1171:. With negotiations with Sandline ongoing and incomplete, Chan ordered the military to invade anyway. In July the PNG defence forces attempted to seize Aropa airport, the island's principal airfield. However, the attack was a disaster, suffering from poor logistical planning and determined resistance by BRA fighters. In September, BRA militants attacked a PNG army camp at Kangu Beach with the help of members of a local militia group, killing twelve PNGDF soldiers and taking five hostage. The following month, Theodore Miriung was assassinated. Although Chan's government attempted to blame the BRA, a subsequent independent investigation implicated members of the PNG defence force and the resistance militias. Discipline and morale was rapidly deteriorating within the ranks of the PNG military, which had been unable to make any substantial progress in penetrating the mountainous interior of the island and reopening the Panguna mine. Chan decided that his best chance to recapture the Panguna mine was with the Sandline mercenaries.
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Bougainvilleans. The presence of
Bougainville as a 'black spot' in an island world of brownskins (later called redskins) raises a question that cannot now be answered. Were the genes producing that darker pigmentation carried by the first Bougainvilleans when they arrived? Or did they evolve by natural or 'social' selection, during the millennia in which the descendants of those pioneers remained isolated, reproductively, from neighbouring islanders? Nothing now known about Bougainville's physical environment can support an argument for the natural selection of its peoples' distinctively black pigmentation; therefore a case might be made for social selection, namely an aesthetic (and hence reproductive) preference for black skin.
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journalists got into
Bougainville during the crisis, the coverage was uneven (Cronau, 1994; Denoon & Spriggs, 1992). Dorney argues that, with few exceptions, the Australian media pays scant attention to Australia's former colony unless there is high drama, such as during the Sandline crisis in March 1997, or a disaster relief effort, such as when the Australian Defence Force played a high-profile role during the drought induced famine of 1997–98 (1998, p15). He adds that the rest of the time it is the bizarre and tragic, especially violent crime involving expatriates, that fill the limited agenda. According to Patience (2005), PNG has a public relations problem in terms of its image abroad.
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established at Aropa in 1908 by the
Bismarck Archipelago Company. In 1910, the New Britain Corporation established a plantation at Toiemonapu. There was subsequently a rush of commercial activity, with ten enterprises established in 1911. By April 1913, land acquisitions of over 10,000 hectares (25,000 acres) had been approved by the administration, mostly by Australian companies. About 220 kilometres (140 mi) of roads had been built by this time, and construction on a hospital for natives had begun. The total tax revenue for 1913 was almost 28,000
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second being the elections for the
Bougainville People's Congress. Elections were held in May, and Kabui was named president. However, the legality of this was contested by Momis, with the support of a number of tribal chiefs and Resistance leaders. In November, a new body, the Bougainville Interim Provincial Government, was established, headed by Momis. Rapproachment between Kauona and Momis led to an agreement in which the two bodies would act in consultation. An organised reconciliation process began at the tribal level in the early 2000.
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1009:, the Member for Bougainville in the national parliament and a former leader of the 1975 secession effort, supported Ona and Kauona. They demanded that the company recognise them as legitimate leaders. Both of these men later became involved directly in the independence movement. They were beaten by riot police during a 1989 protest. Allegations of human rights abuses by the PNG army began to arise. These embarrassed the PNG government, which arrested more than 20 men in the army after an investigation.
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services as catering, dental, medical, IT support, vehicle transport and communications to the outlying team sites. LST members lived in the "Opera House" which was an old storage silo for copper, used when the mine was open. The remaining staff of PMG were located all over
Bougainville in team sites monitoring the peace and liaising with local communities. The following locations had team sites in 2000 – Arawa, Sirakatau, Buin, Tonu, Wakunai and Buka.
55:
1122:, between the BRA, BTG and the PNG government, a PNG defence force patrol boat fired upon Kabui and the other delegates when they returned to Bougainville. The next month, the home of the BIG's representative in the Solomon Islands, Martin Mirori, was firebombed. Chan decided to abandon attempts at peace, and on 21 March 1996, he gave the go-ahead for an invasion of Bougainville, under new commander of the PNG defence forces,
724:. The Americans routed the Japanese and took control of the seas in this area. A concerted Allied land offensive between November 1943 and April 1944 was needed to occupy and hold the part of the island along the western shore in an area called "Torokina". The Americans set about establishing a wide defensive perimeter, draining swamps, and building multiple airfields for defence. Their next goal was to attack the Japanese on
735:" by the Americans. In repulsing this attack, the American soldiers and airmen broke the back of the Japanese Army on Bougainville. The survivors retreated to their bases on northern and southern Bougainville, and the Americans left them to "wither on the vine" for the remainder of the war. During the 1943–45 period, more than 17,500 Japanese soldiers were either killed in combat, died of disease, or died of malnutrition.
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independence, and a turnout of 87.38%. Results were not contested by any parties. The referendum was non-binding, and was followed by consultation between the
Bougainville and PNG governments. Agreement was reached that Bougainville would achieve independence and sovereignty no sooner than 2025 and no later than 2027, however this requires ratification from the national parliament and the Papuan prime minister
1427:
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647:(1924). Tensions arose between the existing Catholic missionaries and the new arrivals, culminating in sectarian disturbances in Kieta in 1929. Father Albert Binois wrote to his superiors that the Protestants were "friends of the devil". The late 1920s and 1930s also produced an influx of anthropologists and ethnographers to Bougainville, among them Australians
974:, a man who had trained in Australia and defected from the Papuan defence forces to become Ona's right-hand man. Kauona became the spokesperson for the BRA. He continued to conduct hit-and-run raids on mine property and PNG government installations. Following targeted attacks on mine employees, the company closed the mine on 15 May 1989. Serero died from
593:, the responsibility for which was awarded to Australia. The Australian military administration had adopted a "business as usual" approach and secured the support of the existing German business community. It was replaced by a civil administration in 1920, which expropriated the property of German nationals without compensation and deported them.
360:. The Austronesians brought with them a fully agricultural lifestyle, also introducing distinctive pottery and domesticated pigs, dogs and chickens to Bougainville. The advent of the Lapita culture resulted in "a pattern of apparent extinctions of birds and endemic mammals". Both Austronesian and non-Austronesian languages (historically called "
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retaliation for a road accident in the highlands of Papua New Guinea. Islanders were outraged by the murders, and the events helped to consolidate the independence movement. As a result, the
Bougainville Special Political Committee (BSPC) was set up to negotiate with the Papuan government on the future of Bougainville within PNG.
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On 30 August 2001, a peace agreement was signed between the PNG government and representatives from
Bougainville. It stipulated the creation of an autonomous government for Bougainville with a "home-grown" constitution, the right of Bougainville to hold a referendum on independence in the future, and
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north of
Bougainville, a local militia formed and drove out the BRA with the help of Papuan troops, during a bloody offensive in September 1990. Multiple agreements were signed but were not honoured by any parties. The BRA leadership of Ona and Kauona fell out with some of the political leaders, such
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responded by unilaterally declaring independence. He set up the
Bougainville Interim Government (BIG), but it had little power, and the island began to descend into disarray. The command structure set up by the BRA seldom had any real control over the various groups throughout the island that claimed
878:
Later that year, both the governments signed the 'Bougainville Agreement', which gave the island autonomy within Papua New Guinea. The PNG government promised full independence in five years, but did not fulfill this promise. For the remainder of the 1970s, and into the early 1980s, relations between
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After five resolutions in the United Nations Commission on Human Rights, a report by the Special Rapporteur on Summary Executions and Disappearances and a resolution from the Security Council as well as mounting pressure from Amnesty International, ICRC and other human rights groups, the governments
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Operations of the mine at Panguna and sharing of its revenues had been perhaps the major sticking point between Bougainville and PNG government. The mine was the largest non-aid revenue stream of the Government of Papua New Guinea from 1975, when it became independent, to the mine's closure in 1989.
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On 28 May 1975, the Interim Provincial Government in Bougainville agreed to secede from Papua New Guinea. This caused a three-way impasse between the Government of PNG, the legislature in PNG, and the authorities in Bougainville. The PNG government attempted to resolve the situation through June and
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was accused of telling the Bougainvillean people they would "get nothing". The local people sued for compensation and the case went to the High Court of Australia. It found that the compensation was inadequate under ordinary federal Australian law. But, as an external territory, Papua New Guinea was
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plantations were established, but proved unproductive, and the area was seen primarily as a source of labour for existing plantations in other parts of New Guinea. As of 1905, "there was apparently not a single permanent trading post manned by a non-native". The first fully commercial plantation was
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The PMG comprised approximately 100 personnel, was unarmed and wore bright yellow shirts and hats. It had no specific legal power although it did have a mandate under the Lincoln Agreement. It remained definitively neutral at all times. In the early stages of its deployment, it acted primarily as a
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The Peace Monitoring Group (PMG) on Bougainville in Papua New Guinea was brought about by the civil unrest on the island in the 1990s. The PNG government requested the Australian and New Zealand governments to provide a monitoring group to oversee the ceasefire on the island. This group was made up
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as Governor, was established in January 1999. However, this government was suspended after facing opposition from both the BIG/BRA and BTG. Arrangements were made for the creation of a modified government, to be established in two phases-the first being the Bougainville Constituent Assembly and the
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In 1990, Prime Minister Rabbie Namaliu of Papua New Guinea agreed to pull Papuan troops out, and for international observers to witness the disarmament of the BRA. The agreement was signed by Sam Kauona for the BRA. The police feared attacks by the locals and fled; leaving the island to the control
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In 1972, Australia granted Bougainville some degree of autonomy, but this did not end the secessionist movement. Relations between Bougainville and the government of Papua New Guinea deteriorated after the murders of two senior Bougainvillean public servants in December 1972. This was rumored to be
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The Australians had adopted many aspects of the previous German Administration. There was little difference between the two colonisers except for the expropriation policy and the line village consolidation program. The Germans had done the pioneering work in the colony and the Australians made this
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to protect against raids from mountain tribes, who were known to engage in cannibalism. An expedition was launched against Bowu, an "influential cannibal chief". His village at Kaumumu was attacked and Bowu's severed head was displayed to the local people. However, "it is doubtful if the display of
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The 2001 peace agreement stipulated that an independence referendum for Bougainville would be held between 10 and 15 years after the autonomous region's government had been formed, which set the deadline in 2020. The referendum was held in November and December 2019, with 98.31% of voters choosing
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In 1987, Ona and Serero had called a meeting of landowners around Panguna, forming the Panguna Landowners' Association. Serero was selected as 'Chairlady' and Ona as General Secretary. They demanded billions in compensation from CRA for lost revenues and damages, a total of half the mine's profits
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HQ PMG was based in Arawa and comprised approx. 50 personnel providing coordination for all the operations in Bougainville. The majority of personnel lived in local houses in the Arawa township. The Logistical Support Team (LST) at the Loloho wharf comprised approx. 70 personnel and provided such
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heard of the news, he ordered the detaining of all the mercenaries on arrival. In the resulting saga, Prime Minister Chan was forced to resign, and Papua New Guinea came very close to a military coup. Indeed, the officers in charge had the parliament surrounded, but steadfastly refused to go any
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Revenues from the mine products was vitally important to the economy of Papua New Guinea, but the people of Bougainville were seeing little benefit from it. In addition, they began to recognise that they were bearing the total effects of the mine's environmental consequences for the island. They
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In 1921, the population of Bougainville was recorded at 46,832. The Australian district officer was based at Kieta and controlled a native police force of 40 constables and five officers. The civil administration "pursued pacification less ferociously than its military predecessor" and recruited
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By 1974, the BSPC had reached a compromise with a Special Committee of the Papuan Parliament, which would have given the island greater autonomy. The Special Committee did not agree to providing a defined share of the profits from the Panguna mine to the people of Bougainville. The conservative
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attempted to recruit a peacekeeping force from the nations of the Pacific, but Wingti quashed the idea. He subsequently ordered the army to retake the Panguna mine, and was initially successful. However, his government was short-lived. In August 1994 he was replaced as prime minister by Chan.
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Cass (1992) argued that The Australian newspaper, in its coverage of the Bougainville conflict, lacked depth and focused on the crisis from Australia's own interests and a conviction that the former territory could not really look after itself. Other researchers pointed out that even though
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trait shared by the present-day descendants of both northerners and southerners is their skin-colour, which is very black. Indeed, it is darker than that of any population of present-day Pacific islanders, including the present-day indigenes of New Ireland, the larger homeland of the first
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The total cost of Australia's development and military assistance to Bougainville from the financial year 1997–98 until FY 2002–03 was $ 243.2 million. Over 3500 Australian defence personnel and 300 Australian civilians served in the Peace Monitoring Group during Operation Bel Isi.
998:, and said that mine operations had not affected the health of the river. The PNG government and Bougainville Copper initially made attempts to resolve some of the outstanding issues, and offered an expensive compromise deal, which was rejected outright by Ona and Kauona.
364:") continue to be spoken on Bougainville today. There has been substantial genetic and cultural mixing between the Austronesian and non-Austronesian populations, "such that language is no longer correlated with either genetics or culture in any direct or simplistic way".
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The Australian administration continued the German approach of "pacification", intervening in local conflicts. This allowed labour recruiters to enter new regions and secure more workers for the plantations. In 1915, more than 60 native police officers were deployed to
1300:, which were painted bright red for visibility and utilised to ferry personnel to inland villages inaccessible by foot or vehicle. With more than 8,000 safe flying hours in the skies of Bougainville to their credit, the choppers made their way back to Australia aboard
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July, but failed. The Interim Provincial Government announced that they would declare independence on 1 September, ahead of Papua New Guinea's own planned independence day of 16 September. On 1 September, they issued the 'Unilateral Declaration of Independence of the
1027:. The allegations of human rights abuses continued, and a survey in late 1989 indicated that at least 1600 homes had been destroyed. The conflict showed no signs of ending, and in January 1990, Bougainville Copper announced the mothballing of the Panguna mine.
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the disposal of weapons from the conflict. The agreement was largely upheld by both sides. The constitution of Bougainville was developed by 2004, under which the various organs of the Bougainville Government were established. These included the office of
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Bougainvilleans as interpreters. The administration established larger "line villages" in place of the smaller hamlets, in order to simplify collection and "condition the able-bodied men to the barracks discipline on the plantations". German ethnographer
1056:(criminal) gangs that were affiliated with the BRA, equipped largely with weapons salvaged from the fighting in World War II, terrorised villages, engaging in murder, rape and pillage. Bougainville split into several factions, and a civil war began.
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landed 20 members of the native police force armed with bows and arrows, who killed seven people, burned a village, and took its valuables. It was not until 1905 that a government station was opened in Bougainville. The station, situated in
990:.) Attempts to resolve the standoff continued, and Bougainville Copper continued to deny responsibility for the grievances brought by Ona and his supporters. The company suggested that the flying foxes had suffered high fatalities due to a
497:
The Northern Solomons were initially grouped with the Bismarck Archipelago for German administrative purposes. The first official visit from the German administration did not occur until November 1888. The acting administrator
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The first independence movement emerged in the late 1960s, at a time when other colonial governments were being dismantled in Asian and African nations. The local indigenous people began to air their grievances against the
1103:. However, the BIG leaders boycotted the conference, claiming that their safety could not be guaranteed. In their absence, Chan's government entered into negotiations with a group of chiefs from the Nasioi clan, headed by
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The Bougainville Peace Agreement decreed that all personnel should be withdrawn from the island by December 2002. However, the group was extended by the applicable governments and withdrew completely by 23 August 2003.
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on the island and adverse effects on fish and other species. Critics said that Bougainville Copper had created an apartheid, segregated system, with one set of facilities for white workers, and one set for the locals.
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soon afterward and Ona led the uprising with help from Kauona. Evacuation of all remaining employees of Bougainville Copper Limited followed after the mine's closure, with all personnel withdrawn by 24 March 1990.
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arrived accompanied by an imperial judge, a company manager, a visiting German journalist, a missionary, and a local merchant Richard Parkinson who had been recruiting labourers from the area for several years. A
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sailed along the east coast of Bougainville Island, which bears his name. He also gave Buka Island its name, after a word that was repeatedly called out to him from canoes originating from the island.
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program, in co-operation with the small UN Observer Mission on Bougainville (UNOMB). There was also some logistical support given to the constitutional consultation and drafting process from 2003.
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The Australian government has estimated that between 15,000 and 20,000 people have died in the Bougainville Conflict. More conservative estimates put the number of combat deaths as 1,000 to 2,000.
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Sandline sparked a low point in the Bougainvillean war. Since 1997, a ceasefire has largely held on the island. Breaking with Ona, Kauona and Kabui entered into peace talks with the government of
325:, until approximately 10,000 years ago, present-day Bougainville Island was part of a single landmass known as "Greater Bougainville", which spanned from the northern tip of Buka Island to the
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colonial government over the handling of the Panguna mine and protested the inadequate sharing of revenues being generated from mining on their land. Australian External Territories Minister
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in 1886, while the remainder of the Solomon Islands became part of the British Empire in 1893. The present-day boundaries between Papua New Guinea and Solomon Islands were established by the
1273:. Support remained strong throughout the PMG's deployment. The PMG was established on the island on 1 May 1998 and took over from the New Zealand Truce Monitoring Group which then departed.
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The Japanese infiltrated the mountains and jungles of Bougainville, and launched a counteroffensive against the Americans in 1944. The critical focus of their attack was at a place called "
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2010, Light intervention: Lessons from Bougainville. United States Institutes of Peace. See also the review of this book by Victoria Stead, Anthropological Forum, vol 22(3):320–322, 2012.
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Throughout the decade, Ona continued to resist overtures to participate in the new government, declaring himself 'king' of Bougainville before dying of malaria in 2005. In March 2005, Dr
791:. The mining of copper has been the subject of considerable social tensions over the last fifty years. Local people made two attempts at secession in protest of the mining exploitation.
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in April 1995, with its capital in Buka. Miriung was named Prime Minister of the new government, but he frequently clashed with Chan by criticising abuses committed by Papuan soldiers.
1174:
However, this too turned out to be a disaster. News of his intention to hire mercenaries was leaked to the Australian press, and international condemnation followed. Furthermore, when
539:, about half of which was collected in Kieta. As of 1 January 1914, there were 74 Europeans in the area, one-third of whom were connected with the Marist mission and 17 of whom were
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ceasefire monitoring group and spread information about developments in the peace process. Following the Bougainville Peace Agreement, the PMG focused primarily on facilitating the
1194:, which culminated in the signing of the Lincoln Agreement in January 1998. Under the terms of the agreement, PNG began to withdraw its soldiers from the island and a multinational
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granted the New Guinea Company a charter to govern the protectorate in accordance with the existing arrangements for German New Guinea. The remainder of the archipelago became the
742:, commander of the Combined Fleet of the Imperial Japanese Navy, was killed on Bougainville Island when his transport aircraft was shot down by American fighter aircraft during
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The autonomous region elects a president, 33 constituency representatives, and one woman and one former Bougainville Revolutionary Army (BRA) combatant from each of the three
250:(AN&MEF) occupied German New Guinea in 1914, following the outbreak of World War I. After the war's end, Bougainville and the other occupied territories were named as a
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the two remained tense, but relatively peaceful. In 1981 disputes re-emerged over the status of the mine, which was the basis of the conflict that became violent in 1988.
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924:, decided to take up arms against the Papuan government. Ona had worked for Bougainville Copper, and had witnessed the effects the mine was having on the environment.
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as Kabui. Several other village militias, which together became known as the resistance and were armed by the PNG defence forces, forced the BRA out of their areas.
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on 2 September 1945. They were commanded by the Emperor to surrender to the Allied Australians, Americans, and New Zealanders, and they were repatriated to Japan.
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after a bloody raid on one island that was alleged to be supporting the Bougainvilleans. In alliance with the resistance, the Papuan army succeeded in retaking
486:, which was not formally established until 1893. The present-day boundary between Bougainville and the country of Solomon Islands was established following the
806:. In 1962 over 60 people were injured in a series of conflicts with territorial police. By 1963 the society claimed 3,500 members spread over eight villages.
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was the first to make contact with the islanders and describe their appearance. There was no further European contact until 1767, when British naval officer
2007:
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2762:. The first footage of the war from behind the blockade. The critically acclaimed and internationally award-winning documentary is shown around the world.
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Papuan government declined to follow key sections of the committee's report, and in May 1975, negotiations between the two parties collapsed completely.
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also settled on the islands, bringing agriculture and pottery. Present-day Bougainvilleans are descended from a mixture of the two populations, and both
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undertaken by the German administration occurred in April 1899, in response to the killing of two European seamen in Tinputz Bay the previous year. The
1977:
950:. SBS reported on 27 June 2011 that Bougainville Copper Limited and Rio Tinto denied this assertion, and rejected ideas that they had started the war.
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initially had little economic impact, although the associated Catholic missions succeeded in converting a majority of the islanders to Christianity.
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further. In the end, however, they got their way, with Chan's resignation and the removal of the mercenaries from Papua New Guinean territory.
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Papua New Guinea's policy towards Bougainville hardened after the defeat of the incumbent government at the 1992 elections. New prime minister
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1016:, Kabui's Commerce and Liquor Licensing Minister. He had supported the compromise agreement between the Bougainvilleans and the Government.
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in 1975, but by the following year the newly independent PNG government had re-established control. Tensions continued, and the subsequent
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Spriggs, Matthew (2005). "Bougainville's early history: an archaeological perspective". In Regan, Anthony; Griffin, Helga-Maria (eds.).
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in 1933 following an earlier visit in 1908. He noted a number of changes over the 25-year period, including a large increase in
321:. The bottom-most archaeological deposits in the cave were radiocarbon-dated to between 28,700 and 20,100 years ago. During the
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was deployed. Legislation to establish a Bougainville Reconciliation Government failed to win approval in the PNG Parliament.
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made several arrests, but Ona proved to be elusive. They failed to catch him. (Singirok was later an important player in the
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The national government received a 20% share of profit from the mine and authorised 0.5–1.25% share to the Bougainvilleans.
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to the autonomous region's House of Representatives, as well as one provincial and three open constituency members to the
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and Papua New Guinea for permission to send a team to investigate the presence of former Fijian soldiers in Bougainville.
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claimed that the Jaba River had been poisoned, causing birth defects among local people, as well as the extinction of the
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lines; the BIG/BRA was dominated by the Nasioi clan, causing other islanders to view it with suspicion. On the island of
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By 1996, Chan was beginning to get frustrated at the lack of progress. In January, following a round of negotiations in
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took over occupation from the Americans. Australia resumed control of Bougainville and Papua New Guinea, which became a
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875:. In early 1976, the Bougainvillean government realised that they would have to accept Papua New Guinean sovereignty.
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Sack, Peter (2005). "German Colonial Rule in the Northern Solomons". In Regan, Anthony; Griffin, Helga-Maria (eds.).
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was established in 1969 and soon become a source of conflict. The Bougainville independence movement established the
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Roderic Alley, "Ethnosecession in Papua New Guinea: The Bougainville Case," in Rajat Ganguly and Ian MacDuff, ed.s,
946:, had signed an affidavit in 2001 specifying that the PNG government was acting under instruction from mining giant
1035:, there was an attempted military coup against the government following the decision to withdraw; it was defeated.
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293:. A peace agreement was reached in 2001, by which it was agreed that an autonomous region would be established and
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A Bougainville provincial government of the same status as the other eighteen provinces of Papua New Guinea, with
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trusteeship. The remaining Japanese on Bougainville refused to surrender, but held out until the surrender of the
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severed heads had the intended effect since these acts had taken place outside the customary ceremonial context".
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2015:
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of both civilian and defence personnel from Australia, New Zealand, Fiji and Vanuatu. Then Major General General
962:(BRA) returned to attack the mine, holding up its magazine, stealing explosives, and committing numerous acts of
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2730:. "The Hunter, the Hammer, and Heaven: Journeys to Three Worlds Gone Mad". 2002. Guilford, CT: The Lyons Press.
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to reclaim the islands resulted in heavy casualties and the eventual restoration of Australian control in 1945.
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Griffin, James (2005). "Origins of Bougainville's Boundaries". In Regan, Anthony; Griffin, Helga-Maria (eds.).
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In 1949, following administrative reforms by the Australian government, Bougainville was incorporated into the
970:. They cut the power supply to the entire mine by blowing up power pylons. These BRA forces were commanded by
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Letter dated 22 October 2001 from the Secretary-General addressed to the President of the Security Council
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wharf on the eastern side of the island by naval vessels from Australia and New Zealand as well as the
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The 1920s saw the introduction of Protestantism to Bougainville, in the form of missionaries from the
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Wayne Coles-Janess VOD of Bougainville - "Our Island, Our Fight" 1998 available Globally on iTunes.
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Chan announced his intention to find a peaceful solution to the conflict. He met with Kauona in the
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and arranged for a peace conference to be held in Arawa that October, with security provided by an
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Douglas Oliver in his 1991 book discussed one of the unique aspects of the people of Bougainville:
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became the first Europeans to sight the islands. The main island was named after French admiral
165:(PNG), has been inhabited by humans for at least 29,000 years, according to artefacts found in
2778:
2770:
2767:
Ethnic Conflict and Secessionism in South Asia and Southeast Asia: Causes, Dynamics, Solutions
2731:
2718:
2647:
2628:
2609:
2590:
2571:
2415:
2176:
2126:
1431:
943:
607:
460:
440:
422:
240:
74:
2408:"Bougainville referendum: region votes overwhelmingly for independence from Papua New Guinea"
2150:. Paper presented at the 2005 Journalism Education Association Conference, Surfers Paradise.
1023:; it placed the island under the administration of the Police Commissioner, who was based in
1012:
The BRA conducted violence against the provincial government, including the assassination of
447:
into spheres of influence. As a result of this agreement, the islands of Buka, Bougainville,
2233:
2151:
2116:
1307:. Later, air mobility was outsourced to the commercial Hevilift company, which provided two
1285:
1278:
1104:
995:
530:
The German protectorate over the islands initially had little economic impact. A handful of
406:
162:
2790:
The Bougainville conflict: A classic outcome of the resource-curse effect?, Michael Cornish
2788:
1143:
ceased providing military support, forcing Chan to begin to look elsewhere. Thus began the
1393:
1270:
1210:
1144:
1092:
1076:
987:
947:
872:
814:
758:
750:
701:
648:
540:
464:
448:
402:
382:
216:
543:(including Australians). There were also 20 "foreign natives", mostly Chinese and Malay.
409:. Carteret was also the first European to see Buka Island. The following year, Frenchman
809:
In 1964, Australian business began the first attempt to explore the island's resources:
494:. The Shortlands, Choiseul, Santa Isabel, and Ontong Java were included in the cession.
2505:
1809:
1262:
1214:
1175:
1156:
1123:
983:
939:
921:
868:
754:
652:
386:
357:
326:
220:
201:
2678:
2321:
2807:
2220:"Annualized implementation data on comprehensive intrastate peace accords, 1989-2012"
1786:
799:
773:
504:
394:
228:
197:
2245:
2071:
1886:
1392:, but this was rejected by both the House of Representatives and the Supreme Court.
2793:
1963:
1412:
1187:
1168:
1160:
1072:
1032:
1024:
1002:
818:
491:
337:
to the north, where sites have been identified dating back 35,000 to 40,000 years.
274:
232:
1908:
17:
2688:
2113:
Reconciliation and Architectures of Commitment: Sequencing Peace in Bougainville
1370:
1191:
1140:
1084:
1064:
1044:
917:
725:
705:
627:
623:
536:
490:
of 1899, which saw some of the northern islands ceded to the UK in exchange for
456:
398:
390:
341:
333:. The "obvious immediate origin for its first colonists" of Bougainville is the
330:
318:
170:
2795:
Chronology of Bougainville Civil War, By Michael J. Field, AFP, 30 January 1998
1388:. Momis sought to extend presidential term-limits, allowing him to contest the
1252:
1381:
1293:
1202:
1183:
1147:, where the government of Papua New Guinea attempted to hire mercenaries from
1006:
904:
570:
2419:
2237:
2531:
1932:"The Bougainville Conflict: A Classic Outcome of the Resource-Curse Effect?"
1847:"The Bougainville Conflict: A Classic Outcome of the Resource-Curse Effect?"
1365:
have been held every five years since 2005, with Kabui elected president in
1136:
1119:
1096:
1013:
829:
581:(AN&MEF) occupied Bougainville in December 1914, as part of the broader
472:
314:
166:
68:
1019:
As a response to the continuing violence, the national government called a
769:
2104:
Braithwaite, John; Charlesworth, Hilary; Reddy, Peter; Dunn, Leah (2010).
871:, but were unsuccessful. They also failed in an attempt to unite with the
802:, mounted a campaign against Australian authorities' attempts to impose a
2121:
1415:
has not explicitly committed to Bougainville becoming separate from PNG.
1308:
967:
803:
615:
471:), which was formally established on 28 October 1886 by the commander of
2527:"Bougainville sets 2027 deadline for independence from Papua New Guinea"
1265:
led the peace monitoring mission, supported by elements of Australia's
598:
345:
189:
2218:
Joshi, Madhav; Quinn, Jason Michael; Regan, Patrick M. (8 June 2015).
2156:
1163:
special forces soldiers, which had been involved in the civil wars in
1075:
took a considerably more hardline stance. He angered residents of the
837:
not guaranteed the same standards that applied to mainland Australia.
2498:"Bougainville independence: recalling promises of international help"
1164:
975:
784:
389:
were the first Europeans to sight present-day Bougainville, skirting
2717:. 2005, Bougainville Before the Conflict. Canberra, Pandanus Books.
1369:. Kabui unexpectedly died in office in 2008, and former BRA fighter
1083:, the provincial capital, in January 1993. Papuan Foreign Minister
262:
in order to support their operations elsewhere in the Pacific. The
2606:
Black Islanders: A Personal Perspective of Bougainville, 1937–1991
2566:
s Wars: 1914–42". In Regan, Anthony; Griffin, Helga-Maria (eds.).
1289:
1251:
1043:
In May 1990, Papua New Guinea imposed a blockade on Bougainville.
991:
963:
768:
684:
619:
560:
531:
520:
432:
426:
304:
285:(1988–1998) resulted in the deaths of thousands of people, as the
712:
landed on the west coast of Bougainville. Shortly afterwards the
2092:
1218:
1060:
788:
2750:
includes a report and interview with Francis Ona and the B.R.A.
2379:"Bougainville's Momis loses bid for another tilt at leadership"
630:, and the introduction of feast-giving as a surrogate for war.
313:
The earliest known site of human occupation in Bougainville is
2383:
2355:
2329:
1885:(Interview). Interviewed by Wayne Coles-Janess. Archived from
2685:
ABC Foreign Correspondent- World in Focus – Lead Story (1997)
2148:
Image of a Nation: Australian Press Cover of Papua New Guinea
2699:
ABC Foreign Correspondent- Lead Story – Bougainville (1997)
2677:. "Inside Bougainville" 1994 ABC ABC Foreign Correspondent
2769:. 2003. New Delhi, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
2304:
The Constitution of the Autonomous Region of Bougainville
1396:
is the current president, having won the 2020 election.
1059:
Much of the division in this fighting was largely along
1725:
1723:
1674:
1672:
1497:
1495:
439:
On 10 April 1886, two years after the establishment of
618:, the introduction of a cash economy (comprising both
443:, the United Kingdom and Germany agreed to divide the
289:
sought to secure independence and was resisted by the
2669:
This a link to iTunes UK. Available in most Countries
2173:
Ethics Under Fire: Challenges for the Australian Army
1611:
1609:
1596:
1594:
728:
Island. The Marines were replaced by US Army troops.
938:
program, broadcast on 26 June 2011, states that Sir
2608:. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. p. 3.
626:), the erosion of chiefly authority, a decrease in
184:The first arrivals in Bougainville were ethnically
1340:President of the Autonomous Region of Bougainville
867:They sought international recognition through the
716:was fought between cruisers and destroyers of the
708:and other Allied territory. In November 1943, the
397:in 1616. In 1643, another Dutch expedition led by
1284:Support was provided to the group via use of the
798:, established in 1959 and led by John Teosin and
579:Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force
567:Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force
248:Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force
181:, but also contains a number of smaller islands.
2814:History of the Autonomous Region of Bougainville
1828:"3,500 Buka Islanders pose a cargo cult problem"
1296:. Four UH-1 'Huey' helicopters were supplied by
356:arrived in Bougainville, bringing with them the
239:of 1899. The incorporation of Bougainville into
2310:– via Autonomous Bougainville Government.
2297:
2295:
1050:
2267:Kroc Institute for International Peace Studies
1292:airfield by weekly C130 Hercules flights from
2146:Ginau, Martha; Papoutsaki, Evangelia (2005).
589:established the former German territory as a
139:
8:
2194:
2192:
1883:"World in Focus: Interview with Francis Ona"
297:would be held; the latter was held in 2019.
2758:(1998) by the multi-award-winning director
1834:. Vol. 34, no. 3. 1 October 1963.
1816:. Vol. 14. Melbourne University Press.
1406:2019 Bougainvillean independence referendum
1376:was elected to replace him. Tanis lost the
1256:Australian Huey helicopters in Bougainville
577:Following the outbreak of World War I, the
352:. Approximately 3,000 years ago, a wave of
817:, began drilling in the Panguna area. The
583:Australian occupation of German New Guinea
553:Australian occupation of German New Guinea
146:
132:
31:
2155:
2120:
916:By late 1988, cousins and local leaders,
547:World War I and Australian administration
507:force was quickly established. The first
467:were placed under a German protectorate (
309:Traditional canoe paddle from Buka Island
704:forces, who used it as a base to attack
340:The first settlers of Bougainville were
27:Bougainville, region in Papua New Guinea
1869:Benggong v Bougainville Copper Pty Ltd
1585:
1573:
1537:
1525:
1513:
1501:
1486:
1474:
1462:
1450:
1443:
1359:National Parliament of Papua New Guinea
1269:which is known to include then Captain
821:opened in 1969 under their subsidiary,
765:Beginnings of the independence movement
635:the foundation for colonial management.
45:
34:
2038:"Rio Denies Starting Bougainville War"
1549:
982:The Papuan police, and the army under
700:In 1942, Bougainville was occupied by
254:, which Australia administered as the
2471:"Referendum Declared 'Petition Free'"
2426:from the original on 11 December 2019
1960:Rory Ewins's Pacific Islands Politics
1765:
1753:
1741:
1729:
1714:
1702:
1690:
1678:
1663:
1348:Bougainville House of Representatives
813:, a subsidiary of Australian company
7:
1651:
1639:
1627:
1615:
1600:
1561:
1109:Bougainville Transitional Government
484:British Solomon Islands Protectorate
258:. During World War II, the Japanese
2755:Bougainville – Our Island Our Fight
2351:"Bougainville elects new president"
1228:Foreign media coverage of civil war
1217:working group on mercenaries asked
1048:to be part of the BRA. A number of
2562:Elder, Peter (2005). "Between the
2475:Bougainville Referendum Commission
2450:Bougainville Referendum Commission
1814:Australian Dictionary of Biography
1333:Autonomous Bougainville Government
1298:Australian 171st Aviation Squadron
115:Autonomous Bougainville Government
25:
2008:"Blood and Treasure – Transcript"
942:, at the time Papua New Guinea's
677:Invasion of Buka and Bougainville
492:German control over Western Samoa
271:Territory of Papua and New Guinea
260:invaded and occupied Bougainville
100:Territory of Papua and New Guinea
2715:Regan, Anthony and Helga Griffin
2644:Bougainville Before the Conflict
2625:Bougainville Before the Conflict
2587:Bougainville Before the Conflict
2568:Bougainville Before the Conflict
2406:Lyons, Kate (11 December 2019).
2207:– via Peace Accords Matrix
1425:
1327:Autonomy within Papua New Guinea
1101:South Pacific Peacekeeping Force
523:, was placed directly under the
344:, likely related to present-day
53:
2496:McKenna, Kylie; Ariku, Emelda.
1155:, composed primarily of former
960:Bougainville Revolutionary Army
681:Bougainville campaign (1943–45)
641:Methodist Church of New Zealand
287:Bougainville Revolutionary Army
64:
2271:"Bougainville Peace Agreement"
1344:Bougainville Executive Council
776:, leader of the anti-colonial
291:Papua New Guinea Defence Force
279:Republic of the North Solomons
227:, who reached it in 1768. The
105:Republic of the North Solomons
1:
2328:. Development Policy Centre,
2175:. NewSouth. pp. XIV–XV.
1881:Ona, Francis (4 March 1997).
1001:The Premier of Bougainville,
714:Battle of Empress Augusta Bay
525:Governor of German New Guinea
411:Louis Antoine de Bougainville
225:Louis Antoine de Bougainville
1978:"Blood and Treasure – About"
1936:Peach & Conflict Monitor
1851:Peach & Conflict Monitor
1810:"Hagai, Francis (1940–1974)"
1350:and the region's judiciary.
645:Seventh-day Adventist Church
231:placed Bougainville under a
177:, the largest island of the
173:. The region is named after
2068:Bougainville Copper Limited
1956:"The Bougainville Conflict"
1954:Ewins, Rory (12 May 2002).
1905:Bougainville Copper Limited
1783:Bougainville Copper Limited
445:Solomon Islands archipelago
179:Solomon Islands archipelago
2830:
2106:"The Cost of the Conflict"
1871:HCA 31; (1971) 124 CLR 47)
1403:
1330:
1245:
886:
862:Republic of North Solomons
855:Republic of North Solomons
852:
849:Republic of North Solomons
674:
550:
420:
295:an independence referendum
264:subsequent Allied campaign
210:non-Austronesian languages
196:. Around 3,000 years ago,
161:, an autonomous region of
2799:Operation Bel Isi Website
2687:Exclusive interview with
2225:Journal of Peace Research
2115:. Canberra: ANU E Press.
1363:Elections in Bougainville
591:League of Nations mandate
252:League of Nations mandate
215:In 1616, Dutch explorers
2604:Oliver, Douglas (1991).
2279:University of Notre Dame
2238:10.1177/0022343314567486
1153:private military company
928:since it began in 1969.
823:Bougainville Copper Ltd.
783:Bougainville is rich in
740:Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto
212:are spoken to this day.
2646:. Stranger Journalism.
2627:. Stranger Journalism.
2589:. Stranger Journalism.
2570:. Stranger Journalism.
1832:Pacific Islands Monthly
1808:Griffin, James (1996).
1400:Independence referendum
1051:
796:Hahalis Welfare Society
778:Hahalis Welfare Society
696:over Bougainville, 1944
692:bombers from the USAAF
557:Territory of New Guinea
256:Territory of New Guinea
120:Independence referendum
95:Allied counter-invasion
47:History of Bougainville
2743:The Coconut Revolution
2326:PNG Elections Database
1257:
1248:Peace Monitoring Group
1196:Peace Monitoring Group
1149:Sandline International
1130:Sandline and ceasefire
780:
722:Imperial Japanese Navy
697:
694:42nd Bombardment Group
637:
574:
436:
405:visited and named the
377:Early European contact
374:
350:Aboriginal Australians
310:
283:Bougainville Civil War
194:Aboriginal Australians
1432:New Guinea portal
1255:
889:Bougainville conflict
883:Secessionist conflict
772:
688:
675:Further information:
632:
564:
551:Further information:
488:Tripartite Convention
430:
421:Further information:
369:
308:
237:Tripartite Convention
110:Bougainville conflict
2275:Peace Accords Matrix
2122:10.22459/rac.09.2010
2074:on 23 September 2015
587:Treaty of Versailles
354:Austronesian peoples
335:Bismarck Archipelago
323:Last Glacial Maximum
200:associated with the
2746:(2000) directed by
2728:Robert Young Pelton
2679:Inside Bougainville
2662:Further information
2446:"Voter Information"
2171:Frame, Tom (2018).
1789:on 6 September 2008
1768:, pp. 162–163.
744:Operation Vengeance
710:3rd Marine Division
509:punitive expedition
417:German protectorate
186:Australo-Melanesian
175:Bougainville Island
2760:Wayne Coles-Janess
2703:Wayne Coles-Janess
2693:Wayne Coles-Janess
2675:Wayne Coles-Janess
2359:. 29 December 2008
1988:on 7 November 2013
1930:Cornish, Michael.
1845:Cornish, Michael.
1744:, p. 145–146.
1386:re-elected in 2015
1258:
1021:state of emergency
781:
733:Hellsapoppin Ridge
698:
661:Beatrice Blackwood
655:, Catholic priest
575:
478:. On 13 December,
463:, and part of the
437:
431:German station at
311:
85:Australian mandate
2736:978-1-58574-416-9
2709:Regan, Anthony J.
2691:. Interviewed by
2477:. 24 January 2020
2322:"Electorate maps"
2132:978-1-921666-69-8
1901:"Company History"
1630:, pp. 86–87.
1242:Operation Bel Isi
1151:, a London-based
958:In November 1988
944:Opposition Leader
665:Douglas L. Oliver
608:Richard Thurnwald
461:Shortland Islands
441:German New Guinea
423:German New Guinea
241:German New Guinea
156:
155:
90:Japanese invasion
18:Operation Bel Isi
16:(Redirected from
2821:
2657:
2638:
2619:
2600:
2581:
2549:
2548:
2546:
2544:
2523:
2517:
2516:
2514:
2512:
2493:
2487:
2486:
2484:
2482:
2467:
2461:
2460:
2458:
2456:
2442:
2436:
2435:
2433:
2431:
2403:
2397:
2396:
2394:
2392:
2375:
2369:
2368:
2366:
2364:
2347:
2341:
2340:
2338:
2336:
2318:
2312:
2311:
2309:
2299:
2290:
2289:
2287:
2285:
2263:
2257:
2256:
2254:
2252:
2215:
2209:
2208:
2206:
2196:
2187:
2186:
2168:
2162:
2161:
2159:
2143:
2137:
2136:
2124:
2110:
2101:
2095:
2090:
2084:
2083:
2081:
2079:
2070:. Archived from
2060:
2054:
2053:
2051:
2049:
2044:. 29 August 2013
2034:
2028:
2027:
2025:
2023:
2014:. Archived from
2004:
1998:
1997:
1995:
1993:
1984:. Archived from
1974:
1968:
1967:
1966:on 23 July 2011.
1962:. Archived from
1951:
1949:
1947:
1938:. Archived from
1927:
1921:
1920:
1918:
1916:
1907:. Archived from
1897:
1891:
1890:
1878:
1872:
1866:
1864:
1862:
1853:. Archived from
1842:
1836:
1835:
1824:
1818:
1817:
1805:
1799:
1798:
1796:
1794:
1785:. Archived from
1775:
1769:
1763:
1757:
1751:
1745:
1739:
1733:
1727:
1718:
1712:
1706:
1700:
1694:
1688:
1682:
1676:
1667:
1661:
1655:
1649:
1643:
1637:
1631:
1625:
1619:
1613:
1604:
1598:
1589:
1583:
1577:
1571:
1565:
1559:
1553:
1547:
1541:
1535:
1529:
1523:
1517:
1511:
1505:
1499:
1490:
1484:
1478:
1472:
1466:
1460:
1454:
1448:
1430:
1429:
1428:
1279:weapons disposal
1105:Theodore Miriung
1054:
996:East New Britain
994:brought in from
931:A report on the
671:Second World War
657:Patrick O'Reilly
573:at Kieta in 1914
541:British subjects
500:Reinhold Kraetke
480:Kaiser Wilhelm I
407:Carteret Islands
381:Dutch explorers
163:Papua New Guinea
148:
141:
134:
57:
32:
21:
2829:
2828:
2824:
2823:
2822:
2820:
2819:
2818:
2804:
2803:
2664:
2654:
2641:
2635:
2622:
2616:
2603:
2597:
2584:
2578:
2561:
2558:
2553:
2552:
2542:
2540:
2525:
2524:
2520:
2510:
2508:
2502:The Interpreter
2495:
2494:
2490:
2480:
2478:
2469:
2468:
2464:
2454:
2452:
2444:
2443:
2439:
2429:
2427:
2405:
2404:
2400:
2390:
2388:
2377:
2376:
2372:
2362:
2360:
2349:
2348:
2344:
2334:
2332:
2320:
2319:
2315:
2307:
2301:
2300:
2293:
2283:
2281:
2265:
2264:
2260:
2250:
2248:
2217:
2216:
2212:
2204:
2198:
2197:
2190:
2183:
2170:
2169:
2165:
2145:
2144:
2140:
2133:
2108:
2103:
2102:
2098:
2091:
2087:
2077:
2075:
2062:
2061:
2057:
2047:
2045:
2036:
2035:
2031:
2021:
2019:
2018:on 15 June 2013
2006:
2005:
2001:
1991:
1989:
1976:
1975:
1971:
1953:
1945:
1943:
1942:on 22 July 2011
1929:
1928:
1924:
1914:
1912:
1899:
1898:
1894:
1889:on 10 May 2013.
1880:
1879:
1875:
1860:
1858:
1857:on 22 July 2011
1844:
1843:
1839:
1826:
1825:
1821:
1807:
1806:
1802:
1792:
1790:
1777:
1776:
1772:
1764:
1760:
1752:
1748:
1740:
1736:
1728:
1721:
1713:
1709:
1701:
1697:
1689:
1685:
1677:
1670:
1662:
1658:
1650:
1646:
1638:
1634:
1626:
1622:
1614:
1607:
1599:
1592:
1584:
1580:
1572:
1568:
1560:
1556:
1548:
1544:
1536:
1532:
1524:
1520:
1512:
1508:
1500:
1493:
1485:
1481:
1477:, pp. 2–4.
1473:
1469:
1461:
1457:
1449:
1445:
1440:
1426:
1424:
1421:
1408:
1402:
1394:Ishmael Toroama
1335:
1329:
1250:
1244:
1239:
1230:
1211:Shaista Shameem
1145:Sandline affair
1132:
1093:Solomon Islands
1085:Sir Julius Chan
1077:Solomon Islands
1041:
1031:of the BRA. In
988:Sandline affair
956:
914:
896:
891:
885:
873:Solomon Islands
857:
851:
811:CRA Exploration
787:, and possibly
767:
759:Japanese Empire
751:Australian Army
683:
673:
663:, and American
643:(1921) and the
565:Members of the
559:
549:
465:Florida Islands
425:
419:
403:Philip Carteret
383:Willem Schouten
379:
303:
217:Willem Schouten
152:
41:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2827:
2825:
2817:
2816:
2806:
2805:
2802:
2801:
2796:
2791:
2786:
2763:
2751:
2739:
2725:
2712:
2706:
2696:
2682:
2672:
2663:
2660:
2659:
2658:
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2506:Lowy Institute
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2398:
2370:
2342:
2313:
2291:
2258:
2232:(4): 551–562.
2210:
2188:
2182:978-1742235493
2181:
2163:
2138:
2131:
2096:
2085:
2064:"Our Approach"
2055:
2029:
1999:
1969:
1922:
1892:
1873:
1837:
1819:
1800:
1779:"Ore Reserves"
1770:
1758:
1756:, p. 152.
1746:
1734:
1732:, p. 151.
1719:
1717:, p. 144.
1707:
1705:, p. 149.
1695:
1693:, p. 148.
1683:
1681:, p. 150.
1668:
1666:, p. 146.
1656:
1654:, p. 102.
1644:
1642:, p. 101.
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1434:
1420:
1417:
1404:Main article:
1401:
1398:
1331:Main article:
1328:
1325:
1263:Frank Hickling
1243:
1240:
1238:
1235:
1229:
1226:
1215:United Nations
1176:Jerry Singirok
1131:
1128:
1124:Jerry Singirok
1040:
1037:
984:Jerry Singirok
955:
952:
940:Michael Somare
922:Pepetua Serero
913:
910:
895:
892:
887:Main article:
884:
881:
869:United Nations
853:Main article:
850:
847:
834:Charles Barnes
815:Rio Tinto Zinc
766:
763:
755:United Nations
738:In April 1943
672:
669:
653:Sarah Chinnery
548:
545:
418:
415:
387:Jacob Le Maire
378:
375:
358:Lapita culture
327:Nggela Islands
302:
299:
221:Jacob Le Maire
202:Lapita culture
154:
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2783:0-7619-9604-4
2780:
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2775:81-7829-202-5
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2615:0-8248-1434-7
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2596:9781740761383
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2577:9781740761383
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2539:. 6 July 2021
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2387:. 30 May 2020
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2017:
2013:
2009:
2003:
2000:
1987:
1983:
1979:
1973:
1970:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1926:
1923:
1911:on 3 May 2016
1910:
1906:
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1629:
1624:
1621:
1618:, p. 85.
1617:
1612:
1610:
1606:
1603:, p. 84.
1602:
1597:
1595:
1591:
1588:, p. 75.
1587:
1582:
1579:
1576:, p. 74.
1575:
1570:
1567:
1564:, p. 77.
1563:
1558:
1555:
1551:
1546:
1543:
1540:, p. 19.
1539:
1534:
1531:
1528:, p. 11.
1527:
1522:
1519:
1515:
1510:
1507:
1504:, p. 18.
1503:
1498:
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1471:
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1390:2020 election
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1378:2010 election
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1237:Post-conflict
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1204:
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1193:
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1161:South African
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1005:, and Father
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800:Francis Hagai
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792:
790:
786:
779:
775:
774:Francis Hagai
771:
764:
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760:
756:
752:
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747:
745:
741:
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729:
727:
723:
719:
715:
711:
707:
703:
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691:
690:B-25 Mitchell
687:
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569:hoisting the
568:
563:
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505:native police
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395:Nissan Island
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229:German Empire
226:
222:
218:
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211:
207:
203:
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198:Austronesians
195:
191:
188:, related to
187:
182:
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149:
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137:
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75:German colony
73:
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62:
61:
60:
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52:
51:
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19:
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2753:
2748:Dom Rotheroe
2741:
2643:
2624:
2605:
2586:
2567:
2563:
2556:Bibliography
2541:. Retrieved
2530:
2521:
2509:. Retrieved
2501:
2491:
2479:. Retrieved
2474:
2465:
2453:. Retrieved
2449:
2440:
2428:. Retrieved
2412:The Guardian
2411:
2401:
2389:. Retrieved
2382:
2373:
2361:. Retrieved
2354:
2345:
2333:. Retrieved
2325:
2316:
2303:
2282:. Retrieved
2274:
2261:
2249:. Retrieved
2229:
2223:
2213:
2200:
2172:
2166:
2147:
2141:
2112:
2099:
2088:
2076:. Retrieved
2072:the original
2067:
2058:
2046:. Retrieved
2041:
2032:
2020:. Retrieved
2016:the original
2011:
2002:
1990:. Retrieved
1986:the original
1981:
1972:
1964:the original
1959:
1944:. Retrieved
1940:the original
1935:
1925:
1913:. Retrieved
1909:the original
1904:
1895:
1887:the original
1876:
1868:
1859:. Retrieved
1855:the original
1850:
1840:
1831:
1822:
1813:
1803:
1791:. Retrieved
1787:the original
1782:
1773:
1761:
1749:
1737:
1710:
1698:
1686:
1659:
1647:
1635:
1623:
1586:Griffin 2005
1581:
1574:Griffin 2005
1569:
1557:
1552:, p. 3.
1545:
1538:Spriggs 2005
1533:
1526:Spriggs 2005
1521:
1516:, p. 9.
1514:Spriggs 2005
1509:
1502:Spriggs 2005
1489:, p. 5.
1487:Spriggs 2005
1482:
1475:Spriggs 2005
1470:
1465:, p. 4.
1463:Spriggs 2005
1458:
1453:, p. 1.
1451:Spriggs 2005
1446:
1413:James Marape
1409:
1352:
1336:
1321:
1317:
1313:
1303:
1283:
1275:
1271:Ian Langford
1259:
1231:
1223:
1208:
1200:
1188:Christchurch
1181:
1173:
1169:Sierra Leone
1133:
1113:
1090:
1073:Paias Wingti
1070:
1058:
1049:
1042:
1033:Port Moresby
1029:
1025:Port Moresby
1018:
1011:
1003:Joseph Kabui
1000:
981:
957:
934:
930:
926:
915:
901:
897:
877:
866:
858:
843:
839:
826:
819:Panguna mine
808:
793:
782:
748:
737:
730:
699:
638:
633:
610:returned to
604:
595:
576:
529:
514:
496:
474:
469:Schutzgebiet
468:
453:Santa Isabel
438:
380:
370:
366:
339:
312:
275:Panguna mine
268:
245:
233:protectorate
214:
206:Austronesian
183:
159:Bougainville
157:
46:
29:
2689:Francis Ona
2430:12 December
2048:17 February
1550:Oliver 1991
1371:James Tanis
1267:8th Brigade
1192:New Zealand
1141:New Zealand
1045:Francis Ona
918:Francis Ona
726:New Britain
706:Guadalcanal
628:headhunting
624:shell money
585:. The 1919
457:Ontong Java
399:Abel Tasman
391:Takuu Atoll
362:East Papuan
342:Melanesians
331:Guadalcanal
319:Buka Island
171:Buka Island
2157:10652/1498
1946:19 January
1915:11 January
1861:19 January
1766:Elder 2005
1754:Elder 2005
1742:Elder 2005
1730:Elder 2005
1715:Elder 2005
1703:Elder 2005
1691:Elder 2005
1679:Elder 2005
1664:Elder 2005
1438:References
1384:, who was
1382:John Momis
1302:HMAS
1294:Townsville
1246:See also:
1203:John Momis
1184:Bill Skate
1007:John Momis
972:Sam Kauona
912:Insurgency
905:flying fox
830:Australian
571:Union Jack
301:Prehistory
65:Prehistory
2543:30 August
2532:France 24
2511:30 August
2481:30 August
2455:30 August
2420:0261-3077
2391:30 August
2363:30 August
2335:30 August
2284:30 August
2251:30 August
2078:25 August
1652:Sack 2005
1640:Sack 2005
1628:Sack 2005
1616:Sack 2005
1601:Sack 2005
1562:Sack 2005
1355:districts
1137:Australia
1120:Australia
1097:Australia
1039:Civil war
1014:John Bika
948:Rio Tinto
718:U.S. Navy
659:, Briton
513:SMS
473:SMS
329:north of
315:Kilu Cave
167:Kilu Cave
69:Kilu Cave
2808:Category
2564:Waitman'
2424:Archived
2246:10005632
2042:SBS News
2022:26 April
2012:Dateline
1992:26 April
1982:Dateline
1867:citing (
1419:See also
1309:Bell 212
1304:Kanimbla
968:sabotage
954:Uprising
935:Dateline
894:Tensions
804:head tax
720:and the
702:Japanese
616:literacy
449:Choiseul
38:a series
36:Part of
1952:citing
1213:of the
1157:British
599:Soraken
346:Papuans
190:Papuans
79:details
2781:
2773:
2734:
2721:
2650:
2631:
2612:
2593:
2574:
2418:
2244:
2179:
2129:
2093:(UNPO)
1793:31 May
1346:, the
1286:Loloho
1165:Angola
1116:Cairns
1052:raskol
976:asthma
785:copper
649:Ernest
459:, the
435:, 1909
273:. The
40:on the
2308:(PDF)
2242:S2CID
2205:(PDF)
2109:(PDF)
1290:Kieta
1099:-led
1081:Arawa
992:virus
964:arson
620:coins
537:marks
532:copra
521:Kieta
475:Adler
433:Kieta
2779:ISBN
2771:ISBN
2732:ISBN
2719:ISBN
2648:ISBN
2629:ISBN
2610:ISBN
2591:ISBN
2572:ISBN
2545:2022
2513:2022
2483:2022
2457:2022
2432:2019
2416:ISSN
2393:2022
2365:2022
2337:2022
2286:2022
2253:2022
2177:ISBN
2127:ISBN
2080:2015
2050:2022
2024:2015
1994:2015
1948:2011
1917:2019
1863:2011
1795:2008
1374:2008
1367:2005
1219:Fiji
1167:and
1159:and
1139:and
1065:Buka
1061:clan
966:and
933:SBS
920:and
794:The
789:gold
679:and
651:and
622:and
612:Buin
555:and
515:Möwe
393:and
385:and
348:and
246:The
219:and
208:and
192:and
2701:by
2537:AFP
2384:RNZ
2356:RNZ
2330:ANU
2234:doi
2152:hdl
2117:doi
1380:to
1186:in
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864:'.
169:on
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2125:.
2111:.
2066:.
2040:.
2010:.
1980:.
1958:.
1934:.
1903:.
1849:.
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2160:.
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1996:.
1950:.
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1865:.
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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
