Open Science Infrastructure

371: for medicine, NASA/RECON for space engineering or OCLC Worldcat for library search: "most of the earliest online retrieval system provided access to a bibliographic database and the rest used a file containing another sort of information—encyclopedia articles, inventory data, or chemical compounds." This early development of scientific computing affected a large variety of disciplines and communities, including the social sciences: "The 1960s and 1970s saw the establishment of over a dozen services and professional associations to coordinate quantitative data collection". Yet these infrastructures were mostly invisible to researchers, as most of the research was done by professional librarians. Not only were the search operating systems complicated to use, but the search has to be performed very efficiently given the prohibitive cost of long-distance telecommunication. To become technically feasible, scientific infrastructure could never be open and became fundamentally hidden to their end users: 591:"had failed to grasp the significance of electronic publishing altogether, and therefore the deadly danger that it posed—the danger, namely, that scientists would be able to manage without the journal". The persistence of high revenues from subscription and the consolidation of the sector made it possible to fund the conversion of the pre-existing online services to the web as well as the digitization of past collections. By the 2010s, leading publishers have been "moving from a content-provision to a data analytics business" and developed or acquired new key infrastructures for the management scientific and pedagogic activities: "Elsevier has acquired and launched products that extend its influence and its ownership of the infrastructure to all stages of the academic knowledge production process". Since it has expanded beyond publishing, the 405:

network protocols". The birthing place of the World Wide Web, the CERN, had its own version of Internet, CERN-Net and also supported its own protocol for e-mail exchange. The European Space Agency used its own iteration of the RECON system also used by NASA engineers (ESRO/RECON). The insulated scientific infrastructures could hardly be connected before the advent of the web. Communication between scientific infrastructures was not only challenging across space, but also across time. Whenever a communication protocol was no longer maintained, the data and knowledge it disseminated was likely to disappear as well: "the relationship between historical research and computing has been durably affected by aborted projects, data loss and unrecoverable formats".

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are run by small teams of 5 FTEs or less. The size of the infrastructure and the extent of its funding is far from always proportional to the critical service it offers: "some of the most heavily used services make ends meet with a tiny core team of two to five people." Volunteer contributions are significant as well with is both "a strength and weakness to an OSI’s sustainability". The landscape of open science infrastructures is therefore rather close to the ideals of a "decentralised network of small projects" envisioned by theoricians of the scholarly commons. A very large majority of open science infrastructure are non-commercial and collaborations or financial support from the private sector remain very limited.

686:, open science infrastructure are "seen as an antidote to the increased market concentration observed in the scholarly communication space." In November 2021, the UNESCO Recommendation for Open Science acknowledged open science infrastructure as one of the four pillar of open science, along with open science knowledge, open engagement of societal actors and open dialog with other knowledge system and called for sustained investment and funding: "open science infrastructures are often the result of community-building efforts, which are crucial for their longterm sustainability and therefore should be not-for-profit and guarantee permanent and unrestricted access to all public to the largest extent possible." 430:"facilitated some random linkage between information" Enquire was not able to "facilitate the collaboration that was desired for in the international high-energy physics research community". Like any significant computing scientific infrastructure before the 1990s, the development of ENQUIRE was ultimately impeded by the lack of interoperability and the complexity of managing network communications: "although Enquire provided a way to link documents and databases, and hypertext provided a common format in which to display them, there was still the problem of getting different computers with different operating systems to communicate with each other". 580: 868:

2020, European infrastructures frequently relies on grants from National funds and from the European Commission. Without theses grants, most of theses actors would "could only remain viable for less than a year". Yet, one quarter of surveyed European infrastructures was not supported by any grants and subventions and used either alternative means of incomes or voluntary contributions. As they can be "difficult to define adequately", open science infrastructures can be overlooked by funding bodies, which "contributes to the challenge of securing funding".

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activities within the range of open science infrastructures: "We define Open Access & Open Science Infrastructure as sets of services, protocols, standards and software contributing to the research lifecycle – from collaboration and experimentation through data collection and storage, data organization, data analysis and computation, authorship, submission, review and annotation, copyediting, publishing, archiving, citation, discovery and more"

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since the 1920s to refer collectively to the roads, power grids, telephone systems, bridges, rail lines, and similar public works that are required for an industrial economy to function (…) If infrastructure is required for an industrial economy, then we could say that cyberinfrastructure is required for a knowledge economy". The concept of infrastructure was notably extended in 1996 to forms of computer-mediated knowledge production by

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non-profit organisations, making them mission-driven instead of profit-driven." This status aims to ensure the autonomy of the infrastructure and prevent their incorporation into commercial infrastructure. It has wide range implications on the way the organization is managed: "the differences between commercial services and non-profit services permeated almost every aspect of their responses to their environment".

22: 3664:

Banks, Jaime; Weber, René; Ellis, David A; Smits, Tim; Ivory, James D; Trepte, Sabine; McEwan, Bree; Rinke, Eike Mark; Neubaum, German; Winter, Stephan; Carpenter, Christopher J.; Krämer, Nicole; Utz, Sonja; Unkel, Julian; Wang, Xiaohui; Davidson, Brittany I.; Kim, Nuri; Won, Andrea Stevenson; Domahidi, Emese; Lewis, Neil A.; de Vreese, Claes (February 2021). "An Agenda for Open Science in Communication".

393:, a periodic compilation of scientific abstracts that acted as a simplified commercial version of the central deposit envisioned within SCITEL. Rather than being replaced by a centralized information system, leading scientific publishers have been able to develop their own information infrastructure that ultimately reinforced their business position. By the end of the 1960s, the dutch publisher 667:(ESFRI), major legacy infrastructures in Europe have embraced open science principles. "Most of the Research Infrastructures on the ESFRI Roadmap are at the forefront of Open Science movement and make important contributions to the digital transformation by transforming the whole research process according to the Open Science paradigm." Examples of extensive data sharing programs include the 360: 509:

of public scientific computing infrastructure became a major policy issue. The first wave of web-based scientific projects in the 1990s and the early 2000s revealed critical issues of sustainability. As funding was allocated on a specific time period, critical databases, online tools or publishing platforms could hardly be maintained; and project managers were faced with a

328:: "The Sputnik crisis turned the librarians’ problem of bibliographic control into a national information crisis." The emerging computing technologies were immediately considered as a potential solution to make a larger amount of scientific output readable and searchable. Access to foreign language publication was also a key issue that was expected to be solved by 571:’s rejection of the project’s final proposal attempt, Bamboo was dogged by its reluctance and/or inability to concretely define itself". This lack of clarity was further aggravated by recurring communication missteps between the project initiators and the community it aimed to serve. "The community had spoken and made it clear that continuing to emphasize 304: 701:. In contrast with the focus of Plan S on scientific publication, Plan I aims to integrate all research outputs on large interoperable infrastructures: "research and scholarship are crucially dependent on an information infrastructure that treats all scholarly output, text, data and code, equally and that is based on open standards and open markets." 71:. The definition of open science infrastructures usually exclude privately owned scientific infrastructures run by leading commercial publishers. Conversely it may include actors not always characterized as scientific infrastructures that play a critical role in the ecosystem of open science, such as publishing platforms in open access ( 622:

research, with little integration of technical tools and few large community initiatives. "Common pool of resources is not governed or managed by the current scholarly commons initiative. There is no dedicated hard infrastructure and though there may be a nascent community, there is no formal membership."

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respondents have undertaken an evaluation of their technological environment during the past year, to ensure that key components have not become obsolete. As a consequence of this sustained efforts, most open infrastructure complies with the new established standards of open science, such as FAIR data or

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The tension between centralization and diversity largely characterizes Open Science Infrastructure. While historically defined as a "centralized project", Redalyc aims to become a "community-based sustainable infrastructure in Latin America" (Berrecil). The leading European open infrastructures have

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These reports underline that important open science infrastructures may be already existing and yet remain invisible to funders and scientific policies: "alternative practices and projects exist inside and outside Europe, but these projects are almost invisible to the eyes of the public authorities".

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underlined that the lack of common infrastructure was one of the main weakness of the open science ecosystem: "in a world where it can be cheaper to re-do an analysis than to store the data, we need to consider seriously the social, physical, and material infrastructure that might support the sharing

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by Elsevier has highlighted the lack of reliability of critical scientific infrastructure for open science. The SPARC report on European Infrastructures underlines that "a number of important infrastructures at risk and as a consequence, the products and services that comprise open infrastructure are

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The text ends by mentioning several potential consequences of the principles. The authors advocate for a responsible centralization, that embodies a different than the large web commercial platforms like Google and Facebook while still maintaining the important benefit of centralized infrastructures:

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that does not exist yet but would incorporate latent forms of open science infrastructure and communities: "In addition to sharing resources with other projects, commoning also requires commoners to adopt an outwardly-focused, generous attitude to other commons projects, redirecting their labour away

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Open science infrastructures are durable and resilient. They are expected to run on a long-term basis and multiple research programs relies on. To some extent, infrastructure are successful when they are forgotten and become an integral part of routine research activities: "Infrastructure at its best

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Open Science Infrastructures benefit to diverse disciplines and scientific communities. In 2020, 72% of the European infrastructures surveyed by Sparc Europe claim to support all disciplines. The social sciences and the humanities are the most mentioned disciplines, which is partly attributed to the

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Since 2015 these principles have become the most influential definition of Open Science Infrastructures and been endorsed by leading infrastructures such as Crossref, OpenCitations or Data Dryad and has become a common basis for the institutional evaluation of existing open infrastructures. The main

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The development of the World-Wide Web had rendered numerous pre-existing scientific infrastructure obsolete. It also lifted numerous restrictions and obstacles to online contribution and network management that made it possible to attempt more ambitious project. By the end of the 1990s, the creation

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The Web and similar protocols developed at the time have had a similar impact on scientific publications. Early forms of open access publishing were not developed by large scale institutional infrastructures but through small initiatives. Universal access, regardless of the operating system, made it

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relied on a computational processing of citation data. It had a massive and lasting influence on the structuration of global scientific publication in the last decades of the 20th century, as its most important metrics, the Journal Impact Factor, "ultimately came to provide the metric tool needed to

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Although it anticipates key features of online scientific platforms, the SCITEL plan was technically irrealistic at the time. The first working prototype on an online retrieval system developed in 1963 by Doug Engelhart and Charles Bourne at the Stanford Research Institute was heavily constrained by

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have laid out an influential prescriptive definition of open science infrastructures. Subsequent definitions and terminologies of open science infrastructures have been largely elaborated on this basis. The text has also influenced the definition of open science infrastructure retained by the UNESCO

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repositories or large scale collaborative project such as Knowledge: "When we study contemporary knowledge infrastructures we find values of openness often embedded there, but translating the values of openness into the design of infrastructures and the practices of infrastructuring is a complex and

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Open science infrastructures are not simply a technical product but embed a set of tools, institutions and social norms. Consequently, infrastructures are not always visible as they can be largely hidden under the routine of normal activities The resilience and tacitness of the infrastructures makes

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Many Open Science Infrastructure run "at a relatively low cost" as small infrastructures are an important part of the open science ecosystem. In 2020, 21 out of 53 surveyed European infrastructures "report spending less than €50,000". Consequently, more than 75% of surveyed European infrastructures

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Over the past decade, we have made real progress to further ensure the availability of data that supports research claims. This work is far from complete. We believe that data about the research process itself deserves exactly the same level of respect and care. The scholarly community does not own

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became available after 2000. This development entailed a significant expansion of non-commercial open access journals by facilitating the creation and the administration of journal website and the digital conversion of existing journals. Among the non-commercial journals registered to the Directory

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understates that open infrastructures are not only characterized by the management of a pool of common resources but also by the elaboration of common governance and norms. The economic theory of the commons make it possible to expand beyond the scope of limited scope of scholar associations toward

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The use of the term "infrastructure" is an explicit reference to the physical infrastructures and networks such as power grids, road networks or telecommunications that made it possible to run complex economic and social system after the industrial revolution: "The term infrastructure has been used

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Maintaining open standards is one of the main challenge identified by leading European open infrastructures, as it implies choosing among competing standards in some case, as well as ensuring that the standards are correctly updated and accessibile through APIs or other endpoints. Two third of the

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Most of the landscape reports on Open Infrastructure have been undertaken in Europe and, to a lesser extent, in Latin America. For Europe, the main sources include the SPARC report from 2020, the OPERAS report on social science and humanities infrastructure, as well as the 2019 report of Katherine

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was used in a scientific context by a US National Science Foundation (NSF) blue-ribbon committee in 2003: "The newer term cyberinfrastructure refers to infrastructure based upon distributed computer, information and communication technology. If infrastructure is required for an industrial economy,

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could only be browsed on specific terminals shared across scientific institutions: "To take on board the custom-designed, powerful WCS (with its convenient interface) is to suffer inconvenience at the intersection of work habits, computer use, and lab resources (…) The World-Wide Web, on the other

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Dienlin, Tobias; Johannes, Niklas; Bowman, Nicholas David; Masur, Philipp K.; Engesser, Sven; Kümpel, Anna Sophie; Lukito, Josephine; Bier, Lindsey M; Zhang, Renwen; Johnson, Benjamin K.; Huskey, Richard; Schneider, Frank M.; Breuer, Johannes; Parry, Douglas A.; Vermeulen, Ivar; Fisher, Jacob T.;

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Governance has been self-identified as a potential weakness by the European infrastructure surveyed by SPARC. Less than half of the respondents considering that they are at a "mature" stage in this regard and a "good governance" is quoted as the main challenge. Interaction between the communities

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The privatised control of scholarly infrastructures is especially noticeable in the context of ‘vertical integration’ that publishers such as Elsevier and SpringerNature are seeking by controlling all aspects of the research life cycle, from submission to publication and beyond. For example, this

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Overall, European infrastructures were financially sustainable in 2020 which contrasts with the situation ten years prior: in 2010, European infrastructures had much less visibility: they usually lacked "a long-term perspective" and struggled "with securing the funding for more than 5 years". In

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Infrastructures are frequently dependent on choices made by external stakeholders, especially scientific publishers: they "do not themselves decide on the openness of content since they are dependent on the policies of content providers". This affects not only the content but also the "user data

795:, is one of least quoted leading service. Open science infrastructure are then part of an emerging "truly interoperable Open Science commons" that hold the premise of "researcher-centric, low-cost, innovative, and interoperable tools for research, superior to the present, largely closed system." 404:

Until the advent of the web, the landscape of scientific infrastructures remained fragmented. Projects, and communities relied on their own unconnected networks at a national or institutional level: "the Internet was nearly invisible in Europe because people there were pursuing a separate set of

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Open science infrastructures can be shared and used by different actors and communities. It must be sufficiently consistent to remain coordinated and yet it have to welcome a diverse array of local uses: "an infrastructure occurs when the tension between local and global is resolved". Predefined

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Avanço, Karla; Balula, Ana; Błaszczyńska, Marta; Buchner, Anna; Caliman, Lorena; Clivaz, Claire; Costa, Carlos; Franczak, Mateusz; Gatti, Rupert; Giglia, Elena; Gingold, Arnaud; Jarmelo, Susana; Padez, Maria João; Leão, Delfim; Maryl, Maciej; Melinščak Zlodi, Iva; Mojsak, Kajetan; Morka, Agata;

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A majority of European infrastructures "operate at a global scale", with English being the primary language of 82% of the respondents. These infrastructures are also frequently multilingual and integrate a specific national focus: they "provide access to a range of language content of local and

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Yet, there is a significant diversification of the roles and the activities of open science infrastructure, at least among the largest infrastructures. In the survey of European infrastructure conducted by SPARC Europe, 95% of the respondents mention that they provide services in at least three

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for the specific needs of high energy physics. The structure of ENQUIRE was closer to an internal web of data: it connected "nodes" that "could refer to a person, a software module, etc. and that could be interlined with various relations such as made, include, describes and so forth". While it

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to a community-wide infrastructure." Open science infrastructure tend to favor a non-for profit, publicly funded model with strong involvement from scientific communities, which disassociate them from privately owned closed infrastructures: "open infrastructures are often scholar-led and run by

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In contrast with the consolidation of privately owned infrastructure, the open science movement "has tended to overlook the importance of social structures and systemic constraints in the design of new forms of knowledge infrastructures". It remained mostly focused to the content of scientific

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By 2010, infrastructure are "no longer in infancy" and yet "they are also not yet fully mature". While the development of the web solved a large range of technical issues regarding network management, building scientific infrastructure remained challenging. Governance, communication across all

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raises questions over who is the community that gets to govern and exclude, and what gives them the right to decide the conditions These questions are especially relevant for understandings of the commons that are all-encompassing or operate on a large scale, which tend to favour more powerful

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are considered an integral part of open science infrastructures in the UNESCO definition and in several literature review and policy reports, whereas they were usually considered as a separate entities in the policy debate on cyberinfrastructure and e-infrastructures. In the 2010 report of the

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recommendation of Open Science approved in November 2021 define open science infrastructures as "shared research infrastructures that are needed to support open science and serve the needs of different communities". The SPARC report on European Open Science Infrastructure include the following

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Altunay, Mine; Avery, Paul; Blackburn, Kent; Bockelman, Brian; Ernst, Michael; Fraser, Dan; Quick, Robert; Gardner, Robert; Goasguen, Sebastien; Levshina, Tanya; Livny, Miron; McGee, John; Olson, Doug; Pordes, Ruth; Potekhin, Maxim; Rana, Abhishek; Roy, Alain; Sehgal, Chander; Sfiligoi, Igor;

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The designers of the first online systems had presumed that searching would be done by end users; that assumption undergirded system design. MEDLINE was intended to be used by medical researchers and clinicians, NASA/RECON was designed for aerospace engineers and scientists. For many reasons,

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that would at first coexist with printed journals and gradually replace them altogether on account of its efficiency. In the plan laid out by Ledeberg to Eugen Garfield in November 1961, the deposit would index as much as 1,000,000 scientific articles per year. Beyond full-text searching, the

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increasingly being tempted by buyout offers from large commercial enterprises. This threat affects both not-for-profit open infrastructure as well as closed, and is evidenced by the buyout in recent years of commonly relied on tools and platforms such as SSRN, bepress, Mendeley, and Github."

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Sharing of data and data documentation was a major focus in the initial communication of the World Wide Web when the project was first unveiled in August 1991 : "The WWW project was started to allow high energy physicists to share data, news, and documentation. We are very interested in

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Open science infrastructures are open, which differentiate them with other scientific and knowledge infrastructure and, more specifically, with subscription-based commercial infrastructures. Openness is both a core value and a directing principle that affect the aims, the governance and the

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Creation-focused infrastructures which deal preferably with the "processing and storing research outputs, particularly data". Theses actors provide specific services in the field of "data gathering (47 out of 71), and data analysis (40)". Besides, "computation and machine learning (18) and

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Computing infrastructures and online services have played a key role in the production and diffusion of scientific knowledge since the 1960s. While these early scientific infrastructure were initially envisioned as community initiatives, they could not be openly used due to the lack of

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Courant, Paul N.; Fraser, Sarah E.; Goodchild, Michael F.; Hedstrom, Margaret; Henry, Charles; Kaufmann, Peter B.; McGann, Jerome; Rosenzweig, Roy; Unsworth, John; Zuckerman, Bruce (2006). Our cultural commonwealth. The report of the American Council of Learned Societies Commission on

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it especially difficult to identify the real contributions and "labour cost" of open science work, as it remains "invisible in the university system". This make it also difficult to allocate funding effectively as critical infrastructure may remain undetected by funding bodies.

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they aim to support and the other stakeholders and funders is especially complicated: "One specific challenge identified was the tension between serving the needs of the community of users versus prioritising the needs of clients that provide financial support to the OSI".

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By 2021, public services and infrastructures for research have largely endorsed open science as an integral part of their activity and identity: "open science is the dominant discourse to which new online services for research refer." According to the 2021 Roadmap of the

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More precise concepts were needed to embed ethical principles of openness, community-service and autonomous governance in the building of infrastructure and ensure the transformation of small localized scholarly networks into large, "community-wide" structures. In 2013,

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would alienate the very members of the community Bamboo was intended to benefit most: the scholars themselves". Budgets cuts following the economic crisis of 2007-2008 underlined the fragility of ambitious infrastructure plans relying on a significant recurring funds.

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from proprietary." In 2018, Okune et al. introduced a similar concept of "inclusive knowledge infrastructures" that "deliberately allow for multiple forms of participation amongst a diverse set of actors (…) and seek to redress power relations within a given context."

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stakeholders, wealthy disciplines and countries in the Global North. Such commons treat subjects in a political vacuum rather than embedded in a particular situation and entangled in a number of different relationships and projects with asymmetrical power structures.

266:: the core activities of organization should be covered by recurring funds. Short-term subventions should be limited to short-term projects. Whil the organization could charge for services, it should not extend to the data that should remain "a community property". 726:

different stages of research production out of six (Creation, Evaluation, Publishing, Hosting, Discovering and Archiving). Agregation, hosting and indexing are especially central activities, common to most Open Science Infrastructures regardless of their focus.

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Bosman, Jeroen; Bruno, Ian; Chapman, Chris; Tzovaras, Bastian Greshake; Jacobs, Nate; Kramer, Bianca; Martone, Maryann Elizabeth; Murphy, Fiona; O'Donnell, Daniel Paul; Bar-Sinai, Michael; Hagstrom, Stephanie; Utley, Josh; Veksler, Lusia Ludmila (2017-09-15).

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Open Science Infrastructure "target and serve a wide range of stakeholders". Researchers remain the primary target, but libraries, teachers and learners are among the expected audience of more than half of the infrastructure surveyed by Sparc Europe.

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Dacos, Marin (2013). "Cyberclio : vers une cyberinfrastructure au cœur de la discipline historique" [Cyberclio. Towards a Cyberinfrastructure at the heart of the historical discipline]. In Frédéric Clavert; Serge Noiret (eds.).

67:) that support the production of open knowledge. Beyond the management of common resources, they are frequently structured as community-led initiatives with a set collective norms and governance regulations, which makes them also a form of 710:

Skinner (that also extends to a few North American infrastructures). International studies include European Commission 2010 report on The Role of E-Infrastructure which mostly receive input from Europe, South America and North America.

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however, most users through the seventies were librarians and trained intermediaries working on behalf of end users. In fact, some professional searchers worried that even allowing eager end users to get at the terminals was a bad idea.

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vertical integration is represented in a number of Elsevier’s business acquisitions, such as Mendeley (a reference manager), SSRN (a pre-print repository) and Bepress (a provider of repository and publishing software for universities).

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Scientific projects have been among the earliest use case for digital infrastructure. The theorization of scientific knowledge infrastructure even predates the development of computing technologies. The knowledge network envisioned by

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Open science infrastructures are not only a more specific subset of scientific infrastructures and cyberinfrastructures but may also include actors that would not fall into this definition. "Open access publication platforms" such as

4274: 284:. While the scientific community is a key part of the governance of open science infrastructure, Samuel Moore underline that it is never precisely defined, which raised potential issues of under-representation of minority groups: 323:

After the Second World War, the United States faced a "periodical crisis": existing journals could not keep up with the rapidly increasing scientific output. The issue became politically relevant after the successful launch of

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The concept of open science infrastructure emerged after 2015 following a scientific policy debate over the expansion of commercial and privately owned infrastructures in numerous research activities and the publication of the

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made it possible to share data and publications on a large scale. The sustainability of online research projects and services became a critical policy issue and entailed the development of major infrastructure in the 2000s.

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European Commission. Directorate General for Research and Innovation (2019). Future of scholarly publishing and scholarly communication: report of the Expert Group to the European Commission (Report). Publications Office.

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Open science infrastructures preferably integrate standards from other open science infrastructures. Among European infrastructures: "The most commonly cited systems – and thus essential infrastructure for many – are

260:: the governance of the infrastructure should be open and accountable to the scientific communities it aims to serve. Specific measures should ensure that the management of the organization is transparent and diverse. 2609:

Mosterd, Tom; Nury, Elisa; Plag, Cornelia; Schafer, Valérie; Silva, Mickael; Stojanovski, Jadranka; Szleszyński, Bartłomiej; Szulińska, Agnieszka; Tóth-Czifra, Erzsébet; Wciślik, Piotr; Wieneke, Lars (2021-06-29).

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hand, can be accessed from a broad variety of terminals and connections, and Internet computer support is readily available at most academic institutions and through relatively inexpensive commercial services."

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Publishing-focused infrastructures which are associated with the "publishing and hosting traditional text formats". Among them, "paper submission (41 out of 70) and review (30) were the most commonly reported

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is to build "trustworthy institutions" with significant commitments in terms of governance, financial sustainability and technical efficiency sot that it can be durably relied on by scientific communities.

277:"we will be able to build accountable and trusted organisations that manage this centralization responsibly". Existing examples of large open infrastructure include ORCID, the Wikimedia Foundation or CERN. 524:

Thanks to "sizable investments", major national and international infrastructures have been incepted from the initial policy discussion in the early 2000s to the economic crisis of 2007–2008, such as the

441:, a major biology database on worms, switched to the Web and Gopher. While the Web did not include many advanced functions for data retrieval and collaboration, it was easily accessible. Conversely, the 272:: the technical infrastructure and the output of the organization are open. This ensure that the infrastructure can be recreated if necessary (in the jargon of open source, it becomes "forkable"). 640:

or control most of this information. For example, we could have built or taken on the infrastructure to collect bibliographic data and citations but that task was left to private enterprise.

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The consolidation and expansion of commercial scientific infrastructure had entailed renewed calls to secure "community-controlled infrastructure". The acquisition of the open repositories

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Brembs, Björn; Förstner, Konrad; Goedicke, Michael; Konrad, Uwe; Wannemacher, Klaus; Kett, Jürgen (2021-01-21). Plan I - Towards a sustainable research information infrastructure (Paper).

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then we could say that cyberinfrastructure is required for a knowledge economy." E-infrastructure or e-science were used in a similar meaning in the United Kingdom and European countries.

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The development of open scientific infrastructure has become a debated topic regarding the future of online scientific research. In January 2021, a collective of researchers called for a

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reported "challenges around ensuring sufficient (and sufficiently diverse) representation" as well as the involvement from some professional communities like researchers and librarians.

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movement. 82% of the European infrastructures surveyed by SPARC claim to have partially built open source software and 53% have their entire technological infrastructure in open source.

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that reacted primarily to the discrepancy between the increasing openness of scientific publications or datasets and the closeness of the infrastructure that control their circulation.

140:, through an empirical observation of an early form of open science infrastructure, the Worm Community System. This definition has remained influential through the next two decades in 4670: 747:

Standardization is a major function of open science infrastructure as they aim to insure that the content they share and support is distributed consistently as well as ease reuse.

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involved stakeholders, and strategical divergences were major factors of success or failure. One of the first major infrastructure for the humanities and the social science, the

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network". In 2010, the infrastructures supporting the social sciences and the humanities were much less prevalent and most of the uses cases came from "biosciences,

3931:"The End of a Centralized Open Access Project and the Beginning of a Community-Based Sustainable Infrastructure for Latin America: Redalyc.org after Fifteen Years" 2593:

Bosman, Jeroen; Frantsvåg, Jan Erik; Kramer, Bianca; Langlais, Pierre-Carl; Proudman, Vanessa (2021-03-09). OA Diamond Journals Study. Part 1: Findings (Paper).

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Revolutionizing Science and Engineering Through Cyberinfrastructure: Report of the National Science Foundation Blue-Ribbon Advisory Panel on Cyberinfrastructure

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Open Access repositories are the most frequent form of Open Science Infrastructure with 5,791 repositories in existence in December 2021 according to OpenDOAR

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of Open Access Journals, the number of annual creation has gone from 100 by the end of the 1990s to 800 around 2010, and not evolved significantly since then.

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Future of Scholarly Communication. Forging an inclusive and innovative research infrastructure for scholarly communication in Social Sciences and Humanities

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is a form of knowledge infrastructure that makes it possible to create, publish and maintain open scientific outputs such as publication, data or software.

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Shankar, Kalpana; Eschenfelder, Kristin R.; Downey, Greg (2016-05-13). "Studying the History of Social Science Data Archives as Knowledge Infrastructure".

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The web rapidly superseded pre-existing online infrastructure, even when they included more advanced computing features. From 1991 to 1994, users of the

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The development of digital infrastructure for scientific publication was largely undertaken by private companies. In 1963, Eugene Garfield created the

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Maxwell, John W.; Hanson, Eric; Desai, Leena; Tiampo, Carmen; O'Donnell, Kim; Ketheeswaran, Avvai; Sun, Melody; Walter, Emma; Michelle, Ellen (2019).

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infrastructure would also ensure the indexation of citation and other metadata, as well as the automated translation of foreign language articles.

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Wuerthwein, Frank; The Open Science Grid Executive Board (June 2011). "A Science Driven Production Cyberinfrastructure—the Open Science Grid".

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Star, Susan Leigh; Ruhleder, Karen (1996-03-01). "Steps Toward an Ecology of Infrastructure: Design and Access for Large Information Spaces".

2872: 2835: 2816: 2797: 2762: 2743: 2724: 2705: 2686: 367:

Instead of a general purpose publishing platform, the early scientific computing infrastructures focused on specific research areas, such as

4432: 4176: 381: 587:

Leading commercial publishers were initially distanced by the unexpected rise of the Web for academic publication: the executive board of

2434: 655: 450:

possible to maintain and share community-driven electronic journals year before online commercial scientific publishings became viable:

5366: 5299: 4382: 4373: 3626:

Moore, Samuel A. (2020). "Revisiting "the 1990s debutante": Scholar-led publishing and the prehistory of the open access movement".

543: 4060: 3355:

Chodacki, John; Cruse, Patricia; Lin, Jennifer; Neylon, Cameron (2016-04-12). "A Healthy Research Ecosystem: Diversity by Design".

2490:

Aspesi, Claudio; Allen, Nicole Starr; Crow, Raym; Daugherty, Shawn; Joseph, Heather; McArthur, Joseph; Shockey, Nick (2019-04-03).

3372:

Parinov, Sergey; Antonova, Victoria (2016-08-19). "End of Publication? Open access and a new scholarly communication technology".

660: 579: 147:

Open science infrastructure have specific properties that contrast them with other forms of open science projects or initiatives:

5109: 4144: 220:

Open science infrastructures may also incorporate additional values and ethical principles. Samuel Moore has theorized a form of

4105: 2450: 2353: 217:

European Commission on e-infrastructure, scientific publishing platforms are "not e-Infrastructures but closely related to it".

40:

that supports the open sharing of scientific productions such as publications, datasets, metadata or code. In November 2021 the

4269: 4041: 3884: 2889:

Garfield, Eugene (1955-07-15). "Citation Indexes for Science: A New Dimension in Documentation through Association of Ideas".

4518: 4368: 487: 141: 104:

through the development of new open science project and the conversion of legacy infrastructures to open science principles.

3883:

Eccles, Kathryn; Schroeder, Ralph; Meyer, Eric T.; Kertcher, Zack; Barjak, Franz; Huesing, Tobias; Robinson, Simon (2009).

2461:(Report). Design for Open Access Publications in European Research Areas for Social Sciences and Humanities. OPERAS. 2017. 25:

Open Science infrastructure is one of the four pillars of Open Science in the UNESCO Recommendation on Open Science (2021).

5248: 4977: 4706: 4637: 4387: 572: 454:

In the late ‘80s and early ‘90s, a host of new journal titles launched on listservs and (later) the Web. Journals such as

170:

management of the infrastructure. Open science infrastructure face similar issues met by other open institutions such as

5304: 4589: 4579: 4218: 490:

in answer to recurring storage issue of academic mailboxes on account of the increasing sharing of scientific articles.

4548: 4340: 4203: 4137: 2558: 2435:

Mapping Scholarly Communication Infrastructure: A Bibliographic Scan of Digital Scholarly Communication Infrastructure

2405:

Cyberinfrastructure for the Humanities and Social Sciences (Report). American Council of Learned Societie. p. 51.

340: 195:

large scale community-led initiatives: "Ostrom's work (…) provides a template (…) to make the transition from a local

791:

is the first mentioned commercial service, while Scopus, the leading proprietary academic search engine developed by

253:. The principles develop a series of recommendations in three critical areas to the success of open infrastructures: 5326: 5314: 5289: 4906: 4523: 4335: 631:

of the material outputs of research". Two years later, Neylon, Geoffrey Bilder and Jenifer Lin defined a series of

213: 37: 2783:] (in French). Bruxelles; Bern; Berlin; Frankfurt am Main; New York; Oxford; Wien: Peter Lang. pp. 29–41. 2507: 2474:

Chodacki, John; Cruse, Patricia; Lin, Jennifer; Neylon, Cameron; Pattinson, Damian; Strasser, Carly (2018-04-05).

835: 5114: 5104: 4921: 4422: 4407: 4248: 676: 3077:"Architecting the Future of Research Communication: Building the Models and Analytics for an Open Access Future" 5371: 5284: 5099: 5012: 4458: 4427: 4412: 4402: 4299: 3128:

Campbell-Kelly, Martin; Garcia-Swartz, Daniel D (2013). "The History of the Internet: The Missing Narratives".

2297: 729:

Specialization does happen at a higher level. A network analysis identifies "two main clusters of activities":

697:

in reaction to perceived shortcomings of the international initiative for open science of the cOAlition S, the

363:

The indexation process of citations in MEDLARS, an early scientific infrastructure for publications in medicine

3198:"Piattaforme digitali per la pubblicazione di contenuti di ricerca: esperienze, modelli open access, tendenze" 855:

and other fields of physics, earth and environmental sciences, computer science, astronomy and astrophysics".

2660: 2372: 4538: 4233: 2492:

SPARC Landscape Analysis: The Changing Academic Publishing Industry – Implications for Academic Institutions

3771:"Making a Research Infrastructure: Conditions and Strategies to Transform a Service into an Infrastructure" 160:

agreement on the scope and the governance of the infrastructure within all stakeholders is a critical step.

44:

recommendation on Open Science describe it as "shared research infrastructures that are needed to support

5233: 5223: 5124: 5074: 4957: 4563: 4498: 4488: 4478: 4468: 4463: 4330: 4171: 668: 661: 475: 385: 401: have started to computarize their internal data, as well as the management of the journal reviews. 384:

that aimed to transform the projects initially envisioned with Lederberg into a profitable business. The

178:

The conceptual definition of open science infrastructures has been largely influenced by the analysis of

5361: 5279: 5228: 4865: 4778: 4742: 4679: 4558: 4543: 4533: 4528: 4493: 4483: 4473: 4358: 438: 144:

and has affected the policy debate over the building of scientific infrastructure since the early 2000s

3000:"Open science grid: Building and sustaining general cyberinfrastructure using a collaborative approach" 2963:

Bos, Nathan; Zimmerman, Ann; Olson, Judith; Yew, Jude; Yerkie, Jason; Dahl, Erik; Olson, Gary (2007).

5017: 5000: 4995: 4988: 4622: 4553: 4513: 4503: 4253: 3846: 3542:"Sustaining Scholarly Infrastructures through Collective Action: The Lessons that Olson can Teach us" 2577:

Ficarra, Victoria; Fosci, Mattia; Chiarelli, Andrea; Kramer, Bianca; Proudman, Vanessa (2020-10-30).

772: 555: 344: 333: 3507:"'Publication favela' or bibliodiversity? Open access publishing viewed from a European perspective" 1422: 1136: 564: 551: 137: 5309: 5243: 5129: 4880: 4716: 4325: 4192: 3969:

Whose Infrastructure? Towards Inclusive and Collaborative Knowledge Infrastructures in Open Science

852: 595:

of privately owned infrastructures has become extensively integrated to daily research activities.

499: 398: 329: 53: 3966:

Chan, Leslie; Posada, Alejandro; Albornoz, Denisse; Hillyer, Rebecca; Okune, Angela (2018-06-20).

3904:"Inequality in Knowledge Production: The Integration of Academic Infrastructure by Big Publishers" 3769:

Fecher, Benedikt; Kahn, Rebecca; Sokolovska, Nataliia; Völker, Teresa; Nebe, Philip (2021-08-01).

5165: 4946: 4823: 4727: 4304: 4228: 3890: 3864: 3734: 3651: 3614: 3476: 3373: 3220: 3153: 3063: 2951: 2641: 2565: 92:. Since the 2010s, large ecosystems of interconnected scientific infrastructures have emerged in 4016: 672: 3197: 2717:

Weaving the Web: The Original Design and Ultimate Destiny of the World Wide Web by Its Inventor

2410:

Edwards, Paul N.; Jackson, Steven J.; Bowker, Geoffrey C.; Knobel, Cory Philip (January 2007).

567:

was ultimately unable to achieve its ambitious aims: "From the early planning workshops to the

5321: 5175: 5119: 4818: 4788: 4208: 3792: 3726: 3691: 3643: 3606: 3598: 3563: 3528: 3414: 3343: 3325: 3290: 3255: 3145: 3116: 3098: 3055: 3047: 3017: 2986: 2943: 2914: 2906: 2868: 2831: 2812: 2793: 2758: 2739: 2720: 2701: 2682: 568: 526: 187: 68: 4029: 5331: 5185: 5180: 5094: 4870: 4363: 4223: 3973: 3946: 3938: 3911: 3854: 3817: 3782: 3755: 3716: 3681: 3673: 3635: 3588: 3553: 3518: 3466: 3439: 3404: 3396: 3360: 3333: 3315: 3280: 3267:

Karasti, Helena; Millerand, Florence; Hine, Christine M.; Bowker, Geoffrey C. (2016-12-14).

3245: 3232:

Karasti, Helena; Millerand, Florence; Hine, Christine M.; Bowker, Geoffrey C. (2016-02-12).

3212: 3178: 3137: 3106: 3088: 3039: 3007: 2976: 2935: 2898: 2863:

Montgomery, Lucy; Hartley, John; Neylon, Cameron; Gillies, Malcolm; Gray, Eve (2021-08-03).

2626: 2594: 2527: 2462: 2415: 2330: 2305: 995:, p. 121: "infrastructures are not easily divisible, recognisable or compartmentalised" 848: 538: 348: 307:

The Sputnik launch has triggered one of the first major debate on scientific infrastructure.

133: 5170: 5160: 5069: 5053: 5038: 4950: 4916: 4911: 4875: 4763: 4617: 4584: 2848:

Common Struggles: Policy-based vs. scholar-led approaches to open access in the humanities

610: 422: 209: 3850: 2506:

Ross-Hellauer, Tony; Fecher, Benedikt; Shearer, Kathleen; Rodrigues, Eloy (2019-09-03).

417:

was originally framed as an open scientific infrastructure. The project was inspired by

4901: 4828: 4627: 4612: 4320: 3338: 3303: 3111: 3076: 788: 627: 414: 191: 80: 3977: 3942: 3915: 470:

were all managed by scholars and library workers rather than publishing professionals.

245:

attempt to hybridize the framework of infrastructure studies with the analysis of the

5355: 5205: 5048: 4983: 4941: 4783: 4711: 4374: 3868: 3837: 3738: 3655: 3480: 3224: 2981: 2964: 2569: 2458: 2411: 2388: 479: 317: 250: 179: 101: 97: 3894: 3748:"Thinking politically about scholarly infrastructure: Commit the publishers to 2.5%" 3618: 2955: 2451:

The role of e-Infrastructures in the creation of global virtual research communities

280:

A more critical reception has focused on the underlying political philosophy of the

21: 5238: 5200: 5134: 5033: 4833: 4813: 4768: 4683: 4632: 4602: 3216: 3067: 2508:

Pubfair: a framework for sustainable, distributed, open science publishing services

839:

Distribution of disciplines among the infrastructures surveyed by the SPARC report

45: 3930: 3903: 3491:"The Scholarly Commons - principles and practices to guide research communication" 3320: 389:

structure a competitive market among journal. Garfield also successfully launched

51:

Open science infrastructures are a form of scientific infrastructure (also called

4080:"Crossref's Board votes to adopt the Principles of Open Scholarly Infrastructure" 3705:"The Golden Age of the Green Ecosystem: A Color-BlindPerspective on Repositories" 3157: 3093: 2965:"From Shared Databases to Communities of Practice: A Taxonomy of Collaboratories" 2902: 5258: 5195: 5190: 5043: 5007: 4885: 4773: 4732: 4648: 4160: 4118:"OpenCitations' compliance with the Principles of Open Scholarly Infrastructure" 2809:

Scholarly Communications: A History from Content as King to Content as Kingmaker

2310: 803: 359: 3951: 3822: 3805: 3364: 3043: 516:

Several competing terms appeared to fill this need. In the United States, the

434:

spreading the web to other areas, and having gateway servers for other data".

356:

memory issues: no more than 10,000 words of a few documents could be indexed.

313: 3937:. 22nd International Conference on Electronic Publishing. OpenEdition Press. 3910:. 22nd International Conference on Electronic Publishing. OpenEdition Press. 3859: 3832: 3796: 3787: 3770: 3730: 3695: 3647: 3602: 3593: 3576: 3567: 3532: 3471: 3454: 3418: 3329: 3294: 3259: 3149: 3102: 3051: 3021: 2990: 2947: 2910: 2698:

Scholarship in the Digital Age: Information, Infrastructure, and the Internet

320:

already incorporated numerous features of online scientific infrastructures.

5253: 4838: 4607: 4243: 3166: 780: 503: 171: 59: 3721: 3704: 3610: 3347: 3120: 2918: 2631: 2599: 2326: 3760: 3747: 3444: 3427: 3012: 2999: 799:

policies are set by publishers which limits what can be made available".

79:

interconnectivity and the cost of network connection. The creation of the

5336: 4737: 4397: 4238: 4106:"Open Science MOOC Response to UNESCO Draft Open Science Recommendations" 3967: 3677: 3182: 2939: 2419: 1423:

European Commission. Directorate General for Research and Innovation 2019

1254: 1137:

European Commission. Directorate General for Research and Innovation 2019

792: 784: 776: 764: 588: 394: 2491: 347: advocated for the creation of a "centralized information system", 303: 5263: 4747: 4442: 4213: 4093:"Dryad's Commitment to the Principles of Open Scholarly Infrastructure" 3686: 3400: 3285: 3268: 3250: 3233: 3141: 530: 418: 368: 325: 246: 183: 3639: 3523: 3506: 3428:"Securing community-controlled infrastructure: SPARC's plan of action" 3409: 3059: 4793: 4417: 1457: 1455: 752: 205: 119: 93: 41: 2610: 2578: 2475: 2335: 3558: 3541: 3378: 2532: 2466: 834: 760: 578: 483: 478:

were individual or community initiatives as well. In August 1991,

358: 302: 20: 4042:"The end of the journal? What has changed, what stayed the same?" 3628:

Journal of the Association for Information Science and Technology

3546:

KULA: Knowledge Creation, Dissemination, and Preservation Studies

2542: 5139: 2234: 2232: 2219: 2217: 2168: 2166: 2164: 2162: 768: 614: 534: 426: 332:: in the 1950s, a significant amount of scientific publications 4652: 4133: 2354:"Good Practice Principles for Scholarly Communication Services" 2125: 2123: 2026: 2024: 2022: 2009: 2007: 2005: 2003: 1990: 1988: 1986: 1973: 1971: 1862: 1860: 1147: 1145: 4129: 3929:

Becerril-García, Arianna; Aguado-López, Eduardo (2018-06-15).

1052: 1050: 1048: 1046: 1044: 1042: 1040: 964: 962: 3453:

Ross-Hellauer, Tony; Schmidt, Birgit; Kramer, Bianca (2018).

903: 901: 899: 544: 2736:

Dutch Messengers: A History of Science Publishing, 1930–1980

2412:

Understanding Infrastructure: Dynamics, Tensions, and Design

2345:– via The Principles of Open Scholarly Infrastructure. 1763: 1761: 1592: 1590: 2579:

Scoping the Open Science Infrastructure Landscape in Europe

1446: 1003: 1001: 841:

Scoping the Open Science Infrastructure Landscape in Europe

554:. Specialized free software for scientific publishing like 494:

Building scientific infrastructures for the web (1995-2015)

2559:

Mapping the Scholarly Communication Landscape: 2019 Census

937: 935: 2513:(Paper). Confederation of Open Access Repositories (COAR) 513:"between grant funding and ongoing operational funding". 4104:

Open Science MOOC 2020 Steering Committee (2020-12-30).

3490: 3992: 2677:

Bourne, Charles P.; Hahn, Trudi Bellardo (2003-08-01).

156:

is invisible. We tend to only notice it when it fails."

3935:

22nd International Conference on Electronic Publishing

3908:

22nd International Conference on Electronic Publishing

1950: 1120: 1118: 1093: 1091: 1089: 802:

Open Science Infrastructure have strong ties with the

4438:

Scholarly Publishing and Academic Resources Coalition

2865:

Open Knowledge Institutions: Reinventing Universities

922: 920: 918: 916: 583:

Leading commercial ecosystems for scientific research

421:, an information management software commissioned to 3889:. 5th International Conference on e-Social Science. 2755:

Internet Governance: Infrastructure and Institutions

2066: 1473: 1461: 1230: 1190: 1188: 1186: 1184: 886: 884: 882: 880: 847:

fact that the survey was "distributed widely by the

5272: 5214: 5153: 5087: 5062: 5026: 4970: 4934: 4894: 4858: 4849: 4804: 4756: 4699: 4690: 4572: 4451: 4349: 4313: 4262: 4185: 2679:

A History of Online Information Services, 1963-1976

656:

European Strategy Forum on Research Infrastructures

336:, especially the one coming from the Soviet block. 3833:"Joanne Cohn and the email list that led to arXiv" 2298:"Principles for Open Scholarly Infrastructures-v1" 738:Experimentation (15) were roughly half as common". 2327:"The Principles of Open Scholarly Infrastructure" 1080: 2715:Berners-Lee, Tim; Fischetti, Mark (2008-06-26). 953: 3455:"Are funder Open Access platforms a good idea?" 1962: 1827: 1056: 637: 597: 452: 373: 286: 48:and serve the needs of different communities". 4061:"Open Access: Toward the Internet of the Mind" 3902:Posada, Alejandro; Chen, George (2018-06-15). 3806:"Now is the Time to Fund Open Infrastructures" 3302:Tracz, Vitek; Lawrence, Rebecca (2016-02-03). 2250: 2238: 2223: 2184: 2172: 2141: 2129: 2114: 2102: 2090: 2078: 2054: 2042: 2030: 2013: 1994: 1977: 1890: 1851: 1839: 1386: 1255:Open Science MOOC 2020 Steering Committee 2020 1175: 980: 907: 4664: 4145: 3304:"Towards an open science publishing platform" 2776:L'histoire contemporaine à l'ère contemporain 2262: 2153: 1926: 1902: 1878: 1866: 1791: 1767: 1692: 1632: 1620: 1608: 1596: 1206: 1151: 968: 682:In agreement with the original intent of the 90:Principles for Open Scholarly Infrastructures 16:Systems and services that enable open science 8: 4393:Open Access Scholarly Publishing Association 1779: 1533: 1278: 1007: 941: 633:Principles for Open Scholarly Infrastructure 605:Toward open science infrastructures (2015-…) 235:Principles for Open Scholarly Infrastructure 2828:Digital Humanities: History and Development 2564:(Report). Atlanta, GA: Educopia Institute. 2476:Supporting Research Communications: a guide 1521: 1509: 229:Principles for open science infrastructures 5269: 4855: 4696: 4671: 4657: 4649: 4152: 4138: 4130: 3972:. ELPUB 2018, June 2018, Toronto, Canada. 2969:Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 1704: 1668: 1656: 1644: 1485: 1410: 1374: 1362: 1068: 3950: 3858: 3821: 3786: 3759: 3720: 3685: 3592: 3557: 3522: 3470: 3443: 3408: 3377: 3337: 3319: 3284: 3249: 3110: 3092: 3011: 2980: 2753:Bygrave, Lee A.; Bing, Jon (2009-01-22). 2630: 2598: 2531: 2459:Landscape Study on Open Access Publishing 2437:(Report). Atlanta, GA: Educopia Institute 2334: 2309: 1680: 1434: 3886:The Future of e-Research Infrastructures 2790:Reasoning Techniques for the Web of Data 2453:(Report). Brussels: European Commission. 3167:"What Ever Happened to Project Bamboo?" 2781:Contemporary History in the Digital Age 1938: 1914: 1581: 1569: 1447:Campbell-Kelly & Garcia-Swartz 2013 1398: 1350: 1338: 1326: 1314: 1302: 876: 4116:Di Giambattista, Chiara (2021-08-09). 2274: 2196: 1815: 1803: 1752: 1740: 1728: 1124: 1109: 1097: 1031: 926: 890: 3752:College & Research Libraries News 2734:Andriesse, Cornelis D. (2008-09-15). 2208: 1716: 1557: 1545: 1497: 1290: 1266: 1242: 1218: 1194: 1163: 1019: 992: 787:, most of which are not-for-profit". 468:Public-Access Computer Systems Review 7: 4433:Registry of Open Access Repositories 3991:Lobo, Matheus Pereira (2019-04-15). 3269:"Knowledge Infrastructures: Part IV" 2696:Borgman, Christine L. (2007-10-12). 705:Organization of open infrastructures 382:Institute for Scientific Information 73:open scholarly communication service 3432:College and Research Libraries News 3234:"Knowledge Infrastructures: Part I" 482:created the first inception of the 4030:"Qualifiers on Hypertext Links..." 2325:Bilder G, Lin J, Neylon C (2020). 2296:Bilder G, Lin J, Neylon C (2015). 14: 4383:Directory of Open Access Journals 3978:10.4000/proceedings.elpub.2018.31 3943:10.4000/proceedings.elpub.2018.27 3916:10.4000/proceedings.elpub.2018.30 3171:Literary and Linguistic Computing 3130:Journal of Information Technology 2700:. Cambridge, MA, USA: MIT Press. 2545:(Report). Simon Fraser University 2494:(Report). 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(May 2020). 4341:Delayed open-access journal 4204:Subscription business model 2557:Skinner, Katherine (2019). 2311:10.6084/m9.figshare.1314859 1951:Operas Landscape Study 2017 675:(for clinical data) or the 341:National Science Foundation 222:care-full scholarly commons 113:Open science infrastructure 108:Definitions and terminology 30:Open Science Infrastructure 5388: 5327:Open educational resources 4336:Hybrid open-access journal 3831:Feder, Toni (2021-11-08). 3823:10.21428/6ffd8432.a1d2856b 3365:10.15200/winn.146047.79215 2998:Avery, Paul (2007-06-04). 743:Standards and technologies 497: 464:Bryn Mawr Classical Review 214:Open Library of Humanities 38:information infrastructure 5115:Open Knowledge Foundation 5105:Open Architecture Network 4922:Open-door academic policy 4598: 4423:Public Library of Science 4408:Open Knowledge Foundation 4249:Article processing charge 4167: 3775:Science and Public Policy 3581:Social Studies of Science 3044:10.1007/s10723-010-9176-6 3032:Journal of Grid Computing 2830:. John Wiley & Sons. 2738:. Leiden; Boston: Brill. 2067:Ross-Hellauer et al. 2020 1231:Ross-Hellauer et al. 2020 677:Cherenkov Telescope Array 397:and the german publisher 5367:Open access (publishing) 5100:Free Software Foundation 5013:Open-source architecture 4428:Public Knowledge Project 4413:Open Society Foundations 4403:Open Archives Initiative 4300:NIH Public Access Policy 3997:. Open Science Framework 3860:10.1063/PT.6.4.20211108a 3666:Journal of Communication 3594:10.1177/0306312718772086 3505:Mounier, Pierre (2018). 3472:10.1177/2158244018816717 3196:Cassella, Maria (2014). 2788:Hogan, A. (2014-04-09). 1534:Star & Ruhleder 1996 942:Star & Ruhleder 1996 476:open-access repositories 339:Influent members of the 165:Openness and the commons 5063:Politics and governance 3465:(4): 2158244018816717. 2659:Wouters, P. F. (1999). 2387:Atkins, Daniel (2003). 1510:Bygrave & Bing 2009 5234:Free software movement 5125:Open Source Initiative 5075:Open-source governance 4958:Open-source journalism 4331:Open-access repository 3788:10.1093/scipol/scab026 3722:10.7771/2380-176X.8409 2632:10.5281/zenodo.4454640 2600:10.5281/zenodo.4558704 2449:eResearch2020 (2010). 1705:Posada & Chen 2018 1486:Bourne & Hahn 2003 1411:Bourne & Hahn 2003 1375:Bourne & Hahn 2003 1363:Bourne & Hahn 2003 1081:Karasti et al. IV 2016 843: 669:European Social Survey 642: 602: 584: 472: 386:Science Citation Index 378: 364: 308: 291: 26: 5239:Open science movement 5229:Free-culture movement 4907:Educational resources 4866:Collaborative writing 4743:Participatory culture 4359:The Cost of Knowledge 4059:Guédon, Jean-Claude. 4017:"OpenDOAR Statistics" 3761:10.5860/crln.82.6.265 3445:10.5860/crln.79.8.426 3013:10.5210/fm.v12i6.1866 2371:UNESCO (2021-11-23). 954:Karasti et al. I 2016 838: 671:(in social science), 582: 443:Worm Community System 439:Worm Community System 362: 306: 175:contingent process". 24: 5018:Open-source hardware 4996:Open-design movement 4989:Open-source software 4757:Research and science 4254:Predatory publishing 2940:10.1287/isre.7.1.111 2662:The citation culture 2352:SPARC; COAR (2019). 1828:Di Giambattista 2021 593:vertical integration 556:Open Journal Systems 518:cyber-infrastructure 5300:Free Cultural Works 5244:Open Source Ecology 5130:Open Web Foundation 5027:Economic principles 4984:Free/libre software 4881:Participatory media 4509:Republic of Ireland 4326:Open-access mandate 4046:Science in the Open 3952:20.500.11799/105500 3851:2021PhT..2021d1108. 2302:Science in the Open 2251:Ficarra et al. 2020 2239:Ficarra et al. 2020 2224:Ficarra et al. 2020 2185:Ficarra et al. 2020 2173:Ficarra et al. 2020 2142:Ficarra et al. 2020 2130:Ficarra et al. 2020 2115:Ficarra et al. 2020 2103:Ficarra et al. 2020 2091:Ficarra et al. 2020 2079:Ficarra et al. 2020 2055:Ficarra et al. 2020 2043:Ficarra et al. 2020 2031:Ficarra et al. 2020 2014:Ficarra et al. 2020 1995:Ficarra et al. 2020 1978:Ficarra et al. 2020 1963:OpenDOAR Statistics 1891:Ficarra et al. 2020 1852:Ficarra et al. 2020 1840:The Dryad Team 2020 1683:, pp. 257–258. 1387:Shankar et al. 2016 1176:Ficarra et al. 2020 981:Edwards et al. 2006 908:Ficarra et al. 2020 853:High Energy Physics 695:Plan Infrastructure 500:Cyberinfrastructure 456:Postmodern Cultures 330:machine translation 54:cyberinfrastructure 5166:Alexandra Elbakyan 5110:Openmod Initiative 4947:Citizen journalism 4824:Open communication 4805:Data, information, 4728:Open collaboration 4305:Research Works Act 4295:Geneva Declaration 4280:Bethesda Statement 4275:Berlin Declaration 4229:Scientific journal 4122:OpenCitations blog 3678:10.1093/joc/jqz052 3511:Learned Publishing 3401:10.23987/sts.55691 3286:10.23987/sts.60220 3251:10.23987/sts.55406 3183:10.1093/llc/fqu026 3142:10.1057/jit.2013.4 2263:eResearch2020 2010 2154:eResearch2020 2010 1927:eResearch2020 2010 1903:Avanço et al. 2021 1879:Brembs et al. 2021 1867:ESFRI Roadmap 2021 1792:Bosman et al. 2018 1768:Brembs et al. 2021 1693:Aspesi et al. 2019 1633:Bosman et al. 2021 1621:Bosman et al. 2021 1609:eResearch2020 2010 1597:Eccles et al. 2009 1207:eResearch2020 2010 1152:Fecher et al. 2021 969:Fecher et al. 2021 844: 585: 365: 309: 238:in November 2021. 27: 5349: 5348: 5345: 5344: 5337:Open Web movement 5322:Open Data Indices 5176:Peter Murray-Rust 5120:Open Rights Group 5083: 5082: 4966: 4965: 4819:Knowledge commons 4646: 4645: 4209:Subscribe to Open 3709:Against the Grain 3640:10.1002/asi.24306 3524:10.1002/leap.1194 2897:(3159): 108–111. 2874:978-0-262-36516-1 2837:978-1-119-30817-1 2818:978-0-8108-9088-6 2799:978-1-61499-383-4 2764:978-0-19-956113-1 2745:978-90-04-17084-1 2726:978-1-4395-0036-1 2707:978-0-262-02619-2 2688:978-0-262-26175-3 2653:Book & thesis 1780:Okune et al. 2018 1279:Okune et al. 2018 1008:Okune et al. 2018 569:Mellon Foundation 527:Open Science Grid 188:knowledge commons 69:knowledge commons 5379: 5332:Open music model 5296:Definition docs 5285:Creative Commons 5270: 5186:Richard Stallman 5181:Douglas Rushkoff 5095:Creative Commons 4871:Democratic media 4856: 4779:Notebook science 4697: 4673: 4666: 4659: 4650: 4379: 4376: 4364:Creative Commons 4290:Durham Statement 4224:Academic journal 4154: 4147: 4140: 4131: 4125: 4112: 4110: 4100: 4087: 4074: 4072: 4071: 4055: 4053: 4052: 4036: 4024: 4005: 4003: 4002: 3987: 3985: 3984: 3962: 3960: 3959: 3954: 3925: 3923: 3922: 3898: 3872: 3862: 3827: 3825: 3800: 3790: 3765: 3763: 3742: 3724: 3699: 3689: 3659: 3622: 3596: 3571: 3561: 3536: 3526: 3501: 3499: 3498: 3484: 3474: 3449: 3447: 3422: 3412: 3383: 3381: 3368: 3351: 3341: 3323: 3298: 3288: 3263: 3253: 3228: 3205:Biblioteche oggi 3202: 3192: 3190: 3189: 3161: 3124: 3114: 3096: 3087:(10): –1001691. 3071: 3025: 3015: 2994: 2984: 2959: 2922: 2878: 2859: 2857: 2856: 2841: 2822: 2803: 2784: 2768: 2749: 2730: 2711: 2692: 2673: 2671: 2670: 2648: 2647:(Report). ESFRI. 2646: 2636: 2634: 2621: 2619: 2618: 2613:(Report). Operas 2604: 2602: 2589: 2587: 2586: 2573: 2563: 2553: 2551: 2550: 2537: 2535: 2521: 2519: 2518: 2512: 2502: 2500: 2499: 2486: 2484: 2483: 2470: 2454: 2445: 2443: 2442: 2429: 2427: 2426: 2406: 2400: 2398: 2397: 2376: 2367: 2365: 2364: 2346: 2344: 2343: 2338: 2321: 2319: 2318: 2313: 2278: 2272: 2266: 2260: 2254: 2248: 2242: 2236: 2227: 2221: 2212: 2206: 2200: 2194: 2188: 2182: 2176: 2170: 2157: 2151: 2145: 2139: 2133: 2127: 2118: 2112: 2106: 2100: 2094: 2088: 2082: 2076: 2070: 2064: 2058: 2052: 2046: 2040: 2034: 2028: 2017: 2011: 1998: 1992: 1981: 1975: 1966: 1960: 1954: 1948: 1942: 1936: 1930: 1924: 1918: 1912: 1906: 1900: 1894: 1888: 1882: 1876: 1870: 1864: 1855: 1849: 1843: 1837: 1831: 1825: 1819: 1813: 1807: 1801: 1795: 1789: 1783: 1777: 1771: 1765: 1756: 1750: 1744: 1738: 1732: 1726: 1720: 1714: 1708: 1702: 1696: 1690: 1684: 1678: 1672: 1666: 1660: 1654: 1648: 1642: 1636: 1630: 1624: 1618: 1612: 1606: 1600: 1594: 1585: 1579: 1573: 1567: 1561: 1555: 1549: 1543: 1537: 1531: 1525: 1522:Berners-Lee 1991 1519: 1513: 1507: 1501: 1495: 1489: 1483: 1477: 1471: 1465: 1459: 1450: 1444: 1438: 1432: 1426: 1420: 1414: 1408: 1402: 1396: 1390: 1384: 1378: 1372: 1366: 1360: 1354: 1348: 1342: 1336: 1330: 1324: 1318: 1312: 1306: 1300: 1294: 1288: 1282: 1276: 1270: 1264: 1258: 1252: 1246: 1240: 1234: 1228: 1222: 1216: 1210: 1204: 1198: 1192: 1179: 1173: 1167: 1161: 1155: 1149: 1140: 1134: 1128: 1122: 1113: 1107: 1101: 1095: 1084: 1078: 1072: 1066: 1060: 1054: 1035: 1029: 1023: 1017: 1011: 1005: 996: 990: 984: 978: 972: 966: 957: 951: 945: 939: 930: 924: 911: 905: 894: 888: 679:(in Astronomy). 666: 663: 549: 546: 391:Current Contents 134:Susan Leigh Star 65:e-infrastructure 5387: 5386: 5382: 5381: 5380: 5378: 5377: 5376: 5372:Data publishing 5352: 5351: 5350: 5341: 5268: 5216: 5210: 5171:Lawrence Lessig 5161:Tim Berners-Lee 5149: 5079: 5070:Open government 5058: 5054:Sharing economy 5039:Open innovation 5022: 4962: 4951:Wiki journalism 4930: 4890: 4876:Open publishing 4851: 4845: 4806: 4800: 4764:Citizen science 4752: 4692: 4686: 4677: 4647: 4642: 4618:Open government 4594: 4585:Access2Research 4568: 4447: 4371: 4351: 4345: 4309: 4258: 4181: 4163: 4158: 4128: 4115: 4108: 4103: 4090: 4077: 4069: 4067: 4058: 4050: 4048: 4039: 4035:(Mailing list). 4027: 4015: 4012: 4010:Other resources 4000: 3998: 3990: 3982: 3980: 3965: 3957: 3955: 3928: 3920: 3918: 3901: 3882: 3879: 3830: 3803: 3768: 3745: 3702: 3662: 3625: 3574: 3539: 3517:(S1): 299–305. 3504: 3496: 3494: 3493:. OSF Preprints 3487: 3452: 3425: 3386: 3371: 3354: 3301: 3266: 3231: 3200: 3195: 3187: 3185: 3164: 3127: 3074: 3028: 2997: 2962: 2925: 2888: 2885: 2875: 2862: 2854: 2852: 2844: 2838: 2825: 2819: 2806: 2800: 2787: 2771: 2765: 2752: 2746: 2733: 2727: 2714: 2708: 2695: 2689: 2676: 2668: 2666: 2658: 2655: 2644: 2639: 2624: 2616: 2614: 2607: 2592: 2584: 2582: 2576: 2561: 2556: 2548: 2546: 2540: 2524: 2516: 2514: 2510: 2505: 2497: 2495: 2489: 2481: 2479: 2473: 2457: 2448: 2440: 2438: 2432: 2424: 2422: 2409: 2403: 2395: 2393: 2386: 2383: 2370: 2362: 2360: 2351: 2341: 2339: 2336:10.24343/C34W2H 2324: 2316: 2314: 2295: 2292: 2286: 2281: 2273: 2269: 2261: 2257: 2249: 2245: 2237: 2230: 2222: 2215: 2207: 2203: 2195: 2191: 2183: 2179: 2171: 2160: 2152: 2148: 2140: 2136: 2128: 2121: 2113: 2109: 2101: 2097: 2089: 2085: 2077: 2073: 2065: 2061: 2053: 2049: 2041: 2037: 2029: 2020: 2012: 2001: 1993: 1984: 1976: 1969: 1961: 1957: 1949: 1945: 1937: 1933: 1925: 1921: 1913: 1909: 1901: 1897: 1889: 1885: 1877: 1873: 1865: 1858: 1850: 1846: 1838: 1834: 1826: 1822: 1814: 1810: 1802: 1798: 1790: 1786: 1778: 1774: 1766: 1759: 1751: 1747: 1739: 1735: 1727: 1723: 1715: 1711: 1703: 1699: 1691: 1687: 1679: 1675: 1669:Dombrowski 2014 1667: 1663: 1657:Dombrowski 2014 1655: 1651: 1645:Dombrowski 2014 1643: 1639: 1631: 1627: 1619: 1615: 1607: 1603: 1595: 1588: 1580: 1576: 1568: 1564: 1556: 1552: 1544: 1540: 1532: 1528: 1520: 1516: 1508: 1504: 1496: 1492: 1484: 1480: 1472: 1468: 1460: 1453: 1445: 1441: 1433: 1429: 1421: 1417: 1409: 1405: 1397: 1393: 1385: 1381: 1373: 1369: 1361: 1357: 1349: 1345: 1337: 1333: 1325: 1321: 1313: 1309: 1301: 1297: 1289: 1285: 1277: 1273: 1265: 1261: 1253: 1249: 1241: 1237: 1229: 1225: 1217: 1213: 1205: 1201: 1193: 1182: 1174: 1170: 1162: 1158: 1150: 1143: 1135: 1131: 1123: 1116: 1112:, pp. 7–8. 1108: 1104: 1096: 1087: 1079: 1075: 1069:Bos et al. 2007 1067: 1063: 1055: 1038: 1030: 1026: 1018: 1014: 1006: 999: 991: 987: 979: 975: 967: 960: 952: 948: 940: 933: 925: 914: 906: 897: 889: 878: 874: 861: 825: 812: 745: 720: 707: 658: 611:Digital Commons 607: 541: 511:valley of death 506: 498:Main articles: 496: 486:project at the 423:Tim Berners-Lee 411: 345:Joshua Ledeberg 301: 296: 231: 167: 129: 110: 17: 12: 11: 5: 5385: 5383: 5375: 5374: 5369: 5364: 5354: 5353: 5347: 5346: 5343: 5342: 5340: 5339: 5334: 5329: 5324: 5319: 5318: 5317: 5312: 5307: 5302: 5294: 5293: 5292: 5287: 5276: 5274: 5267: 5266: 5261: 5256: 5251: 5246: 5241: 5236: 5231: 5226: 5220: 5218: 5212: 5211: 5209: 5208: 5203: 5198: 5193: 5188: 5183: 5178: 5173: 5168: 5163: 5157: 5155: 5151: 5150: 5148: 5147: 5142: 5137: 5132: 5127: 5122: 5117: 5112: 5107: 5102: 5097: 5091: 5089: 5085: 5084: 5081: 5080: 5078: 5077: 5072: 5066: 5064: 5060: 5059: 5057: 5056: 5051: 5046: 5041: 5036: 5030: 5028: 5024: 5023: 5021: 5020: 5015: 5010: 5005: 5004: 5003: 4993: 4992: 4991: 4986: 4974: 4972: 4968: 4967: 4964: 4963: 4961: 4960: 4955: 4954: 4953: 4938: 4936: 4932: 4931: 4929: 4928: 4927: 4926: 4925: 4924: 4919: 4909: 4902:Open education 4898: 4896: 4892: 4891: 4889: 4888: 4883: 4878: 4873: 4868: 4862: 4860: 4853: 4847: 4846: 4844: 4843: 4842: 4841: 4836: 4829:Open knowledge 4826: 4821: 4816: 4810: 4808: 4802: 4801: 4799: 4798: 4797: 4796: 4791: 4786: 4781: 4776: 4766: 4760: 4758: 4754: 4753: 4751: 4750: 4745: 4740: 4735: 4730: 4725: 4714: 4709: 4703: 4701: 4694: 4688: 4687: 4678: 4676: 4675: 4668: 4661: 4653: 4644: 4643: 4641: 4640: 4635: 4630: 4628:Open knowledge 4625: 4620: 4615: 4613:Open education 4610: 4605: 4599: 4596: 4595: 4593: 4592: 4587: 4582: 4576: 4574: 4570: 4569: 4567: 4566: 4561: 4556: 4551: 4546: 4541: 4536: 4531: 4526: 4521: 4516: 4511: 4506: 4501: 4496: 4491: 4486: 4481: 4476: 4471: 4466: 4461: 4455: 4453: 4449: 4448: 4446: 4445: 4440: 4435: 4430: 4425: 4420: 4415: 4410: 4405: 4400: 4395: 4390: 4385: 4380: 4366: 4361: 4355: 4353: 4347: 4346: 4344: 4343: 4338: 4333: 4328: 4323: 4321:Self-archiving 4317: 4315: 4311: 4310: 4308: 4307: 4302: 4297: 4292: 4287: 4282: 4277: 4272: 4266: 4264: 4260: 4259: 4257: 4256: 4251: 4246: 4241: 4236: 4231: 4226: 4221: 4216: 4211: 4206: 4201: 4189: 4187: 4183: 4182: 4180: 4179: 4174: 4168: 4165: 4164: 4159: 4157: 4156: 4149: 4142: 4134: 4127: 4126: 4113: 4101: 4088: 4075: 4056: 4037: 4025: 4011: 4008: 4007: 4006: 3988: 3963: 3926: 3899: 3878: 3875: 3874: 3873: 3828: 3801: 3781:(4): 499–507. 3766: 3743: 3700: 3660: 3634:(7): 856–866. 3623: 3587:(2): 171–203. 3572: 3559:10.5334/kula.7 3537: 3502: 3485: 3450: 3423: 3384: 3369: 3352: 3299: 3264: 3229: 3207:(in Italian). 3193: 3177:(3): 326–339. 3162: 3125: 3072: 3038:(2): 201–218. 3026: 2995: 2975:(2): 652–672. 2960: 2934:(1): 111–134. 2923: 2884: 2881: 2880: 2879: 2873: 2860: 2842: 2836: 2823: 2817: 2804: 2798: 2785: 2769: 2763: 2757:. OUP Oxford. 2750: 2744: 2731: 2725: 2719:. Paw Prints. 2712: 2706: 2693: 2687: 2674: 2654: 2651: 2650: 2649: 2640:ESFRI (2021). 2637: 2622: 2605: 2590: 2574: 2554: 2538: 2533:10.2777/836532 2522: 2503: 2487: 2471: 2467:10.3030/731031 2455: 2446: 2430: 2407: 2401: 2382: 2379: 2378: 2377: 2368: 2349: 2348: 2347: 2291: 2288: 2287: 2285: 2282: 2280: 2279: 2267: 2265:, p. 103. 2255: 2243: 2228: 2213: 2201: 2189: 2177: 2158: 2156:, p. 106. 2146: 2134: 2119: 2107: 2095: 2083: 2071: 2059: 2047: 2035: 2018: 1999: 1982: 1967: 1955: 1943: 1941:, p. 305. 1931: 1919: 1907: 1895: 1883: 1871: 1869:, p. 159. 1856: 1844: 1832: 1820: 1808: 1796: 1784: 1772: 1757: 1745: 1733: 1721: 1719:, p. 156. 1709: 1697: 1685: 1681:Andriesse 2008 1673: 1671:, p. 331. 1661: 1659:, p. 329. 1649: 1647:, p. 334. 1637: 1625: 1613: 1601: 1586: 1574: 1562: 1550: 1538: 1536:, p. 131. 1526: 1514: 1502: 1490: 1488:, p. 304. 1478: 1466: 1451: 1439: 1437:, p. 189. 1435:Andriesse 2008 1427: 1415: 1413:, p. 397. 1403: 1401:, p. 128. 1391: 1379: 1367: 1355: 1343: 1331: 1319: 1307: 1295: 1293:, p. 173. 1283: 1271: 1259: 1247: 1235: 1223: 1221:, p. 183. 1211: 1209:, p. 222. 1199: 1180: 1168: 1156: 1154:, p. 505. 1141: 1129: 1114: 1102: 1085: 1073: 1071:, p. 667. 1061: 1036: 1024: 1022:, p. 143. 1012: 997: 985: 973: 971:, p. 500. 958: 946: 931: 912: 895: 875: 873: 870: 860: 857: 824: 821: 811: 808: 789:Google Scholar 744: 741: 740: 739: 735: 719: 718:Type and roles 716: 706: 703: 628:Cameron Neylon 606: 603: 565:Project Bamboo 552:Project Bamboo 495: 492: 415:World Wide Web 410: 407: 300: 297: 295: 292: 274: 273: 267: 261: 230: 227: 192:Cameron Neylon 166: 163: 162: 161: 157: 153: 138:Karen Ruhleder 128: 127:Infrastructure 125: 109: 106: 81:World Wide Web 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5384: 5373: 5370: 5368: 5365: 5363: 5360: 5359: 5357: 5338: 5335: 5333: 5330: 5328: 5325: 5323: 5320: 5316: 5313: 5311: 5308: 5306: 5305:Free Software 5303: 5301: 5298: 5297: 5295: 5291: 5288: 5286: 5283: 5282: 5281: 5278: 5277: 5275: 5271: 5265: 5262: 5260: 5257: 5255: 5252: 5250: 5247: 5245: 5242: 5240: 5237: 5235: 5232: 5230: 5227: 5225: 5222: 5221: 5219: 5213: 5207: 5206:John Wilbanks 5204: 5202: 5199: 5197: 5194: 5192: 5189: 5187: 5184: 5182: 5179: 5177: 5174: 5172: 5169: 5167: 5164: 5162: 5159: 5158: 5156: 5152: 5146: 5143: 5141: 5138: 5136: 5133: 5131: 5128: 5126: 5123: 5121: 5118: 5116: 5113: 5111: 5108: 5106: 5103: 5101: 5098: 5096: 5093: 5092: 5090: 5088:Organizations 5086: 5076: 5073: 5071: 5068: 5067: 5065: 5061: 5055: 5052: 5050: 5049:Open standard 5047: 5045: 5042: 5040: 5037: 5035: 5032: 5031: 5029: 5025: 5019: 5016: 5014: 5011: 5009: 5006: 5002: 4999: 4998: 4997: 4994: 4990: 4987: 4985: 4982: 4981: 4979: 4976: 4975: 4973: 4969: 4959: 4956: 4952: 4948: 4945: 4944: 4943: 4942:Citizen media 4940: 4939: 4937: 4933: 4923: 4920: 4918: 4915: 4914: 4913: 4910: 4908: 4905: 4904: 4903: 4900: 4899: 4897: 4893: 4887: 4884: 4882: 4879: 4877: 4874: 4872: 4869: 4867: 4864: 4863: 4861: 4857: 4854: 4852:and learning 4850:Communication 4848: 4840: 4837: 4835: 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