrieved 3291: 3267:. Retrieved 3263: 3254: 3242:. Retrieved 3238: 3214:. Retrieved 3210: 3186:. Retrieved 3179: 3170: 3161: 3155: 3128:cite journal 3114:(2): 52–66. 3111: 3107: 3094: 3083: 3056:. Retrieved 3052: 3043: 3031:. Retrieved 3024: 3000:. Retrieved 2995: 2986: 2977: 2964: 2952:. Retrieved 2945: 2921:. Retrieved 2917: 2908: 2899: 2887:. Retrieved 2883: 2853: 2841:. Retrieved 2834: 2825: 2813:. Retrieved 2806: 2797: 2785:. Retrieved 2780: 2771: 2759:. Retrieved 2752: 2743: 2731:. Retrieved 2706:. Retrieved 2699: 2690: 2678:. Retrieved 2674: 2665: 2653:. Retrieved 2649: 2640: 2628:. Retrieved 2621: 2612: 2592: 2585: 2573:. 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Retrieved 1350: 1319: 1295: 1291:salt marshes 1287: 1258:Audrey Bay, 1253: 1222: 1142: 1133: 1109: 1097: 1088: 1072: 1068: 1050: 1047:'QX disease' 1044: 1026: 1024: 1015:Sydney Water 1012: 998: 994: 990: 984: 979: 972: 960: 940:ultra-violet 932: 916:garbage dump 913: 905:canal estate 898: 871: 862: 858: 842: 815: 799: 779: 775: 771: 758:fibro-cement 747: 735: 716: 710: 707: 703: 683: 676:salt marshes 673: 665: 634: 632: 620: 612:Hunter River 597: 594: 581:Port Hacking 578: 558: 555: 546: 541: 539: 534: 528: 512: 496:Port Hacking 489: 478: 447: 425: 413: 405: 401: 374: 369:Ballina, NSW 358:Connells Bay 350: 341: 336: 333: 328: 315: 307: 303: 299: 292:canal estate 285: 275: 265:belon oyster 260: 254: 250: 244: 239: 235: 229: 220: 216: 196: 157: 154:Lime burning 143: 136: 130: 123: 92: 84: 76:Garden Place 73: 65:oyster reefs 53: 29: 28: 18: 5398:13 February 5372:13 February 5263:19 February 4881:18 February 4855:18 February 4782:18 February 4755:15 February 4731:15 February 4581:14 February 4577:. July 2007 4553:21 December 4455:26 December 4427:26 December 4399:26 December 4371:19 February 4327:19 February 4284:13 February 4162:21 December 4103:22 February 4057:14 February 4006:22 February 3975:23 December 3947:24 December 3922:23 December 3894:23 December 3829:24 December 3780:19 February 3752:29 December 3724:19 February 3696:25 December 3668:24 December 3643:24 December 3356:29 December 3325:18 February 3269:18 February 3244:18 February 3216:18 February 3188:17 February 3058:10 February 3033:17 February 2889:15 February 2733:21 February 2708:27 February 2680:27 February 2655:29 December 2630:29 December 2575:23 December 2492:21 December 2469:Google Maps 2449:18 February 2367:15 February 2228:18 February 2143:20 February 2119:18 February 2094:13 February 2061:10 February 2036:12 February 2001:10 February 1976:10 February 1948:10 February 1920:20 February 1892:29 February 1846:23 February 1821:23 February 1553:10 February 1463:19 December 1432:19 December 1356:19 December 1303:Taren Point 1266:Oatley Park 1206:Towra Point 1152:Oatley Park 1120:New Zealand 1118:, and from 1079:Wallis Lake 944:Taren Point 901:Gwawley Bay 886:Tributyltin 850:Sandringham 846:Dolls Point 738:tidal flats 660:Towra Point 649:inter-tidal 645:Clyde River 627:fresh water 625:—floods of 456:, opposite 288:Gwawley Bay 232:Thomas Holt 212:Cooks River 208:Oatley Park 176:lime mortar 5547:Botany Bay 5536:Categories 5462:: e00988. 5100:15 January 5075:17 January 5049:15 January 5005:15 January 4979:15 January 4926:15 January 4608:: 101246. 4510:"IN BRIEF" 3556:11 January 3528:11 January 1996:Oysterater 1971:Oysterater 1612:1885/52534 1324:References 1307:Botany Bay 1298:Botany Bay 1224:Oatley Bay 1212:Weeney Bay 1195:Oyster Bay 1170:Gwawey Bay 1160:Bonnet Bay 1032:Bonnet Bay 920:Oatley Bay 750:terracotta 525:Regulation 466:flood tide 391:were used. 354:Blakehurst 321:Weeney Bay 184:acid soils 87:Aboriginal 69:Botany Bay 61:salt marsh 43:QX disease 5528:from 2020 5141:0990-7440 5026:Delicious 4824:Walkabout 4638:216353774 4630:2352-4855 3164:(11): 15. 2513:Walkabout 2383:"OYSTERS" 2292:"OYSTERS" 2278:, page 70 1908:"SUMMARY" 1880:"Oysters" 1796:18 August 1771:18 August 1746:18 August 1720:18 August 1525:(Unknown) 1094:Aftermath 1022:oysters. 952:Liverpool 948:Glenfield 669:Veneridae 409:turbidity 314:. Holt's 218:species. 168:limestone 36:, in the 5526:Landline 5347:24 March 5319:24 March 5291:24 March 5185:21 March 5176:"Oyster" 4951:21 March 4831:(5): 11. 4672:cite web 4522:30 March 4190:25 March 4134:29 March 3474:25 March 3446:25 March 3002:26 April 2954:24 March 2544:14 March 2336:20 March 1311:coal tar 1260:Illawong 1250:Remnants 1232:Kyle Bay 1175:Illawong 1112:Tasmania 1083:triploid 1063:Clarence 1055:Richmond 933:A major 854:Rockdale 839:oysters. 743:Kyle Bay 623:freshets 462:Illawong 377:windlass 103:Dharawal 101:clan of 5557:Oysters 5464:Bibcode 5164:. 2010. 5162:NSW DPI 4920:DPI NSW 4702:8 March 4610:Bibcode 4366:Ecomare 3999:Tribune 3300:3 March 2923:7 March 2843:4 March 2815:4 March 2787:2 March 2761:2 March 2395:5 March 2304:8 March 2253:5 March 2192:6 March 2167:7 March 1699:. 1877. 1591:Bibcode 1315:bitumen 1272:Lugarno 1201:Kurnell 1185:Lugarno 987:diploid 956:Malabar 833:hessian 574:Lugarno 570:Kurnell 470:Lugarno 337:claires 329:claires 316:claires 312:alpacas 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