42:
225:(ADH), which controls outflow of water from the body by urine. ADH deficiency, also known as diabetes insipidus (DI), results in dehydration and high sodium levels in the body from excessive urination. Testing for DI involves blood and urine testing, including water deprivation tests, to determine ADH creation levels by the body. DI may be treated with a medication called
380:(SOD) is associated with ONH, however, it is possible to have ONH without any additional issues like SOD. SOD is a condition that can involve multiple problems in the midline structures of the brain, stemming from miswiring of the brain and central nervous system. Besides having small optic nerves, persons with ONH can have
348:, physical, and/or speech therapy for other issues, and services of a teacher for students with blindness/visually impairment. Special attention should be paid to early development of oral motor skills and acclimation to textured foods for children with texture aversion, or who are otherwise resistant to eating.
78:(hormone deficiencies), developmental delay, and brain malformations. The optic nerve, which is responsible for transmitting visual signals from the retina to the brain, has approximately 1.2 million nerve fibers in the average person. In those diagnosed with ONH, however, there are noticeably fewer nerves.
399:
ONH is the single leading cause of permanent legal blindness in children in the western world. The incidence of ONH is increasing, although it is difficult to estimate the true prevalence. Between 1980 and 1999, the occurrences of ONH in Sweden increased four-fold to 7.2 per 100,000, while all other
239:
Hypothalamic dysfunction may also result in problems with feeding, sleep, and body temperature regulation. Feeding behaviors in children with ONH often include hyperphagia (overeating), resulting in obesity; or hypophagia (reduced food intake) with or without weight loss. Children also frequently
194:
A poorly functioning pituitary gland may also cause a lack of thyroid hormone, leading to central hypothyroidism. Thyroid hormone is critical for growth and brain development, especially during the first few weeks to months of life. Children with untreated hypothyroidism are at high risk of mental
557:
Garcia-Filion, Pamela; Epport, Karen; Nelson, Marvin; Azen, Colleen; Geffner, Mitchell E.; Fink, Cassandra; Borchert, Mark (1 March 2008). "Neuroradiographic, Endocrinologic, and
Ophthalmic Correlates of Adverse Developmental Outcomes in Children With Optic Nerve Hypoplasia: A Prospective Study".
354:
Treatment for strabismus may include patching of the better eye, which may result in improved vision in the worse eye; however, this should be reserved for cases in which the potential for vision improvement in both eyes is felt to be good. Surgery to align the eyes can be performed once children
86:
ONH may be found in isolation or in conjunction with myriad functional and anatomic abnormalities of the central nervous system. Nearly 80% of those affected with ONH will experience hypothalamic dysfunction and/or impaired development of the brain, regardless of MRI findings or severity of ONH.
166:
Dysfunction of the hypothalamus results in loss of regulation over behavior and function of the pituitary gland (master gland). Hypopituitarism is present in 75% to 80% of patients with ONH. The anterior pituitary gland contributes to growth, metabolism, and sexual development. The most common
95:
ONH can be unilateral (in one eye) or bilateral (in both eyes), though it presents most often bilaterally (80%). Unilateral cases tend to have better vision and are typically diagnosed at a later age than bilateral cases. Visual acuity can range from no light perception to near-normal vision.
307:
Although many perinatal and prenatal risk factors for ONH have been suggested, the predominant, enduring, most frequent risk factors are young maternal age and primiparity (the affected child being the first child born to the mother). Increased frequency of delivery by caesarean section and
252:
More than 70% of children with ONH experience developmental delay, ranging from isolated focal defects to delay in all areas of development (global delay). Motor delay is most common (75%) and communication delay is least common (44%). Predictors of significantly delayed development include
218:(an excess of prolactin) often occurs in conjunction with ONH and indicates either dysfunction of the hypothalamus or a disconnect between the hypothalamus and pituitary gland. Hyperprolactinemia often correlates with development of obesity in children with ONH.
368:. Although most patients with only optic nerve involvement lead normally productive lives, those with accompanying endocrine dysfunction or other midline cerebral abnormalities are more at risk for on-going intellectual and other disabilities.
195:
retardation; thus, early detection is crucial. Central hypothyroidism can be diagnosed by a low or normal thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) in the presence of a low level of free T4. Free T-4 should be checked annually for at least four years.
1003:
988:
973:
629:
Ahmad, Tariq; Garcia-Filion, Pamela; Borchert, Mark; Kaufman, Francine; Burkett, Linda; Geffner, Mitchell (1 January 2006). "Endocrinological and
Auxological Abnormalities in Young Children with Optic Nerve Hypoplasia: A Prospective Study".
316:
ONH is diagnosed by ophthalmoscopic examination. Patients with ONH exhibit an optic nerve that appears smaller than normal and different in appearance from small optic nerves caused by other eye conditions such as optic (nerve) atrophy.
186:
Absence of GH may often be indicated by short stature, although this is not always the case. Other indicators of GH deficiency may include hypoglycemic events (including seizures), prolonged jaundice, micropenis in boys, and delayed
298:
ONH impacts all ethnic groups, although in the United States, occurrence is lower in persons of Asian descent. To date, there have been few reports of ONH occurrence in Asian countries, although it is uncertain why this is so.
294:
are currently known to cause ONH. Many transcription factors for eye development are also involved in the morphogenesis of forebrain, which may explain why ONH is commonly a part of a syndrome involving brain malformations.
918:
Patel, Leena; McNally, Richard J. Q.; Harrison, Elizabeth; Lloyd, I. Christopher; Clayton, Peter E. (1 January 2006). "Geographical
Distribution of Optic Nerve Hypoplasia and Septo-optic Dysplasia in Northwest England".
110:
The majority of children affected experience improvement in vision during the first few years of life, though the reason for this occurrence is unknown. There have been no reported cases of decline in vision due to ONH.
235:
is also produced in the posterior pituitary gland. Though best known for its role in childbirth and lactation, oxytocin has also been found to have a role in human bonding, increase in trust, and decrease in fear.
363:
The visual prognosis in optic nerve hypoplasia is quite variable. Occasionally, optic nerve hypoplasia may be compatible with near-normal vision; in other cases, one or both eyes may be functionally, or legally
253:
hypoplasia or agenesis of the corpus callosum and hypothyroidism. The absence of the septum pellucidum does not predict developmental delay. Delays may occur in unilateral (39%) as well as bilateral (78%) cases.
763:
Alvarez, Emilio; Wakakura, Masato; Khan, Zia; Dutton, Gordon N (May 1988). "The Disc-Macula
Distance to Disc Diameter Ratio: A New Test for Confirming Optic Nerve Hypoplasia in Young Children".
201:
is made in times of stress. Approximately one-quarter of patients with ONH have adrenal insufficiency, meaning they do not produce enough cortisol on a daily basis or in stressful situations.
404:
as the single leading cause of infant blindness in Sweden, with 6.3 in every 100,000 births diagnosed with ONH. The most recent prevalence report out of
England in 2006 is 10.9 per 100,000.
355:
with strabismus develop equal visual acuity in both eyes, most often after the age of three. Generally surgery results in improved appearance only and not in improved visual function.
396:. Because of this, all children with ONH are at risk for developmental delays and hormonal deficiencies, regardless of severity of ONH, or whether abnormalities are visible by MRI.
323:
has proven to be a clinically useful measurement to help diagnose optic nerve hypoplasia. Where "DM" represents the distance from Disk to Macula, and "DD" represents Disc
Diameter.
191:. Testing for GH may involve blood tests (IGF-1 and IGFBP-3), growth hormone stimulation test, or bone age x-ray of the hand or wrist (or body for children younger than 2 years).
2662:
158:, a term that refers to agenesis of the septum pellucidum. It is now clear that the absence of the septum pellucidum does not correlate with the associated symptoms of ONH.
244:, resulting in abnormal sleep-wake cycles, is noted in one-third of children with ONH. This disturbance could result in behavioral problems and disruption of family life.
2102:
326:
The mean disc diameter (DD) is (Vertical diameter of Disc+Horizontal diameter of Disc) divided by 2. The distance between the center of the disc and the macula is DM.
308:
fetal/neonatal complications, preterm labor, gestational vaginal bleeding, low maternal weight gain, and weight loss during pregnancy are also associated with ONH.
151:. Hypoplasia of the corpus callosum, often in conjunction with other major malformations, is significantly associated with poor and delayed developmental outcome.
1499:
2171:
2097:
119:
Estimates of cerebral malformations vary from 39% to 90% of children with ONH. Abnormalities evident via neuroradiography can include agenesis (absence) or
1111:
376:
Optic nerve hypoplasia (ONH) is a congenital condition in which the optic nerve is underdeveloped (small). Many times, de
Morsier’s Syndrome or
2119:
2114:
1939:
1979:
605:
Ratner
Kaufman, Francine, Neal Kaufman, Mark Borchert, and Talia Inlender. Optic Nerve Hypoplasia: A Guide for Parents. Los Angeles. Print.
2092:
1026:
2087:
1974:
1541:
1702:
1842:
842:
Ryabets-Lienhard, Anna; Stewart, Carly; Borchert, Mark; Geffner, Mitchell E. (August 2016). "The Optic Nerve
Hypoplasia Spectrum".
332:
When the ratio of DM to DD is greater than 3, ONH is suspected, and when it is greater than 4, Optic Nerve
Hypoplasia is definite.
1807:
2382:
1900:
1812:
381:
1802:
1531:
1895:
1786:
1652:
2293:
1984:
1969:
340:
There is no cure for ONH; however, many therapeutic interventions exist for the care of its symptoms. These may include
1181:
1139:
1104:
2109:
1905:
1879:
1837:
1832:
1697:
1570:
1558:
1514:
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291:
2176:
1575:
351:
Sleep dysfunction can be ameliorated using melatonin in the evening in order to adjust a child's circadian clock.
275:
2288:
2082:
1929:
1774:
1521:
168:
1827:
1798:
1422:
1387:
1037:
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41:
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1729:
1509:
1289:
1007:
283:
509:
Borchert, Mark; Garcia-Filion, Pamela (September 2008). "The syndrome of optic nerve hypoplasia".
2652:
2199:
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1734:
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1482:
1467:
1327:
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667:"Optic nerve hypoplasia: Risk factors and epidemiology: Acta Ophthalmologica Scandinavica 2002"
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128:
30:
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1959:
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75:
35:
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1690:
1647:
1565:
1377:
1309:
1229:
1214:
997:
389:
341:
124:
895:
878:
107:(inability to align both eyes simultaneously), manifested during the first year of life.
2627:
2479:
2424:
2267:
2035:
1964:
1746:
1716:
1662:
1616:
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1360:
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172:
132:
683:
666:
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2402:
2342:
2059:
2007:
1954:
1884:
1793:
1680:
1657:
1585:
1494:
1299:
1204:
1042:
716:"Reappraisal of the ratio of disc to macula/disc diameter in optic nerve hypoplasia"
700:
587:
538:
2412:
2240:
1621:
1536:
1444:
1322:
1317:
1262:
1257:
393:
287:
279:
209:
204:
Imbalances in sex hormone may result in a delay in sexual development (puberty) or
140:
103:(involuntary movement of the eyes), which tends to develop at 1 to 3 months and/or
776:
457:
440:
439:
Chen, Chun-An; Yin, Jiani; Lewis, Richard Alan; Schaaf, Christian P (July 2017).
99:
Children diagnosed with ONH generally present with vision problems which include
2611:
2562:
2505:
2500:
2457:
2435:
2346:
2337:
2257:
2235:
2047:
2019:
1817:
1685:
1526:
1347:
1224:
1176:
1123:
932:
877:
Blohmé, Jonas; Bengtsson-Stigmar, Elisabeth; Tornqvist, Kristina (August 2000).
643:
63:
1053:
855:
2532:
2495:
2419:
2407:
2351:
2312:
2218:
2154:
2133:
2023:
1382:
1247:
982:
522:
144:
120:
104:
67:
59:
2583:
2557:
2431:
2377:
2365:
2250:
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2226:
1764:
1462:
1439:
1252:
1199:
1194:
1171:
1089:
992:
365:
188:
100:
66:(s). This condition is the most common congenital optic nerve anomaly. The
940:
904:
863:
828:
819:
802:
692:
651:
579:
571:
530:
466:
784:
749:
2622:
2387:
1921:
1724:
1355:
1072:
731:
232:
198:
965:
879:"Visually impaired Swedish children. Longitudinal comparisons 1980-1999"
2449:
2392:
1934:
1741:
1672:
1642:
1632:
1239:
2552:
1454:
1431:
1151:
977:
803:"Congenital disorders of the optic nerve: excavations and hypoplasia"
208:. Sex hormones may be tested from birth to 6 months of age (during
2524:
665:
Tornqvist, Kristina; Ericsson, Anders; Källén, Bengt (June 2002).
400:
causes of childhood blindness had declined. In 1997, ONH overtook
240:
experience aversion to specific textures of food. Disturbance of
1604:
1166:
1031:
71:
2609:
2005:
1408:
1137:
1093:
552:
550:
548:
58:) is a medical condition arising from the underdevelopment (
70:
appears abnormally small, because not all the optic nerve
714:
Zeki, S M; Dudgeon, J; Dutton, G N (1 September 1991).
504:
502:
500:
498:
496:
494:
492:
490:
488:
486:
484:
482:
480:
478:
476:
74:
have developed properly. It is often associated with
955:
2576:
2523:
2488:
2448:
2360:
2311:
2276:
2217:
2185:
2153:
2132:
2073:
2018:
1914:
1755:
1715:
1671:
1612:
1603:
1453:
1430:
1421:
1346:
1308:
1275:
1238:
1159:
1150:
1063:
959:
765:
Journal of Pediatric Ophthalmology & Strabismus
624:
622:
620:
29:
24:
2098:arteritic anterior (AAION or arteritic AION)
388:, maldevelopment of the anterior and posterior
1105:
8:
2663:Disorders of optic nerve and visual pathways
2172:Chronic progressive external ophthalmoplegia
601:
599:
597:
1500:Thygeson's superficial punctate keratopathy
127:, absence or incomplete development of the
2606:
2370:
2159:
2150:
2028:
2015:
2002:
1609:
1427:
1418:
1405:
1156:
1147:
1134:
1112:
1098:
1090:
956:
511:Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports
441:"Genetic causes of optic nerve hypoplasia"
40:
21:
894:
818:
796:
794:
739:
682:
456:
420:Sadun, Alfredo A., and Michelle Y. Wang.
131:, malformations of the pituitary gland,
614:Borchert, Mark and Pamela Garcia-Filion
413:
221:The posterior pituitary gland produces
434:
432:
430:
7:
1980:Familial exudative vitreoretinopathy
896:10.1034/j.1600-0420.2000.078004416.x
2103:non-arteritic anterior (NAION)
1940:Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy
16:Underdevelopment of the optic nerve
1975:Persistent tunica vasculosa lentis
14:
1703:Polypoidal choroidal vasculopathy
883:Acta Ophthalmologica Scandinavica
684:10.1034/j.1600-0420.2002.800313.x
671:Acta Ophthalmologica Scandinavica
1808:Central retinal artery occlusion
720:British Journal of Ophthalmology
303:Gestational and exposure history
1813:Branch retinal artery occlusion
1542:Terrien's marginal degeneration
382:agenesis of the corpus callosum
266:Mutations of genes involved in
167:pituitary endocrinopathies are
115:Neuroradiographic abnormalities
1843:Bietti's crystalline dystrophy
1803:Central retinal vein occlusion
1532:Pellucid marginal degeneration
422:Handbook of Clinical Neurology
169:growth hormone (GH) deficiency
1:
1896:Vitelliform macular dystrophy
1787:Posterior vitreous detachment
1653:Persistent pupillary membrane
801:Dutton, G N (November 2004).
777:10.3928/0191-3913-19880501-11
458:10.1136/jmedgenet-2017-104626
292:MAP kinase signalling pathway
2383:Leber's congenital amaurosis
2294:Internuclear ophthalmoplegia
1985:Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease
1970:Persistent fetal vasculature
1901:Leber's congenital amaurosis
276:α-dystroglycan glycosylation
154:ONH is often referred to as
1182:Meibomian gland dysfunction
933:10.1016/j.jpeds.2005.07.031
644:10.1016/j.jpeds.2005.08.050
445:Journal of Medical Genetics
2679:
1906:Birdshot chorioretinopathy
1880:Central serous retinopathy
1698:Focal choroidal excavation
1571:Corneal neovascularization
1388:Subconjunctival hemorrhage
856:10.1016/j.yapd.2016.04.009
402:retinopathy of prematurity
2618:
2605:
2373:
2289:Convergence insufficiency
2162:
2031:
2014:
2001:
1930:Primary juvenile glaucoma
1775:Cytomegalovirus retinitis
1417:
1404:
1190:
1146:
1133:
1124:Diseases of the human eye
921:The Journal of Pediatrics
632:The Journal of Pediatrics
523:10.1007/s11910-008-0061-7
1799:Ocular ischemic syndrome
268:transcription regulation
162:Hypothalamic dysfunction
2299:One and a half syndrome
2053:Foster Kennedy syndrome
392:, and anomalies of the
2538:Argyll Robertson pupil
1338:Periorbital cellulitis
844:Advances in Pediatrics
820:10.1038/sj.eye.6701545
572:10.1542/peds.2007-1825
344:for hypopituitarism,
242:circadian sleep rhythm
52:Optic nerve hypoplasia
25:Optic nerve hypoplasia
2511:Scintillating scotoma
2177:Kearns–Sayre syndrome
2120:Toxic and nutritional
2093:posterior (PION)
1576:Kayser–Fleischer ring
378:septo-optic dysplasia
272:chromatin remodelling
223:anti-diuretic hormone
177:adrenal insufficiency
156:septo-optic dysplasia
2284:Conjugate gaze palsy
2155:Paralytic strabismus
2088:anterior (AION)
1870:Retinitis pigmentosa
1865:Macular degeneration
1638:Intermediate uveitis
1554:Keratoconjunctivitis
732:10.1136/bjo.75.9.538
227:desmopressin acetate
2589:Childhood blindness
2568:Parinaud's syndrome
2138:Extraocular muscles
1926:Ocular hypertension
1890:Epiretinal membrane
1875:Retinal haemorrhage
1730:Congenital cataract
284:scaffolding protein
2115:Leber's hereditary
1782:Retinal detachment
1735:Childhood cataract
1547:Post-LASIK ectasia
1328:Orbital cellulitis
1277:Lacrimal apparatus
1064:External resources
424:. p. 37. In press.
216:Hyperprolactinemia
206:precocious puberty
181:diabetes insipidus
2640:
2639:
2636:
2635:
2601:
2600:
2597:
2596:
2543:Marcus Gunn pupil
2519:
2518:
2440:Visual impairment
2307:
2306:
2213:
2212:
2200:Fourth-nerve (IV)
2128:
2127:
2065:Optic disc drusen
1997:
1996:
1993:
1992:
1711:
1710:
1599:
1598:
1505:Corneal dystrophy
1400:
1399:
1396:
1395:
1271:
1270:
1087:
1086:
813:(11): 1038–1048.
386:septum pellucidum
384:, absence of the
149:holoprosencephaly
129:septum pellucidum
49:
48:
19:Medical condition
2670:
2607:
2371:
2362:Vision disorders
2321:Refractive error
2263:Brown's syndrome
2219:Other strabismus
2205:Sixth-nerve (VI)
2195:Oculomotor (III)
2167:Ophthalmoparesis
2160:
2151:
2142:Binocular vision
2075:Optic neuropathy
2041:optic papillitis
2029:
2016:
2003:
1892:(Macular pucker)
1610:
1591:Band keratopathy
1428:
1419:
1406:
1333:Orbital lymphoma
1220:Blepharophimosis
1210:Blepharochalasis
1157:
1148:
1135:
1114:
1107:
1100:
1091:
957:
945:
944:
915:
909:
908:
898:
874:
868:
867:
839:
833:
832:
822:
798:
789:
788:
760:
754:
753:
743:
711:
705:
704:
686:
662:
656:
655:
626:
615:
612:
606:
603:
592:
591:
566:(3): e653–e659.
554:
543:
542:
506:
471:
470:
460:
436:
425:
418:
76:endocrinopathies
45:
44:
36:Medical genetics
22:
2678:
2677:
2673:
2672:
2671:
2669:
2668:
2667:
2643:
2642:
2641:
2632:
2614:
2593:
2572:
2515:
2484:
2444:
2398:Color blindness
2364:
2356:
2303:
2277:Other binocular
2272:
2209:
2181:
2144:
2140:
2136:
2124:
2069:
2022:
2010:
1989:
1945:Ocular hypotony
1910:
1770:Chorioretinitis
1751:
1707:
1691:Chorioretinitis
1667:
1648:Rubeosis iridis
1626:
1595:
1566:Corneal opacity
1522:Corneal ectasia
1449:
1413:
1392:
1378:Pseudopterygium
1342:
1304:
1267:
1234:
1230:Ankyloblepharon
1186:
1142:
1129:
1128:
1118:
1088:
1083:
1082:
1059:
1058:
968:
954:
949:
948:
917:
916:
912:
876:
875:
871:
841:
840:
836:
800:
799:
792:
762:
761:
757:
713:
712:
708:
664:
663:
659:
628:
627:
618:
613:
609:
604:
595:
556:
555:
546:
508:
507:
474:
438:
437:
428:
419:
415:
410:
390:pituitary gland
374:
361:
342:hormone therapy
338:
330:Interpretation:
314:
305:
264:
259:
250:
164:
125:corpus callosum
117:
93:
84:
39:
20:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2676:
2674:
2666:
2665:
2660:
2655:
2645:
2644:
2638:
2637:
2634:
2633:
2631:
2630:
2628:Onchocerciasis
2625:
2619:
2616:
2615:
2610:
2603:
2602:
2599:
2598:
2595:
2594:
2592:
2591:
2586:
2580:
2578:
2574:
2573:
2571:
2570:
2565:
2560:
2555:
2550:
2545:
2540:
2535:
2529:
2527:
2521:
2520:
2517:
2516:
2514:
2513:
2508:
2503:
2498:
2492:
2490:
2486:
2485:
2483:
2482:
2480:Quadrantanopia
2477:
2476:
2475:
2470:
2465:
2454:
2452:
2446:
2445:
2443:
2442:
2429:
2428:
2427:
2425:Oguchi disease
2417:
2416:
2415:
2410:
2405:
2395:
2390:
2385:
2380:
2374:
2368:
2358:
2357:
2355:
2354:
2349:
2340:
2335:
2334:
2333:
2328:
2317:
2315:
2309:
2308:
2305:
2304:
2302:
2301:
2296:
2291:
2286:
2280:
2278:
2274:
2273:
2271:
2270:
2268:Duane syndrome
2265:
2260:
2255:
2254:
2253:
2248:
2238:
2233:
2223:
2221:
2215:
2214:
2211:
2210:
2208:
2207:
2202:
2197:
2191:
2189:
2183:
2182:
2180:
2179:
2174:
2169:
2163:
2157:
2148:
2130:
2129:
2126:
2125:
2123:
2122:
2117:
2112:
2107:
2106:
2105:
2100:
2095:
2090:
2079:
2077:
2071:
2070:
2068:
2067:
2062:
2057:
2056:
2055:
2045:
2044:
2043:
2036:Optic neuritis
2032:
2026:
2012:
2011:
2006:
1999:
1998:
1995:
1994:
1991:
1990:
1988:
1987:
1982:
1977:
1972:
1967:
1965:Phthisis bulbi
1962:
1957:
1952:
1947:
1942:
1937:
1932:
1918:
1916:
1912:
1911:
1909:
1908:
1903:
1898:
1893:
1887:
1882:
1877:
1872:
1867:
1862:
1861:
1860:
1855:
1850:
1848:Coats' disease
1845:
1840:
1838:of prematurity
1835:
1830:
1825:
1815:
1810:
1805:
1796:
1791:
1790:
1789:
1779:
1778:
1777:
1772:
1761:
1759:
1753:
1752:
1750:
1749:
1747:Ectopia lentis
1744:
1739:
1738:
1737:
1732:
1721:
1719:
1713:
1712:
1709:
1708:
1706:
1705:
1700:
1695:
1694:
1693:
1683:
1677:
1675:
1669:
1668:
1666:
1665:
1660:
1655:
1650:
1645:
1640:
1635:
1629:
1627:
1625:
1624:
1619:
1613:
1607:
1605:Vascular tunic
1601:
1600:
1597:
1596:
1594:
1593:
1588:
1583:
1578:
1573:
1568:
1563:
1562:
1561:
1551:
1550:
1549:
1544:
1539:
1534:
1529:
1519:
1518:
1517:
1512:
1502:
1497:
1492:
1491:
1490:
1488:Photokeratitis
1485:
1480:
1475:
1470:
1459:
1457:
1451:
1450:
1448:
1447:
1442:
1436:
1434:
1425:
1415:
1414:
1409:
1402:
1401:
1398:
1397:
1394:
1393:
1391:
1390:
1385:
1380:
1375:
1370:
1369:
1368:
1361:Conjunctivitis
1358:
1352:
1350:
1344:
1343:
1341:
1340:
1335:
1330:
1325:
1320:
1314:
1312:
1306:
1305:
1303:
1302:
1297:
1295:Dacryocystitis
1292:
1287:
1285:Dacryoadenitis
1281:
1279:
1273:
1272:
1269:
1268:
1266:
1265:
1260:
1255:
1250:
1244:
1242:
1236:
1235:
1233:
1232:
1227:
1222:
1217:
1212:
1207:
1202:
1197:
1191:
1188:
1187:
1185:
1184:
1179:
1174:
1169:
1163:
1161:
1154:
1144:
1143:
1138:
1131:
1130:
1127:
1126:
1120:
1119:
1117:
1116:
1109:
1102:
1094:
1085:
1084:
1081:
1080:
1068:
1067:
1065:
1061:
1060:
1057:
1056:
1045:
1034:
1023:
1000:
985:
969:
964:
963:
961:
960:Classification
953:
952:External links
950:
947:
946:
910:
889:(4): 416–420.
869:
850:(1): 127–146.
834:
790:
771:(3): 151–154.
755:
726:(9): 538–541.
706:
677:(3): 300–304.
657:
616:
607:
593:
544:
517:(5): 395–403.
472:
451:(7): 441–449.
426:
412:
411:
409:
406:
373:
370:
360:
357:
337:
334:
313:
310:
304:
301:
263:
260:
258:
255:
249:
246:
173:hypothyroidism
163:
160:
133:schizencephaly
116:
113:
92:
89:
83:
80:
47:
46:
33:
27:
26:
18:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2675:
2664:
2661:
2659:
2656:
2654:
2651:
2650:
2648:
2629:
2626:
2624:
2621:
2620:
2617:
2613:
2608:
2604:
2590:
2587:
2585:
2582:
2581:
2579:
2575:
2569:
2566:
2564:
2561:
2559:
2556:
2554:
2551:
2549:
2548:Adie syndrome
2546:
2544:
2541:
2539:
2536:
2534:
2531:
2530:
2528:
2526:
2522:
2512:
2509:
2507:
2504:
2502:
2499:
2497:
2494:
2493:
2491:
2487:
2481:
2478:
2474:
2471:
2469:
2466:
2464:
2461:
2460:
2459:
2456:
2455:
2453:
2451:
2447:
2441:
2437:
2433:
2430:
2426:
2423:
2422:
2421:
2418:
2414:
2411:
2409:
2406:
2404:
2403:Achromatopsia
2401:
2400:
2399:
2396:
2394:
2391:
2389:
2386:
2384:
2381:
2379:
2376:
2375:
2372:
2369:
2367:
2363:
2359:
2353:
2350:
2348:
2344:
2343:Anisometropia
2341:
2339:
2336:
2332:
2329:
2327:
2324:
2323:
2322:
2319:
2318:
2316:
2314:
2310:
2300:
2297:
2295:
2292:
2290:
2287:
2285:
2282:
2281:
2279:
2275:
2269:
2266:
2264:
2261:
2259:
2256:
2252:
2249:
2247:
2244:
2243:
2242:
2239:
2237:
2234:
2232:
2228:
2225:
2224:
2222:
2220:
2216:
2206:
2203:
2201:
2198:
2196:
2193:
2192:
2190:
2188:
2184:
2178:
2175:
2173:
2170:
2168:
2165:
2164:
2161:
2158:
2156:
2152:
2149:
2147:
2146:Accommodation
2143:
2139:
2135:
2131:
2121:
2118:
2116:
2113:
2111:
2108:
2104:
2101:
2099:
2096:
2094:
2091:
2089:
2086:
2085:
2084:
2081:
2080:
2078:
2076:
2072:
2066:
2063:
2061:
2060:Optic atrophy
2058:
2054:
2051:
2050:
2049:
2046:
2042:
2039:
2038:
2037:
2034:
2033:
2030:
2027:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2004:
2000:
1986:
1983:
1981:
1978:
1976:
1973:
1971:
1968:
1966:
1963:
1961:
1960:Keratomycosis
1958:
1956:
1955:Globe rupture
1953:
1951:
1948:
1946:
1943:
1941:
1938:
1936:
1933:
1931:
1927:
1923:
1920:
1919:
1917:
1913:
1907:
1904:
1902:
1899:
1897:
1894:
1891:
1888:
1886:
1885:Macular edema
1883:
1881:
1878:
1876:
1873:
1871:
1868:
1866:
1863:
1859:
1856:
1854:
1851:
1849:
1846:
1844:
1841:
1839:
1836:
1834:
1831:
1829:
1826:
1824:
1821:
1820:
1819:
1816:
1814:
1811:
1809:
1806:
1804:
1800:
1797:
1795:
1794:Retinoschisis
1792:
1788:
1785:
1784:
1783:
1780:
1776:
1773:
1771:
1768:
1767:
1766:
1763:
1762:
1760:
1758:
1754:
1748:
1745:
1743:
1740:
1736:
1733:
1731:
1728:
1727:
1726:
1723:
1722:
1720:
1718:
1714:
1704:
1701:
1699:
1696:
1692:
1689:
1688:
1687:
1684:
1682:
1681:Choroideremia
1679:
1678:
1676:
1674:
1670:
1664:
1661:
1659:
1658:Iridodialysis
1656:
1654:
1651:
1649:
1646:
1644:
1641:
1639:
1636:
1634:
1631:
1630:
1628:
1623:
1620:
1618:
1615:
1614:
1611:
1608:
1606:
1602:
1592:
1589:
1587:
1586:Arcus senilis
1584:
1582:
1581:Haab's striae
1579:
1577:
1574:
1572:
1569:
1567:
1564:
1560:
1557:
1556:
1555:
1552:
1548:
1545:
1543:
1540:
1538:
1535:
1533:
1530:
1528:
1525:
1524:
1523:
1520:
1516:
1513:
1511:
1508:
1507:
1506:
1503:
1501:
1498:
1496:
1495:Corneal ulcer
1493:
1489:
1486:
1484:
1481:
1479:
1476:
1474:
1473:acanthamoebic
1471:
1469:
1466:
1465:
1464:
1461:
1460:
1458:
1456:
1452:
1446:
1443:
1441:
1438:
1437:
1435:
1433:
1429:
1426:
1424:
1423:Fibrous tunic
1420:
1416:
1412:
1407:
1403:
1389:
1386:
1384:
1381:
1379:
1376:
1374:
1371:
1367:
1364:
1363:
1362:
1359:
1357:
1354:
1353:
1351:
1349:
1345:
1339:
1336:
1334:
1331:
1329:
1326:
1324:
1321:
1319:
1316:
1315:
1313:
1311:
1307:
1301:
1300:Xerophthalmia
1298:
1296:
1293:
1291:
1288:
1286:
1283:
1282:
1280:
1278:
1274:
1264:
1261:
1259:
1256:
1254:
1251:
1249:
1246:
1245:
1243:
1241:
1237:
1231:
1228:
1226:
1223:
1221:
1218:
1216:
1213:
1211:
1208:
1206:
1205:Lagophthalmos
1203:
1201:
1198:
1196:
1193:
1192:
1189:
1183:
1180:
1178:
1175:
1173:
1170:
1168:
1165:
1164:
1162:
1158:
1155:
1153:
1149:
1145:
1141:
1136:
1132:
1125:
1122:
1121:
1115:
1110:
1108:
1103:
1101:
1096:
1095:
1092:
1079:
1075:
1074:
1070:
1069:
1066:
1062:
1055:
1051:
1050:
1046:
1044:
1040:
1039:
1035:
1033:
1029:
1028:
1024:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1009:
1005:
1001:
999:
995:
994:
990:
986:
984:
980:
979:
975:
971:
970:
967:
962:
958:
951:
942:
938:
934:
930:
926:
922:
914:
911:
906:
902:
897:
892:
888:
884:
880:
873:
870:
865:
861:
857:
853:
849:
845:
838:
835:
830:
826:
821:
816:
812:
808:
804:
797:
795:
791:
786:
782:
778:
774:
770:
766:
759:
756:
751:
747:
742:
737:
733:
729:
725:
721:
717:
710:
707:
702:
698:
694:
690:
685:
680:
676:
672:
668:
661:
658:
653:
649:
645:
641:
637:
633:
625:
623:
621:
617:
611:
608:
602:
600:
598:
594:
589:
585:
581:
577:
573:
569:
565:
561:
553:
551:
549:
545:
540:
536:
532:
528:
524:
520:
516:
512:
505:
503:
501:
499:
497:
495:
493:
491:
489:
487:
485:
483:
481:
479:
477:
473:
468:
464:
459:
454:
450:
446:
442:
435:
433:
431:
427:
423:
417:
414:
407:
405:
403:
397:
395:
391:
387:
383:
379:
371:
369:
367:
358:
356:
352:
349:
347:
343:
335:
333:
331:
327:
324:
322:
318:
311:
309:
302:
300:
296:
293:
289:
285:
281:
277:
273:
269:
262:Genetic risks
261:
256:
254:
247:
245:
243:
237:
234:
230:
228:
224:
219:
217:
213:
211:
207:
202:
200:
196:
192:
190:
184:
182:
178:
174:
170:
161:
159:
157:
152:
150:
146:
142:
138:
134:
130:
126:
122:
114:
112:
108:
106:
102:
97:
90:
88:
81:
79:
77:
73:
69:
65:
61:
57:
53:
43:
37:
34:
32:
28:
23:
2658:Eye diseases
2438: /
2434: /
2413:Monochromacy
2345: /
2241:Heterophoria
2229: /
1928: /
1924: /
1828:hypertensive
1801: /
1622:Ciliary body
1537:Keratoglobus
1445:Episcleritis
1323:Enophthalmos
1318:Exophthalmos
1263:Trichomegaly
1258:Distichiasis
1160:Inflammation
1071:
1047:
1036:
1025:
1002:
987:
972:
927:(1): 85–88.
924:
920:
913:
886:
882:
872:
847:
843:
837:
810:
806:
768:
764:
758:
723:
719:
709:
674:
670:
660:
638:(1): 78–84.
635:
631:
610:
563:
559:
514:
510:
448:
444:
421:
416:
398:
394:hypothalamus
375:
372:Epidemiology
362:
353:
350:
346:occupational
339:
329:
328:
325:
320:
319:
315:
306:
297:
288:RNA splicing
280:cytoskeleton
265:
251:
238:
231:
220:
214:
210:mini-puberty
203:
197:
193:
185:
165:
153:
143:hypoplasia,
141:white matter
118:
109:
98:
94:
85:
55:
51:
50:
2563:Cycloplegia
2506:Photophobia
2501:Hemeralopia
2458:Hemianopsia
2436:Vision loss
2347:Aniseikonia
2338:Astigmatism
2258:Cyclotropia
2236:Hypertropia
2048:Papilledema
2020:Optic nerve
1853:Sickle cell
1833:Purtscher's
1818:Retinopathy
1686:Choroiditis
1527:Keratoconus
1348:Conjunctiva
1225:Xanthelasma
1177:Blepharitis
321:DM:DD ratio
248:Development
179:(27%), and
137:heterotopia
135:, cortical
64:optic nerve
2647:Categories
2612:Infections
2533:Anisocoria
2496:Asthenopia
2489:subjective
2473:homonymous
2468:bitemporal
2420:Nyctalopia
2408:Dichromacy
2352:Presbyopia
2313:Refraction
2134:Strabismus
2024:Optic disc
1383:Pinguecula
1248:Trichiasis
1049:DiseasesDB
1043:D000080344
560:Pediatrics
408:References
290:, and the
145:pachygyria
121:hypoplasia
105:strabismus
68:optic disc
60:hypoplasia
2653:Blindness
2584:Nystagmus
2558:Mydriasis
2432:Blindness
2378:Amblyopia
2366:Blindness
2326:Hyperopia
2251:Exophoria
2246:Esophoria
2231:Exotropia
2227:Esotropia
1765:Retinitis
1463:Keratitis
1440:Scleritis
1373:Pterygium
1253:Madarosis
1200:Ectropion
1195:Entropion
1172:Chalazion
359:Prognosis
336:Treatment
312:Diagnosis
229:(DDAVP).
189:dentition
101:nystagmus
62:) of the
31:Specialty
2623:Trachoma
2388:Diplopia
2083:Ischemic
2008:Pathways
1922:Glaucoma
1823:diabetic
1725:Cataract
1663:Synechia
1515:Meesmann
1483:Exposure
1468:herpetic
1366:allergic
1356:Chemosis
1290:Epiphora
1073:Orphanet
941:16423603
905:10990043
864:27426898
829:15534588
701:29965101
693:12059870
652:16423602
588:39033017
580:18250116
539:15580023
531:18713575
467:28501829
233:Oxytocin
199:Cortisol
82:Symptoms
2463:binasal
2450:Anopsia
2393:Scotoma
2187:palsies
1950:Red eye
1935:Floater
1742:Aphakia
1673:Choroid
1643:Hyphema
1633:Uveitis
1240:Eyelash
785:3397860
750:1911656
741:1042469
175:(43%),
171:(70%),
123:of the
2553:Miosis
2331:Myopia
2110:Kjer's
1858:photic
1757:Retina
1510:Fuchs'
1478:fungal
1455:Cornea
1432:Sclera
1215:Ptosis
1152:Eyelid
1140:Adnexa
1078:137902
1032:165550
1021:743.58
1017:743.57
1013:377.43
998:H47.03
939:
903:
862:
827:
783:
748:
738:
699:
691:
650:
586:
578:
537:
529:
465:
183:(5%).
147:, and
91:Vision
38:
2577:Other
2525:Pupil
1915:Other
1559:sicca
1411:Globe
1310:Orbit
1054:31311
993:10-CM
983:Q14.2
697:S2CID
584:S2CID
535:S2CID
366:blind
257:Cause
72:axons
1717:Lens
1617:Iris
1167:Stye
1038:MeSH
1027:OMIM
1008:9-CM
937:PMID
901:PMID
860:PMID
825:PMID
781:PMID
746:PMID
689:PMID
648:PMID
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