Optimates and populares - Knowledge (XXG)

1195: 1444: 1245:, or strategy of putting political questions before the people writ large, was pursued when politicians were unable to achieve their goals through the normal process in the senate. This was in part structural: the "dyadic nature of meant that when a senator opposed his peers... there was only recourse available" to the people. This political method involved a populist style of rhetoric, and "only to a limited extent, that of policy" with even less ideological content. 1790: 53: 1390:

party affiliations, but the issue and proposer itself: "Is the proposer of this agrarian (or frumentary, etc.) law really championing our interests, as he avows, or is he rather pursuing some private benefit for himself or something else behind the scenes?" which naturally flowed into the themes of personal credibility that recur in republican public rhetoric.

1306:

A democratic interpretation of Roman politics neatly complements an ideological revival by interpreting Roman politicians to vie for popular support at an ideological, but not factional, level. This link, however, remains tenuous, as "candidates apparently never ran on specific policies or associated

1973:

and that "optimates and populares did not and could not constitute parties as we know them". Moreover, he argued there were no "large groups of politicians, bound together by ties of kinship or friendship, or by fidelity to a leader, who together consistently for any considerable time" and that "of

1959:

identified no political group. Cicero, in fact, could stretch the term to encompass not only aristocratic leaders but also Italians, , businessmen, and even freedmen. His criteria demanded only that they be honest, reasonable, and stable. It was no more than a means of expressing approbation. Romans

1659:

Sallust also fails to draw any distinction between popular sovereignty and senatorial prestige as sources of legitimacy or authority. He also gives the "dissenting nobles and their factions" no labels, "for the simple reason that they lacked the common characteristics which would have enabled such a

1343:

when the policies they advanced were only weakly connected to the welfare of the Roman voter. Robb argues, moreover, that the premise of the label, ie that a certain person or policy benefits the people write large, is of little use: "the principle of acting in the popular interest was a central one

1150:

the category becomes devoid of any political content, since the majority would always be "optimates" whatever policy they happened to agree on. In other words, if we follow Meier's approach to its logical conclusion, the two concepts become virtually meaningless, as illustrated by the famous vote in

2030:

that although both factions came from the same social class, there is "no reason to deny the divergence of ideology highlighted by Cicero" with themes and leaders stretching back in Cicero's time for hundreds of years. T. P. Wiseman similarly lamented an "ideological vacuum" in 2009, promoting the

1960:

would have had even greater difficulty in comprehending the phrase "senatorial party"... The phrase originates in an older scholarship which misapplied analogies and reduced Roman politics to a contest between the "senatorial party" and the "popular party". Such labels obscure rather than enlighten.

1906:

Meier noted in 1965 that "'popular' politics was very difficult both to understand and describe that the people itself had no political initiative but was 'directed' by the aristocratic magistrates it elected 'popular' politics was... the province of politicians not the people". Moreover, "very few

1425:

Both putative groups agreed on core values such as Roman liberty and the fundamental sovereignty of the Roman people; even those who were supporting the senate at some time or another would not be able to wholly discount the traditional sovereignty attributed to the people. Furthermore, much of the

1389:

was predicated on an 'optimate' policy based on a different arrangement of political ends and means from those of the 'popular' advocates of a bill... there was, it seems, virtually no place on the rostra for ideological bifurcation". For the Roman in the street, political debate was not related to

1210:

in scholarship today "do not imply a co-ordinated 'party' with a distinctive ideological character, a kind of political grouping for which there is no evidence in Rome, but simply allude to a... type of senator" who is "at least at that moment acting as the people's man". This is in contrast to the

1054:

A definition to the terms based on whether a politician supported land redistribution or grain subsidies runs into two issues. Such measures were not "the sole preserve of the so-called populares" and "were not per se incompatible with traditional senatorial policy, given the extensive colonisation

1894:

Syme's description of Roman politics viewed the late republic "as a conflict between a dominant oligarchy drawn from a set of powerful families and their opponents" which operated primarily not in ideological terms, but in terms of feuds between family-based factions. Strausberger, writing also in

1462:

is normally used outside the works of Cicero to mean "compatriot" or "fellow citizen". The word also could be used pejoratively to refer to populists or politicians pandering to the people, politicians with great personal popularity, politicians who were ostensibly acting in the peoples' interest,

1356:

and aristocracy": tribunes which were unable to secure the support of their peers in the senate would naturally go before the people; to justify this they turned to stock arguments for popular sovereignty; opponents would then bring out similar stock arguments for senatorial authority. Young Roman

1252:

legislation was tied to the fact that politicians choosing to go before the people required needed strong support therefrom to overrule the decision of the senate. This forced politicians choosing a popular strategy to include policies that directly benefited voters in the assemblies, such as debt

991:

failed to act as a united front with coherent coordination of its members, acting instead on an ad hoc basis with regular defections to and from those opposing the political alliance depending on the topic of debate, personal relations, etc. These ad hoc alliances and many different methods of

1537:

has presented historians with a deceptively simple model which at first sight seems to provide a key to unlocking the secrets of Roman politics. But the terminology Cicero uses turns out to be unique and unlike anything else found in the ancient sources... We are therefore not dealing with an

1334:

This democratic interpretation did not imply a party structure, instead focusing on motivations and policies. Scholars of the late republic have not reached a consensus as to whether Roman politicians really were divided in these terms. Nor does an ideological approach explain the traditional

1280:

politicians also may have made arguments on the proper role of the Assemblies in the Roman state (ie, a popular sovereignty) rather than just questions of material interests. Other benefits proposed attempted to empower supporters in the popular assemblies, with introduction of secret ballot,

2009:

implied and required substantial argumentation based on Roman tradition to justify the intervention of the popular assemblies. Such argumentation took the form of an ideology of popular sovereignty, self-justifying the leadership of the comitia in the state. Hölkeskamp suggested in 1997 that

1847:, with a model of Roman politics in which a candidate "could not rely on the support of an organised party but instead had to cultivate a wide range of personal relationships extending both upwards and downwards in society". In later work, he returned to a more ideological interpretation of 1964:

Brunt, writing in the 1980s–90s, took a view trending against political parties but towards an ideological dimension. He emphasised that shifting alliances and loyalties between senators precluded the existence of "durable or cohesive political factions" which could be identified as

1307:

themselves with particular ideologies during their campaign". Moreover, speculation as to the inner motivations of Roman politicians cannot be substantiated one way or the other, as the inner thoughts of the Roman elite are almost entirely lost. Even the apparent deaths suffered by "

1019:

Moving away from the 19th century view of political parties or factions vying for dominance, the scope of the modern academic debate focuses on whether the terms referred to an ideological split among aristocrats or whether the terms were meaningless or topics of debate themselves.

2091:

Mouritsen also cautions against viewing the senators as fiscal conservatives: Romans were not directly taxed and the tax system in general had no redistributive effect. Questions of tax policy revolved not on how much Romans should pay, but on how much non-Roman provincials should

1357:

politicians also turned regularly to controversial rhetoric or policies in an attempt to build their name recognition and stand out from the mass of other political candidates in their short one-year terms, with few apparent negative impacts on their longer-term career prospects.

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December 50 when the senate rejected the hard-line "optimate" opponents of Caesar and endorsed Curio's compromise option by 370 to 22. On that occasion the leading "optimates" did not have the rest of the senate behind them, effectively turning men like Cato into "populares".

1322:

politicians had an ideological bent towards criticising the senate's legitimacy, focusing on the sovereign powers of the popular assemblies, criticising the senate for neglecting common interests, and accusing the senate of administering the state corruptly. She added that

1680:

to describe that opposition. Because politicians viewed their own status as reflected by the support of the people, the latter acting passively as a judge of "aristocratic merit", all politicians claimed "to be 'acting in the interest of the people', or in other words,

967:

represented aristocratic and democratic parliamentary-style political parties, with the labels emerging around the time of the Gracchi. His interpretation "owe much to nineteenth century German liberal thought". Classicists today, however, generally agree that neither

1434:

emerged from rhetorical flourishes unsupported by policy: "no matter how emphatically the people’s interests and 'sovereignty' may have been asserted, the republic never saw any concrete attempts to change the nature of Roman society or shift the balance of power".

1622:

only ten times. None of those usages are political, referring either to countrymen or comrades. Robb speculates that " may have chosen the avoid using the word precisely because it was so imprecise and did not clearly identify a particular kind of politician".

1478:

In Cicero's letters – rather than his forensic speeches – he used it generally to refer to popularity. In Cicero's philosophical works, it was used to refer to "the majority of the people" and to describe "the style of speech most useful for public speaking".

1978:

politicians, while not being "reformers" per se, would resort to the popular assemblies if they felt intervention from the people was desirable, with an ideological distinction dividing Roman politicians as to what was in the public interest.

2014:

ideology reflected a history of senatorial intransigence characterised as "partial and unlawful" which, over time, eroded the legitimacy of the senate in the republic. Morstein-Marx's book on mass oratory in the republic – often before

4246: 1974:

large, cohesive, and durable coalitions of families there is no evidence at all for any period". Instead, he argued that the distinction was not one of permanent factional strife, but rather, of support and opposition of the senate:

1998:) with tactics such as vetoes and obstructionism. Gruen, however, noted in 1995, that this analysis provided "no clear criteria" for determining anything about the makeup, size, or organisation of the group. Identification of 933:, nor do those labels lend themselves easily to comparison with a modern left–right split. Democratic interpretations of Roman politics, however, have pushed for a re-evaluation which attributes an ideological tendency – e.g. 1331:, referring to popular sovereignty and the power of the Roman assemblies to create law. T. P. Wiseman argues, further, that these differences reflected "rival ideologies" with "mutually incompatible what the republic was". 1050:

This definition relying on a "senatorial" party or fiscal conservatives breaks down at a closer reading of the evidence. A "senatorial" party describes no meaningful split, as basically all active politicians were senators.

2038:

that the labels emerge from Cicero's writings and were "far from corresponding with definite parties or definite policies". It seems Romans did not use the terms themselves: for example, Caesar and Sallust never identified

890:, who considered that Roman politics was marked by familial and individual ambitions, not parties. Other historians have pointed to the impossibility of applying such labels to many individuals, who could pretend to be 2075:

rejects the putative categories entirely, supporting a "politics without 'parties'" in the vein of Meier, where politicians "at certain moments in their career used their powers without the backing of their peers".

2354:, p. 116. "The revival of Mommsen's ideological model, albeit without the formal 'party' structures, coincides with the rise in 'democratic' interpretations of Roman politics, which it logically complements". 881:

represented political parties, which he implicitly compared to the German liberal and conservative parties of his own day. Mommsen's paradigm, however, has been criticised by generations of historians, first by

1554:

the popular mandate he as an elected consul" and drew a distinction between himself and other politicians as to who truly acted in the interests of the Roman people. This usage did not draw a contrast between

1034:

refers to aristocrats who defended their own material and political interests and behaved akin to modern fiscal conservatives in opposing wealth redistribution and supporting small government. To that end, the

2687:, pp. 171–72. See note 27, citing Meier's observation that "the only identifying 'popularis' characteristic of Memmius' proposal was his decision to implement it in the face of senatorial opposition". 1421:

senators for failing to live up to the examples of their ancestors, acting in ways which would in the long run harm the authority of the senate, or framing their own arguments in fiscal responsibility.

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Unlike in modern times, Roman politicians stood for office on the basis of their personal reputations and qualities rather than with a party manifesto or platform. For example, the opposition to the

1870:

The political life of the Roman Republic was stamped and swayed, not by parties and programmes of a modern and parliamentary character, not by the ostensible opposition between senate and people,

1546:

in that particular speech has reified what would otherwise have remained discrete difficult-to-classify events and individuals and turned them into manifestations of a single political movement.

1510:

tactics emerged from a failure to win the support of the senate and of personal grievances with the senate are also "equally suspect". Cicero's usage in that speech draws a distinction between

1947:

in terms of a method "adopted by those who opposed the senatorial majority, a behavioural model which did not concern itself with attributing motive to political action". Gruen in the famous

1986:

were explored by Burckhardt in 1988, viewing them as portions of the nobility acting to advance laws against corruption, electoral bribery, and overly flagrant displays of wealth (ie laws on

1222:

as a label for a senator using the popular assemblies' law-making powers to overrule decisions of the senate, primarily as a political tactic to get ahead in Roman politics. In this view, a

2002:

also continues to be difficult. They have been identified as "members of an 'aristocratic party' to upholders of senatorial authority to supporters of the class interests of the wealthy".

1409:

rhetoric surrounding secret ballots and land reform were not framed in terms of innovations, but rather, in terms of preserving and restoring the birth-right liberty of the citizenry. And

1285:, promotion of non-senators onto juries before the law courts, and the general election of priests. All of these empowered non-senatorial supporters broadly, including both the wealthy 3408: 1230:

a certain method of political working, to use the populace, rather than the senate, as a means to an end; the end being, most likely, personal advantage for the politician concerned.

1039:

were viewed traditionally as emphasising the authority or influence of the senate over other organs of the states, including the popular assemblies. In other instances, the

1858:

By the 1930s, a far less ideological interpretation emerged, viewing Roman republican politics as dominated by parties, not of like-minded ideologues, but of aristocratic

603: 1451:

Beyond the modern usage of the two terms in classical studies to refer to the putative political parties, the terms also emerge from the Latin literature of the period.

4184: 3685: 1730:. Livy wrote after the late republic, during the Augustan period. However, his treatment of the late Republic does not survive except in an epitome called the 1055:

the senate had overseen in the past and the grain provision which members of the elite occasionally organised on a private basis". Moreover, identifying the

1198:

Denarius of Gaius Minucius Augurinus, 135 BC, depicting a grain distribution. Grain distribution is traditionally held to be one of the recurrent topics of

1379:". In public speeches during the republic, legislative disagreements did not emerge in party-political terms: "from the rostra... neither the opponents of 1753:

is also infrequent, the majority of usages referring to foreign aristocrats. Livy's terminology in describing the conflict of the orders referred not to

1059:

based on the policies they supported in office would place politicians traditionally identified as belonging to one "faction" into the "opposite" camp:

2181: 1855:

politicians not as democrats, but as demagogues "more concerned about gaining the authority of the people for their plans than implementing will".

2063:

writ large, as all Roman politicians would have asserted their devotion to public liberty and also have asserted their own excellence; instead of

1572: 596: 200: 2019:

or assemblies of the people – focused, however, on how both opponents and supporters of legislation attempted to portray themselves as "true"

1215:

from Mommsen, in which they are a group of aristocrats which supported democracy and the rights and material interests of the common people.

4235: 4059: 3937: 3897: 3868: 3847: 3825: 3804: 3775: 3754: 3666: 3658: 2770: 190: 1676:

While ancient accounts of the late republic describe "a political 'establishment' and the opposition" thereto they do not use words such as

4039: 852:

are found among the writings of Roman authors of the 1st century BC. The distinction between the terms is most clearly established in

813:. There is "heated academic discussion" as to whether Romans would have recognised an ideological content or political split in the label. 1405:

as a popular law court, – from the abolition of the Roman monarchy to the popular rights and liberties won by the secession of the plebs.

1383:, nor Catulus against Gabinius, nor Bibulus against Caesar, nor Cato against Trebonius even so much as suggested that their advice to the 1171:. Its generic nature is illustrated by the fact that it could be employed about foreign aristocracies... If we accept this definition of 361: 1352:

The "constitutional framework in which politicians operated automatically turned policy disagreements into rhetorical contests between

1443: 833: 183: 166: 3725: 3320: 589: 161: 1895:

1939, challenged the traditional view of political parties, arguing that "there was no 'class war'" in the various civil wars (eg

1734:. While it is generally accepted that "Livy applies late republican political language to events from earlier periods", the terms 4309: 1311:" tribunes cannot be accepted at face value: initial intentions are not final outcomes, it is unlikely that those who followed a 178: 2055:

were not common and everyday labels used to categorise certain types of late republican politician". Robb rejects usage of both

2102: 1660:

categorisation", instead presenting a cynical view in which Roman politicians cloaked themselves opportunistically in terms of

1282: 1077: 899: 171: 1603: 1518:

who are not so honourable and instead engage in failed attempts to cultivate demagoguery. Cicero's description of Clodius as

1890:

among themselves, as individuals or in groups, open in the elections and in the courts of law, or masked by secret intrigue.

1194: 1514:

who "are honourable, honest, and upright... safeguard the interests of the state and the liberty of its citizens" with

1159:

was used generically to refer to the wealthy classes in Rome as well as the aristocracies of foreign cities or states:

576: 1652:

were defined not by their ideology, but by their ancestry from past holders of curule magistracies, these are not the

906:

are for example impossible to fit into one "party". Ancient usage was also far from clear: even Cicero, while linking

3402: 374: 950: 864: 439: 141: 3392: 1818: 1470:, while infrequent in the surviving canon, is also used to refer to aristocrats or the aristocracy as a whole. 43: 2339: 1550:

Cicero, however, did not always use the word this way. During his consulship, he "stak his own claim to being

2026:

There continues to be debate as to the utility of the terms in scholarship. In 1994, Andrew Lintott wrote in

4304: 1499: 1336: 1266: 1063: 477: 1522:"concentrates on the demagogic sense of the word, rather than risking attack on the rights of the people". 1814: 1727: 1690: 1303:

actually believed in their proposals, scepticism of which "certainly seems well warranted in many cases".

809:) are labels applied to politicians, political groups, traditions, strategies, or ideologies in the late 2660: 1710: 1900: 2229:, p. 119. "escribing someone simply as 'popularis' would not have been immediately intelligible". 1498:, a speech made to defend a friend instrumental in recalling Cicero from exile by his political enemy 1138:

are that they were leaders of the senate or those acting with the support of the senate. Mouritsen in

1896: 1102: 119: 2820: 2818: 2695: 2693: 1789: 1602:, a Roman politician who served as praetor during Caesar's dictatorship, writing an account of the 1327:

advocated for the popular assemblies to take control of the republic, phrasing demands in terms of

938: 883: 254: 2034:

Other recent publications have continued to contest the topic. M. A. Robb argued in her 2010 book

4282: 4274: 4212: 4171: 4163: 4122: 4114: 4026: 4018: 3977: 3650: 2556: 2209: 512: 151: 980:

did not constitute a coherent political group or 'party' (even less so than their counterparts,

1777:

in political terms only once, in a speech put into the mouth of Barbatus on the tyranny of the

1648:, 'the few') is contrasted oligarchically against the rest of society. But because the 1016:

was used not as a political label, but instead used to praise a member of the political elite.

4266: 4231: 4204: 4155: 4106: 4055: 4051: 4010: 3969: 3933: 3914: 3893: 3874: 3864: 3843: 3821: 3800: 3781: 3771: 3750: 3731: 3721: 3662: 3326: 3316: 2766: 2548: 2201: 1830: 1656:

of ideological or political-party conflict, who are themselves "riven by internal divisions".

1580: 1380: 1299:

One of the larger issues in modern scholarship is whether the politicians who operated in the

1258: 988: 431: 424: 227: 3657:. Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. 9 (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 2477:, p. 115. "The more closely one looks at the categories the more they seem to dissolve". 2421: 1833:

in 133 BC. Mommsen too suggested that the labels themselves became common in Gracchan times.

1749:

in Livy denote fellow citizens, comrades, and oratory suitable for public speaking. Usage of

4258: 4247:"Petitio et Largitio: Popular Participation in the Centuriate Assembly of the Late Republic" 4196: 4147: 4098: 4047: 4002: 2193: 2031:

term as a label for ideology rather than for political factionalism in the vein of Mommsen.

1571:

for his opposition to Antony and later, in the Eighth Phillipic, to describe the actions of

1261:

reflected the dominance of rural voters who had resettled to Rome recently, while the later

1115:

for "probably confiscat and redistribut more land in Italy than any other Roman politician".

1087: 925:

As a result, modern historians do not recognise any "coherent political party" under either

860:, a speech given and published in 56 BC, where he framed the two labels against each other. 725: 668: 624: 553: 547: 540: 526: 355: 334: 279: 264: 259: 244: 128: 1802: 956: 870: 269: 1130:

for "substantially reduc the number of grain recipients in Rome during his dictatorship".

1542:

happens to offer a convenient label. Rather, it is the other way round: Cicero’s use of

922:

to describe politics "completely compatible with... honourable aristocratic behaviour".

3407:

Ti. Gracchus, his 'lex agraria' and destruction by a rabble of optimates, headed by P.

1939:

a manner adopted by politicians who used "popular" means to prolong a political career.

1686: 1627: 1607: 1591:

but instead suggests that some person is "truly acting in the interest of the people".

1584: 1576: 810: 558: 505: 349: 324: 233: 81: 4298: 4286: 4216: 4175: 4126: 4030: 3312:

Empire and memory : the representation of the Roman Republic in imperial culture

2213: 1907:'populares' appeared to embrace long term goals and most acted in a way described as 1119: 1080:, brought agrarian reform laws with the support of the senate, giving his policies a 1000:" or of conservatives and radicals in a modern sense. Erich S Gruen, for example, in 454: 304: 72: 805: 1126:(though never self-identifying with that label in his extant texts), emerges as an 1084:

tone, even when senatorial support and agrarian reforms are supposedly dichotomous.

837: 821: 367: 319: 289: 215: 90: 1817:

resulted in the formation of an aristocratic and a democratic party. For example,

4225: 3927: 3887: 3837: 3815: 3794: 3765: 3744: 3396: 2760: 2005:

Mackie argued in a 1992 influential paper revitalising the ideological view that

1163:

As a standard term for the ruling class was widely used, often in parallel with

4006: 1742:(and derivatives) appear infrequently and generally not in a political context. 1568: 1167:, which denoted the propertied classes in general and therefore overlapped with 887: 712: 410: 52: 3929:

Remembering the Roman People: Essays on Late-Republican Politics and Literature

3926:

Wiseman, T. P. (25 December 2008). "Roman History and the Ideological Vacuum".

1363:

rhetoric was couched "in terms of the consensus of values at Rome at the time:

4200: 3878: 2197: 1766: 1506:

aim to please the multitude", is recognised to be polemical. His remarks that

491: 221: 101: 4270: 4208: 4159: 4110: 4014: 3973: 3918: 3330: 2552: 2205: 3735: 1778: 1762: 1731: 563: 533: 399: 381: 344: 31: 3991:"Traditional political culture and the peoples' role in the Roman republic" 3958:"'Popularis' ideology and popular politics at Rome in the first century BC" 840:, using "the populace, rather than the senate, as a means ". References to 3908: 3310: 1886:, but by the strife for power, wealth and glory. The contestants were the 1793:

Theodor Mommsen, the 19th century German author of the highly influential

4087:"Politics, Persuasion and the People before the Social War (150-90 B.C.)" 3715: 2106: 498: 388: 299: 210: 108: 17: 4022: 3990: 3981: 3957: 3889:

Beyond Populares and Optimates: Political Language in the Late Republic

2560: 2536: 2109:(a relatively junior post) was enrolled into the senate automatically. 1813:

as modern "parliamentary-style political parties", suggesting that the

1635: 1599: 1287: 1070:, supported policies that had little "to do with the betterment of the 484: 463: 314: 294: 4278: 4167: 4118: 4086: 3858: 2741:, p. 384. "There was no fundamental ideological cleavage between 1155:

Usage of the term by contemporaries also was not highly dichotomised.

1012:, saying "such labels obscure rather than enlighten" and arguing that 1769:

and their place in the constitutional order. Livy only uses the word

1491: 976:

referred to political parties: "It is common knowledge nowadays that

903: 853: 824:, politicians who operated mostly in the senate, or opponents of the 519: 309: 992:

gaining political influence meant there were no "neat categories of

4262: 4151: 4102: 2762:

Rome: republic into empire: the civil wars of the first century BCE

2023:

acting in the interest of the people and the other as demagoguery.

3785: 1788: 1455: 1442: 1401:) – including that from ancient times, such as the revival of the 1108: 797: 704: 1922:

politicians acting as champions of the people against the senate,

1272:

Material interests like corn subsidy bills were not the whole of

1705: 1111:, traditionally identified also as an arch-conservative, turns 820:

have been seen as supporters of the continued authority of the

1718:), have been used to argue in favour of a distinction between 1630:, he does have a narrative of two parties: one of the people ( 785: 755: 752: 654: 470: 417: 2514: 2512: 1218:

The highly influential view of Christian Meier redefined the

1043:

are defined "somewhat mechanically, as those who opposed the

4136:"Political Power in Mid-Republican Rome: Curia Or Comitium?" 3839:

Mass oratory and political power in the late Roman republic

3265: 3263: 2942: 2940: 2912: 2910: 2837: 2835: 2833: 2604: 2602: 2589: 2587: 2499: 2497: 2495: 2446: 2444: 2442: 779: 767: 689: 648: 1494:'s drawing of a distinction between the two in his speech 1253:

relief, land redistribution, and grain doles. The earlier

743: 734: 674: 630: 764: 740: 683: 639: 2362: 2360: 2071:. Similarly, Henrik Mouritsen, writing in the 2017 book 832:

have also been seen as focusing on operating before the

2316: 2314: 2312: 1175:

as a term denoting the senatorial elite, the so-called

1142:(2017) rejects both of the traditional definitions. Of 3560: 3558: 3292: 3290: 3094: 3092: 3090: 2927: 2925: 2710: 2708: 2263: 2261: 2259: 1579:"for having acted in the public interests" by killing 1269:

reflected the interests of the masses of urban poor.

1101:

for supporting expansion of the grain dole during his

1074:

and in fact appear to have been distinctly unpopular".

3497: 3495: 3434: 3432: 3315:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 21. 3077: 3075: 1825:

1920 in this traditional scholarship, identified the

1805:

during the 19th century, in which he identified both

1397:

rhetoric also drew heavily on historical precedents (

788: 758: 728: 695: 657: 627: 2413: 2411: 2331: 2329: 2163: 2161: 2159: 2157: 1781:

in the 450s BC, centuries before the late republic.

1642:), where a small and corrupt section of the senate ( 782: 776: 749: 737: 731: 692: 680: 677: 651: 636: 633: 1344:that all politicians would claim to be following". 773: 746: 686: 671: 645: 642: 3717:The fall of the Roman Republic and related essays 1685:". Words used to describe dissent in the vein of 1533:Cicero’s bold rhetorical self-reinvention in the 959:set the enduring and popular interpretation that 873:set the enduring and popular interpretation that 2067:to describe demagoguery, Romans would have used 1925:politicians manipulating the popular assemblies, 1953: 1801:The traditional view comes from scholarship by 1375:, and senatorial incompetence at governing the 1161: 1148: 2146:Badian, Ernst (2012). "optimates, populares". 1903:) that started the collapse of the republic. 30:For the elite unit of the Byzantine army, see 2994: 2982: 2656: 597: 8: 1146:being those with the support of the senate: 1643: 1384: 1335:identification of certain politicians (eg 604: 590: 38: 3995:Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte 3796:The Last Generation of the Roman Republic 3281: 3269: 3254: 3242: 3158: 3054: 2958: 2946: 2916: 2865: 2853: 2841: 2672: 2632: 2620: 2608: 2593: 2574: 2541:Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte 2530: 2518: 2503: 2474: 2462: 2450: 2402: 2351: 2226: 2134:Everyman's English Pronouncing Dictionary 1463:and actions before crowds of the people. 1183:, precluding any meaningful distinction. 4044:Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Classics 3697: 3042: 3030: 3018: 2824: 2809: 2726: 2699: 2644: 2390: 2238: 1914:He suggested four meanings for the word 1281:restoration of tribunician rights after 1193: 4052:10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.4578 3681: 2901: 2125: 2084: 1726:through to earlier periods such as the 1587:. This usage also does not contrast to 1291:and the poor urban population in Rome. 446: 398: 333: 278: 243: 199: 150: 63: 41: 3817:The Crowd in Rome in the Late Republic 3653:. In Crook, John; et al. (eds.). 3066: 3021:, "Method, venue, and content" para 7. 3006: 2970: 2889: 2877: 2827:, "Method, venue, and content" para 4. 2812:, "Method, venue, and content" para 3. 2797: 2785: 2729:, "Method, venue, and content" para 1. 2702:, "Method, venue, and content" para 2. 2486: 2393:, "Method, venue, and content" para 6. 2320: 2267: 2250: 27:Political labels in the Roman Republic 3576: 3549: 3537: 2738: 2417: 2335: 1951:in 1974 rejected the terms entirely: 1949:Last Generation of the Roman Republic 1836:This view was re-evaluated, starting 1002:Last Generation of the Roman Republic 801: 708: 7: 4038:Yakobson, Alexander (7 March 2016). 3636: 3624: 3612: 3600: 3588: 3564: 3525: 3513: 3501: 3486: 3474: 3462: 3450: 3438: 3423: 3379: 3367: 3355: 3343: 3296: 3230: 3218: 3206: 3194: 3182: 3170: 3146: 3134: 3122: 3110: 3098: 3081: 2931: 2714: 2684: 2433: 2378: 2366: 2303: 2291: 2279: 2167: 1538:observable phenomenon for which the 4227:Party Politics in the Age of Caesar 1845:Die Nobilität de Römischen Republik 1745:The vast majority of the usages of 1179:– qua senators – themselves become 955:in the 1850s, the German historian 869:in the 1850s, the German historian 4230:. University of California Press. 3799:. University of California Press. 2759:Chrystal, Paul (30 January 2019). 1932:and paraded the people before the 1502:. Cicero's use of the term, that " 25: 3962:Rheinisches Museum für Philologie 3743:Crawford, Michael Hewson (1974). 1672:Other people in the late republic 1482:The oppositional meaning between 836:, generally in opposition to the 3820:. University of Michigan Press. 1829:– qua party – as the killers of 898:as they saw fit; the careers of 800:for "supporters of the people"; 724: 667: 623: 51: 4185:"Cicero and the Word Popularis" 3913:. Oxford: The Clarendon Press. 2103:Constitutional reforms of Sulla 1668:as means for self-advancement. 1413:too could hijack traditionally 3863:. Cambridge University Press. 3860:Politics in the Roman Republic 3842:. Cambridge University Press. 3836:Morstein-Marx, Robert (2004). 3770:. Princeton University Press. 3749:. Cambridge University Press. 3655:Last age of the Roman republic 3651:"Political history, 146–96 BC" 2073:Politics in the Roman Republic 2036:Beyond Populares and Optimates 1525:Mouritsen writes of Cicero in 1447:Bust of Marcus Tullius Cicero. 1140:Politics in the Roman Republic 1090:, traditionally identified as 1: 2180:Corke-Webster, James (2020). 2028:The Cambridge Ancient History 1837: 1822: 1563:. He similarly uses the term 1426:perceived difference between 4251:The Journal of Roman Studies 4245:Yakobson, Alexander (1992). 4140:The Journal of Roman Studies 4091:The Journal of Roman Studies 3989:Yakobson, Alexander (2010). 3398:A Companion to Latin Studies 2577:, p. 114. Citing Suet. 2535:Powell, Jonathan GF (1990). 1618:) at all, and uses the word 1226:politician is a person who: 1030:The traditional view of the 949:With the publication of the 863:With the publication of the 4007:10.25162/historia-2010-0017 3932:. Oxford University Press. 3720:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 3401:(3rd ed.). Cambridge: 2533:, p. 113. Also citing 2148:Oxford Classical Dictionary 4326: 4224:Taylor, Lily Ross (1949). 3857:Mouritsen, Henrik (2017). 3700:, "Modern debates" para 5. 3403:Cambridge University Press 2105:, anyone who had held the 1928:politicians who took up a 1393:Like most Roman rhetoric, 29: 4201:10.1017/S0009838800042117 3309:Gowing, Alain M. (2005). 2765:. Pen and Sword History. 2198:10.1017/S0017383519000287 2136:, 13th ed. (1967), p.339. 1714:(known in English as the 1211:19th century view of the 440:Senatus consultum ultimum 335:Extraordinary magistrates 3793:Gruen, Erich S. (1974). 3764:Flower, Harriet (2010). 3746:Roman Republican Coinage 3649:Lintott, Andrew (1992). 1911:for only a short time". 1862:. Syme in the 1939 book 1610:, does not use the word 1567:describe himself in the 1134:Other proposed views of 1122:, traditionally seen as 44:Politics of ancient Rome 4310:Society of ancient Rome 4189:The Classical Quarterly 4134:Millar, Fergus (1989). 4085:Millar, Fergus (1986). 3956:Mackie, Nicola (1992). 3814:Millar, Fergus (1998). 2537:"The Tribune Sulpicius" 1439:Usage by ancient Romans 1337:Publius Sulpicius Rufus 1064:Publius Sulpicius Rufus 4183:Seager, Robin (1972). 4040:"optimates, populares" 2047:"faction". "The terms 1962: 1892: 1815:conflict of the orders 1798: 1728:Conflict of the Orders 1691:Quintus Varius Severus 1662:libertas populi Romani 1644: 1548: 1448: 1417:themes by criticising 1385: 1232: 1203: 1185: 1153: 918:), also used the word 804: 711: 201:Political institutions 3907:Syme, Ronald (1939). 3714:Brunt, P. A. (1988). 1868: 1792: 1711:Ab Urbe Condita Libri 1693:trended more towards 1531: 1446: 1315:path expected death. 1228: 1197: 1066:, one of the classic 1004:(1974) rejected both 3910:The Roman revolution 3886:Robb, M. A. (2010). 2489:, pp. 122, 124. 1943:His analysis viewed 1490:emerges mainly from 1283:Sulla's dictatorship 1078:Marcus Livius Drusus 816:Among other things, 280:Ordinary magistrates 2381:, p. 16 (n 7). 2241:, "Summary" para 1. 2043:as a member of any 1795:Römische Geschichte 1626:In his work on the 1604:Catiline conspiracy 1318:Mackie argued that 952:Römische Geschichte 939:popular sovereignty 866:Römische Geschichte 3393:Sandys, John Edwin 3284:, pp. 125–26. 3125:, pp. 40, 55. 3033:, pp. 288–90. 2995:Morstein-Marx 2004 2983:Morstein-Marx 2004 2868:, pp. 116–17. 2856:, pp. 119–20. 2657:Morstein-Marx 2004 2647:, pp. 273–76. 2635:, pp. 118–19. 1901:Caesar's civil war 1799: 1779:Second Decemvirate 1666:senatus auctoritas 1449: 1403:comitia Centuriata 1204: 848:, "good men") and 834:popular assemblies 513:Triumvir monetalis 447:Titles and honours 4237:978-0-520-01257-8 4061:978-0-19-938113-5 3939:978-0-19-156750-6 3899:978-3-515-09643-0 3870:978-1-107-03188-3 3849:978-0-521-82327-2 3827:978-0-472-08878-2 3806:978-0-520-02238-6 3777:978-0-691-14043-8 3756:978-0-521-07492-6 3668:978-0-521-25603-2 3639:, pp. 30–31. 3627:, pp. 29–30. 3453:, pp. 18–19. 3382:, pp. 16–17. 3045:, pp. 291–2. 2772:978-1-5267-1011-6 2623:, pp. 117–8. 2521:, pp. 113–4. 2369:, pp. 15–16. 2186:Greece & Rome 1897:Sulla's civil war 1831:Tiberius Gracchus 1819:John Edwin Sandys 1581:Tiberius Gracchus 1569:Seventh Phillipic 1381:Tiberius Gracchus 1259:Tiberius Gracchus 989:First Triumvirate 941:– to the labels. 707:for "best ones"; 614: 613: 432:Quaestio perpetua 425:Senatus consultum 228:Roman citizenship 16:(Redirected from 4317: 4290: 4241: 4220: 4179: 4130: 4072: 4070: 4068: 4034: 3985: 3943: 3922: 3903: 3882: 3853: 3831: 3810: 3789: 3760: 3739: 3701: 3695: 3689: 3679: 3673: 3672: 3646: 3640: 3634: 3628: 3622: 3616: 3615:, p. 27-28. 3610: 3604: 3598: 3592: 3586: 3580: 3574: 3568: 3562: 3553: 3547: 3541: 3535: 3529: 3523: 3517: 3511: 3505: 3499: 3490: 3484: 3478: 3472: 3466: 3460: 3454: 3448: 3442: 3436: 3427: 3421: 3415: 3413: 3389: 3383: 3377: 3371: 3365: 3359: 3353: 3347: 3341: 3335: 3334: 3306: 3300: 3294: 3285: 3279: 3273: 3267: 3258: 3252: 3246: 3240: 3234: 3228: 3222: 3216: 3210: 3204: 3198: 3192: 3186: 3180: 3174: 3168: 3162: 3156: 3150: 3144: 3138: 3137:, pp. 65–6. 3132: 3126: 3120: 3114: 3108: 3102: 3096: 3085: 3079: 3070: 3069:, pp. 54–5. 3064: 3058: 3052: 3046: 3040: 3034: 3028: 3022: 3016: 3010: 3004: 2998: 2992: 2986: 2980: 2974: 2968: 2962: 2956: 2950: 2944: 2935: 2929: 2920: 2914: 2905: 2899: 2893: 2887: 2881: 2880:, pp. 56–7. 2875: 2869: 2863: 2857: 2851: 2845: 2839: 2828: 2822: 2813: 2807: 2801: 2795: 2789: 2783: 2777: 2776: 2756: 2750: 2736: 2730: 2724: 2718: 2712: 2703: 2697: 2688: 2682: 2676: 2670: 2664: 2654: 2648: 2642: 2636: 2630: 2624: 2618: 2612: 2606: 2597: 2591: 2582: 2572: 2566: 2564: 2528: 2522: 2516: 2507: 2501: 2490: 2484: 2478: 2472: 2466: 2460: 2454: 2448: 2437: 2431: 2425: 2415: 2406: 2400: 2394: 2388: 2382: 2376: 2370: 2364: 2355: 2349: 2343: 2333: 2324: 2318: 2307: 2301: 2295: 2289: 2283: 2277: 2271: 2265: 2254: 2248: 2242: 2236: 2230: 2224: 2218: 2217: 2177: 2171: 2165: 2152: 2151: 2143: 2137: 2130: 2110: 2099: 2093: 2089: 1864:Roman Revolution 1842: 1839: 1824: 1708:, the author of 1647: 1388: 1295:Ideological view 1088:Cato the Younger 884:Friedrich Münzer 803: 795: 794: 791: 790: 787: 784: 781: 778: 775: 770: 769: 766: 761: 760: 757: 754: 751: 748: 745: 742: 739: 736: 733: 730: 710: 702: 701: 698: 697: 694: 691: 688: 685: 682: 679: 676: 673: 664: 663: 660: 659: 656: 653: 650: 647: 644: 641: 638: 635: 632: 629: 606: 599: 592: 548:Pontifex maximus 541:Princeps senatus 527:Magister militum 362:Consular tribune 356:Magister equitum 184:Augustan reforms 55: 39: 21: 4325: 4324: 4320: 4319: 4318: 4316: 4315: 4314: 4295: 4294: 4293: 4244: 4238: 4223: 4182: 4133: 4084: 4080: 4078:Further reading 4075: 4066: 4064: 4062: 4037: 3988: 3955: 3951: 3946: 3940: 3925: 3906: 3900: 3885: 3871: 3856: 3850: 3835: 3832:Reprinted 2002. 3828: 3813: 3807: 3792: 3778: 3767:Roman republics 3763: 3757: 3742: 3728: 3713: 3709: 3704: 3696: 3692: 3680: 3676: 3669: 3648: 3647: 3643: 3635: 3631: 3623: 3619: 3611: 3607: 3599: 3595: 3587: 3583: 3575: 3571: 3563: 3556: 3548: 3544: 3536: 3532: 3524: 3520: 3512: 3508: 3500: 3493: 3485: 3481: 3473: 3469: 3461: 3457: 3449: 3445: 3437: 3430: 3422: 3418: 3405:. p. 125. 3391: 3390: 3386: 3378: 3374: 3366: 3362: 3354: 3350: 3342: 3338: 3323: 3308: 3307: 3303: 3295: 3288: 3280: 3276: 3268: 3261: 3253: 3249: 3241: 3237: 3229: 3225: 3217: 3213: 3205: 3201: 3193: 3189: 3181: 3177: 3169: 3165: 3157: 3153: 3145: 3141: 3133: 3129: 3121: 3117: 3109: 3105: 3097: 3088: 3080: 3073: 3065: 3061: 3053: 3049: 3041: 3037: 3029: 3025: 3017: 3013: 3005: 3001: 2993: 2989: 2981: 2977: 2969: 2965: 2957: 2953: 2945: 2938: 2930: 2923: 2915: 2908: 2900: 2896: 2888: 2884: 2876: 2872: 2864: 2860: 2852: 2848: 2840: 2831: 2823: 2816: 2808: 2804: 2796: 2792: 2784: 2780: 2773: 2758: 2757: 2753: 2737: 2733: 2725: 2721: 2713: 2706: 2698: 2691: 2683: 2679: 2671: 2667: 2655: 2651: 2643: 2639: 2631: 2627: 2619: 2615: 2607: 2600: 2592: 2585: 2573: 2569: 2534: 2529: 2525: 2517: 2510: 2502: 2493: 2485: 2481: 2473: 2469: 2461: 2457: 2449: 2440: 2432: 2428: 2416: 2409: 2401: 2397: 2389: 2385: 2377: 2373: 2365: 2358: 2350: 2346: 2334: 2327: 2319: 2310: 2302: 2298: 2290: 2286: 2278: 2274: 2266: 2257: 2249: 2245: 2237: 2233: 2225: 2221: 2182:"Roman History" 2179: 2178: 2174: 2166: 2155: 2150:. p. 1042. 2145: 2144: 2140: 2131: 2127: 2123: 2118: 2113: 2100: 2096: 2090: 2086: 2082: 2007:ratio popularis 1840: 1803:Theodor Mommsen 1787: 1773:in contrast to 1716:History of Rome 1674: 1597: 1476: 1441: 1350: 1301:ratio popularis 1297: 1248:The content of 1243:ratio popularis 1239: 1236:Ratio popularis 1192: 1028: 957:Theodor Mommsen 947: 871:Theodor Mommsen 772: 763: 727: 723: 670: 666: 626: 622: 610: 581: 577:Other countries 568: 437: 394: 329: 274: 239: 195: 172:Sullan republic 137: 133: 124: 115: 111: 104: 94: 85: 76: 46: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4323: 4321: 4313: 4312: 4307: 4305:Roman Republic 4297: 4296: 4292: 4291: 4263:10.2307/301283 4242: 4236: 4221: 4195:(2): 328–338. 4180: 4152:10.2307/301185 4131: 4103:10.2307/300362 4081: 4079: 4076: 4074: 4073: 4060: 4035: 4001:(3): 282–302. 3986: 3952: 3950: 3947: 3945: 3944: 3938: 3923: 3904: 3898: 3883: 3869: 3854: 3848: 3833: 3826: 3811: 3805: 3790: 3776: 3761: 3755: 3740: 3726: 3710: 3708: 3705: 3703: 3702: 3690: 3674: 3667: 3641: 3629: 3617: 3605: 3593: 3581: 3579:, p. 502. 3569: 3554: 3542: 3540:, p. 378. 3530: 3518: 3506: 3491: 3479: 3467: 3455: 3443: 3428: 3416: 3384: 3372: 3370:, p. 141. 3360: 3358:, p. 139. 3348: 3346:, p. 128. 3336: 3321: 3301: 3299:, p. 148. 3286: 3282:Mouritsen 2017 3274: 3272:, p. 126. 3270:Mouritsen 2017 3259: 3257:, p. 125. 3255:Mouritsen 2017 3247: 3245:, p. 124. 3243:Mouritsen 2017 3235: 3233:, p. 146. 3223: 3221:, p. 114. 3211: 3199: 3187: 3175: 3163: 3161:, p. 122. 3159:Mouritsen 2017 3151: 3139: 3127: 3115: 3103: 3101:, p. 127. 3086: 3071: 3059: 3057:, p. 161. 3055:Mouritsen 2017 3047: 3035: 3023: 3011: 2999: 2997:, p. 207. 2987: 2985:, p. 206. 2975: 2963: 2961:, p. 158. 2959:Mouritsen 2017 2951: 2949:, p. 160. 2947:Mouritsen 2017 2936: 2934:, p. 167. 2921: 2919:, p. 116. 2917:Mouritsen 2017 2906: 2894: 2892:, pp. 57. 2882: 2870: 2866:Mouritsen 2017 2858: 2854:Mouritsen 2017 2846: 2844:, p. 119. 2842:Mouritsen 2017 2829: 2814: 2802: 2800:, pp. 59. 2790: 2788:, pp. 64. 2778: 2771: 2751: 2731: 2719: 2717:, p. 164. 2704: 2689: 2677: 2675:, p. 115. 2673:Mouritsen 2017 2665: 2649: 2637: 2633:Mouritsen 2017 2625: 2621:Mouritsen 2017 2613: 2611:, p. 117. 2609:Mouritsen 2017 2598: 2596:, p. 118. 2594:Mouritsen 2017 2583: 2575:Mouritsen 2017 2567: 2547:(4): 446–460. 2531:Mouritsen 2017 2523: 2519:Mouritsen 2017 2508: 2506:, p. 113. 2504:Mouritsen 2017 2491: 2479: 2475:Mouritsen 2017 2467: 2465:, p. 131. 2463:Mouritsen 2017 2455: 2453:, p. 112. 2451:Mouritsen 2017 2438: 2426: 2407: 2405:, p. 150. 2403:Mouritsen 2017 2395: 2383: 2371: 2356: 2352:Mouritsen 2017 2344: 2325: 2308: 2296: 2284: 2272: 2255: 2243: 2231: 2227:Mouritsen 2017 2219: 2172: 2153: 2138: 2132:Daniel Jones, 2124: 2122: 2119: 2117: 2114: 2112: 2111: 2094: 2083: 2081: 2078: 1941: 1940: 1937: 1926: 1923: 1843:with Gelzer's 1786: 1785:Historiography 1783: 1761:but rather to 1687:Gaius Gracchus 1673: 1670: 1634:) and one the 1628:Jugurthine war 1608:Jugurthine war 1596: 1593: 1585:Gaius Gracchus 1475: 1472: 1440: 1437: 1349: 1346: 1296: 1293: 1238: 1233: 1206:References to 1191: 1186: 1132: 1131: 1116: 1106: 1085: 1075: 1027: 1022: 946: 943: 886:, followed by 811:Roman Republic 612: 611: 609: 608: 601: 594: 586: 583: 582: 580: 579: 573: 570: 569: 567: 566: 561: 556: 551: 544: 537: 530: 523: 516: 509: 506:Vigintisexviri 502: 495: 488: 481: 474: 467: 459: 458: 457: 449: 448: 444: 443: 436: 435: 428: 421: 414: 406: 403: 402: 396: 395: 393: 392: 385: 378: 371: 364: 359: 352: 347: 341: 338: 337: 331: 330: 328: 327: 322: 317: 312: 307: 302: 297: 292: 286: 283: 282: 276: 275: 273: 272: 267: 262: 257: 251: 248: 247: 241: 240: 238: 237: 234:Cursus honorum 230: 225: 218: 213: 207: 204: 203: 197: 196: 194: 193: 188: 187: 186: 176: 175: 174: 164: 158: 155: 154: 148: 147: 146: 145: 136: 135: 126: 116: 114: 113: 106: 105:27 BC – AD 284 98: 97: 96: 95:27 BC – AD 395 87: 82:Roman Republic 78: 66: 65: 61: 60: 57: 56: 48: 47: 42: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4322: 4311: 4308: 4306: 4303: 4302: 4300: 4288: 4284: 4280: 4276: 4272: 4268: 4264: 4260: 4256: 4252: 4248: 4243: 4239: 4233: 4229: 4228: 4222: 4218: 4214: 4210: 4206: 4202: 4198: 4194: 4190: 4186: 4181: 4177: 4173: 4169: 4165: 4161: 4157: 4153: 4149: 4145: 4141: 4137: 4132: 4128: 4124: 4120: 4116: 4112: 4108: 4104: 4100: 4096: 4092: 4088: 4083: 4082: 4077: 4063: 4057: 4053: 4049: 4045: 4041: 4036: 4032: 4028: 4024: 4020: 4016: 4012: 4008: 4004: 4000: 3996: 3992: 3987: 3983: 3979: 3975: 3971: 3967: 3963: 3959: 3954: 3953: 3948: 3941: 3935: 3931: 3930: 3924: 3920: 3916: 3912: 3911: 3905: 3901: 3895: 3891: 3890: 3884: 3880: 3876: 3872: 3866: 3862: 3861: 3855: 3851: 3845: 3841: 3840: 3834: 3829: 3823: 3819: 3818: 3812: 3808: 3802: 3798: 3797: 3791: 3787: 3783: 3779: 3773: 3769: 3768: 3762: 3758: 3752: 3748: 3747: 3741: 3737: 3733: 3729: 3727:0-19-814849-6 3723: 3719: 3718: 3712: 3711: 3706: 3699: 3698:Yakobson 2016 3694: 3691: 3687: 3683: 3678: 3675: 3670: 3664: 3660: 3656: 3652: 3645: 3642: 3638: 3633: 3630: 3626: 3621: 3618: 3614: 3609: 3606: 3603:, p. 32. 3602: 3597: 3594: 3591:, p. 27. 3590: 3585: 3582: 3578: 3573: 3570: 3567:, p. 25. 3566: 3561: 3559: 3555: 3552:, p. 36. 3551: 3546: 3543: 3539: 3534: 3531: 3528:, p. 24. 3527: 3522: 3519: 3516:, p. 23. 3515: 3510: 3507: 3504:, p. 22. 3503: 3498: 3496: 3492: 3489:, p. 20. 3488: 3483: 3480: 3477:, p. 19. 3476: 3471: 3468: 3465:, p. 11. 3464: 3459: 3456: 3452: 3447: 3444: 3441:, p. 17. 3440: 3435: 3433: 3429: 3426:, p. 16. 3425: 3420: 3417: 3412: 3410: 3409:Scipio Nasica 3404: 3400: 3399: 3394: 3388: 3385: 3381: 3376: 3373: 3369: 3364: 3361: 3357: 3352: 3349: 3345: 3340: 3337: 3332: 3328: 3324: 3322:0-511-12792-8 3318: 3314: 3313: 3305: 3302: 3298: 3293: 3291: 3287: 3283: 3278: 3275: 3271: 3266: 3264: 3260: 3256: 3251: 3248: 3244: 3239: 3236: 3232: 3227: 3224: 3220: 3215: 3212: 3209:, p. 92. 3208: 3203: 3200: 3197:, p. 91. 3196: 3191: 3188: 3185:, p. 75. 3184: 3179: 3176: 3173:, p. 74. 3172: 3167: 3164: 3160: 3155: 3152: 3149:, p. 67. 3148: 3143: 3140: 3136: 3131: 3128: 3124: 3119: 3116: 3113:, p. 71. 3112: 3107: 3104: 3100: 3095: 3093: 3091: 3087: 3084:, p. 70. 3083: 3078: 3076: 3072: 3068: 3063: 3060: 3056: 3051: 3048: 3044: 3043:Yakobson 2010 3039: 3036: 3032: 3031:Yakobson 2010 3027: 3024: 3020: 3019:Yakobson 2016 3015: 3012: 3009:, p. 58. 3008: 3003: 3000: 2996: 2991: 2988: 2984: 2979: 2976: 2973:, p. 65. 2972: 2967: 2964: 2960: 2955: 2952: 2948: 2943: 2941: 2937: 2933: 2928: 2926: 2922: 2918: 2913: 2911: 2907: 2904:, p. 18. 2903: 2898: 2895: 2891: 2886: 2883: 2879: 2874: 2871: 2867: 2862: 2859: 2855: 2850: 2847: 2843: 2838: 2836: 2834: 2830: 2826: 2825:Yakobson 2016 2821: 2819: 2815: 2811: 2810:Yakobson 2016 2806: 2803: 2799: 2794: 2791: 2787: 2782: 2779: 2774: 2768: 2764: 2763: 2755: 2752: 2748: 2744: 2740: 2735: 2732: 2728: 2727:Yakobson 2016 2723: 2720: 2716: 2711: 2709: 2705: 2701: 2700:Yakobson 2016 2696: 2694: 2690: 2686: 2681: 2678: 2674: 2669: 2666: 2662: 2658: 2653: 2650: 2646: 2645:Crawford 1974 2641: 2638: 2634: 2629: 2626: 2622: 2617: 2614: 2610: 2605: 2603: 2599: 2595: 2590: 2588: 2584: 2580: 2576: 2571: 2568: 2562: 2558: 2554: 2550: 2546: 2542: 2538: 2532: 2527: 2524: 2520: 2515: 2513: 2509: 2505: 2500: 2498: 2496: 2492: 2488: 2483: 2480: 2476: 2471: 2468: 2464: 2459: 2456: 2452: 2447: 2445: 2443: 2439: 2436:, p. 15. 2435: 2430: 2427: 2423: 2419: 2414: 2412: 2408: 2404: 2399: 2396: 2392: 2391:Yakobson 2016 2387: 2384: 2380: 2375: 2372: 2368: 2363: 2361: 2357: 2353: 2348: 2345: 2341: 2337: 2332: 2330: 2326: 2323:, p. 49. 2322: 2317: 2315: 2313: 2309: 2306:, p. 99. 2305: 2300: 2297: 2294:, p. 42. 2293: 2288: 2285: 2282:, p. 11. 2281: 2276: 2273: 2270:, p. 50. 2269: 2264: 2262: 2260: 2256: 2253:, p. 56. 2252: 2247: 2244: 2240: 2239:Yakobson 2016 2235: 2232: 2228: 2223: 2220: 2215: 2211: 2207: 2203: 2199: 2195: 2191: 2187: 2183: 2176: 2173: 2170:, p. 33. 2169: 2164: 2162: 2160: 2158: 2154: 2149: 2142: 2139: 2135: 2129: 2126: 2120: 2115: 2108: 2104: 2098: 2095: 2088: 2085: 2079: 2077: 2074: 2070: 2066: 2062: 2058: 2054: 2050: 2046: 2042: 2037: 2032: 2029: 2024: 2022: 2018: 2013: 2008: 2003: 2001: 1997: 1993: 1989: 1985: 1980: 1977: 1972: 1968: 1961: 1958: 1952: 1950: 1946: 1938: 1935: 1931: 1927: 1924: 1921: 1920: 1919: 1917: 1912: 1910: 1904: 1902: 1898: 1891: 1889: 1885: 1881: 1877: 1873: 1867: 1865: 1861: 1856: 1854: 1851:, but viewed 1850: 1846: 1834: 1832: 1828: 1820: 1816: 1812: 1808: 1804: 1796: 1791: 1784: 1782: 1780: 1776: 1772: 1768: 1764: 1760: 1756: 1752: 1748: 1743: 1741: 1737: 1733: 1729: 1725: 1721: 1717: 1713: 1712: 1707: 1704:The works of 1702: 1700: 1696: 1692: 1688: 1684: 1679: 1671: 1669: 1667: 1663: 1657: 1655: 1651: 1646: 1641: 1637: 1633: 1629: 1624: 1621: 1617: 1613: 1609: 1605: 1601: 1594: 1592: 1590: 1586: 1582: 1578: 1574: 1570: 1566: 1562: 1558: 1553: 1547: 1545: 1541: 1536: 1530: 1528: 1523: 1521: 1517: 1513: 1509: 1505: 1501: 1497: 1493: 1489: 1485: 1480: 1473: 1471: 1469: 1464: 1461: 1457: 1452: 1445: 1438: 1436: 1433: 1429: 1423: 1420: 1416: 1412: 1408: 1404: 1400: 1396: 1391: 1387: 1382: 1378: 1374: 1370: 1366: 1362: 1358: 1355: 1347: 1345: 1342: 1338: 1332: 1330: 1326: 1321: 1316: 1314: 1310: 1304: 1302: 1294: 1292: 1290: 1289: 1284: 1279: 1275: 1270: 1268: 1264: 1260: 1256: 1251: 1246: 1244: 1237: 1234: 1231: 1227: 1225: 1221: 1216: 1214: 1209: 1201: 1196: 1190: 1187: 1184: 1182: 1178: 1174: 1170: 1166: 1160: 1158: 1152: 1147: 1145: 1141: 1137: 1129: 1125: 1121: 1120:Julius Caesar 1117: 1114: 1110: 1107: 1104: 1100: 1096: 1093: 1089: 1086: 1083: 1079: 1076: 1073: 1069: 1065: 1062: 1061: 1060: 1058: 1052: 1048: 1046: 1042: 1038: 1033: 1026: 1023: 1021: 1017: 1015: 1011: 1007: 1003: 999: 995: 990: 985: 983: 979: 975: 971: 966: 962: 958: 954: 953: 944: 942: 940: 937:believing in 936: 932: 928: 923: 921: 917: 913: 909: 905: 901: 897: 893: 889: 885: 880: 876: 872: 868: 867: 861: 859: 855: 851: 847: 844:(also called 843: 839: 835: 831: 827: 823: 819: 814: 812: 808: 807: 799: 793: 721: 720: 715: 714: 706: 700: 662: 620: 619: 607: 602: 600: 595: 593: 588: 587: 585: 584: 578: 575: 574: 572: 571: 565: 562: 560: 557: 555: 552: 550: 549: 545: 543: 542: 538: 536: 535: 531: 529: 528: 524: 522: 521: 517: 515: 514: 510: 508: 507: 503: 501: 500: 496: 494: 493: 489: 487: 486: 482: 480: 479: 475: 473: 472: 468: 466: 465: 461: 460: 456: 453: 452: 451: 450: 445: 442: 441: 434: 433: 429: 427: 426: 422: 420: 419: 415: 413: 412: 408: 407: 405: 404: 401: 397: 391: 390: 386: 384: 383: 379: 377: 376: 372: 370: 369: 365: 363: 360: 358: 357: 353: 351: 348: 346: 343: 342: 340: 339: 336: 332: 326: 323: 321: 318: 316: 313: 311: 308: 306: 305:Promagistrate 303: 301: 298: 296: 293: 291: 288: 287: 285: 284: 281: 277: 271: 268: 266: 263: 261: 258: 256: 253: 252: 250: 249: 246: 242: 236: 235: 231: 229: 226: 224: 223: 219: 217: 214: 212: 209: 208: 206: 205: 202: 198: 192: 189: 185: 182: 181: 180: 177: 173: 170: 169: 168: 165: 163: 160: 159: 157: 156: 153: 149: 144: 143: 139: 138: 132: 131: 127: 123: 122: 118: 117: 110: 107: 103: 100: 99: 93: 92: 88: 84: 83: 79: 75: 74: 73:Roman Kingdom 70: 69: 68: 67: 62: 59: 58: 54: 50: 49: 45: 40: 37: 33: 19: 4254: 4250: 4226: 4192: 4188: 4143: 4139: 4094: 4090: 4065:. Retrieved 4043: 3998: 3994: 3968:(1): 49–73. 3965: 3961: 3928: 3909: 3888: 3859: 3838: 3816: 3795: 3766: 3745: 3716: 3693: 3682:Wiseman 2008 3677: 3654: 3644: 3632: 3620: 3608: 3596: 3584: 3572: 3545: 3533: 3521: 3509: 3482: 3470: 3458: 3446: 3419: 3406: 3397: 3387: 3375: 3363: 3351: 3339: 3311: 3304: 3277: 3250: 3238: 3226: 3214: 3202: 3190: 3178: 3166: 3154: 3142: 3130: 3118: 3106: 3062: 3050: 3038: 3026: 3014: 3002: 2990: 2978: 2966: 2954: 2902:Wiseman 2008 2897: 2885: 2873: 2861: 2849: 2805: 2793: 2781: 2761: 2754: 2746: 2742: 2734: 2722: 2680: 2668: 2652: 2640: 2628: 2616: 2578: 2570: 2544: 2540: 2526: 2482: 2470: 2458: 2429: 2398: 2386: 2374: 2347: 2299: 2287: 2275: 2246: 2234: 2222: 2189: 2185: 2175: 2147: 2141: 2133: 2128: 2107:quaestorship 2097: 2087: 2072: 2068: 2064: 2060: 2056: 2052: 2048: 2044: 2040: 2035: 2033: 2027: 2025: 2020: 2016: 2011: 2006: 2004: 1999: 1995: 1991: 1987: 1983: 1981: 1975: 1970: 1966: 1963: 1956: 1954: 1948: 1944: 1942: 1934:plebs urbana 1933: 1930:causa populi 1929: 1915: 1913: 1908: 1905: 1893: 1887: 1884:novi homines 1883: 1879: 1875: 1871: 1869: 1866:wrote that: 1863: 1859: 1857: 1852: 1848: 1844: 1835: 1826: 1810: 1806: 1800: 1794: 1774: 1770: 1758: 1754: 1750: 1746: 1744: 1739: 1735: 1723: 1719: 1715: 1709: 1703: 1698: 1694: 1682: 1677: 1675: 1665: 1661: 1658: 1653: 1649: 1639: 1631: 1625: 1619: 1615: 1611: 1598: 1588: 1564: 1560: 1556: 1551: 1549: 1543: 1539: 1534: 1532: 1526: 1524: 1519: 1515: 1511: 1507: 1503: 1495: 1487: 1483: 1481: 1477: 1467: 1465: 1459: 1453: 1450: 1431: 1427: 1424: 1418: 1414: 1410: 1406: 1402: 1398: 1394: 1392: 1376: 1372: 1368: 1364: 1360: 1359: 1353: 1351: 1340: 1333: 1328: 1324: 1319: 1317: 1312: 1308: 1305: 1300: 1298: 1286: 1277: 1273: 1271: 1262: 1254: 1249: 1247: 1242: 1240: 1235: 1229: 1223: 1219: 1217: 1212: 1207: 1205: 1199: 1188: 1180: 1176: 1172: 1168: 1164: 1162: 1156: 1154: 1149: 1143: 1139: 1135: 1133: 1127: 1123: 1112: 1098: 1094: 1091: 1081: 1071: 1067: 1056: 1053: 1049: 1044: 1040: 1036: 1031: 1029: 1024: 1018: 1013: 1009: 1005: 1001: 997: 993: 986: 981: 977: 973: 969: 964: 960: 951: 948: 934: 930: 926: 924: 919: 916:ἀριστοκρατία 915: 912:aristokratia 911: 907: 895: 891: 878: 874: 865: 862: 857: 849: 845: 841: 829: 825: 817: 815: 718: 717: 617: 616: 615: 546: 539: 532: 525: 518: 511: 504: 497: 490: 483: 476: 469: 462: 438: 430: 423: 416: 409: 387: 380: 373: 366: 354: 232: 220: 216:Collegiality 152:Constitution 140: 129: 120: 91:Roman Empire 89: 80: 71: 36: 4146:: 138–150. 3892:. Steiner. 3684:, pp. 3067:Mackie 1992 3007:Mackie 1992 2971:Mackie 1992 2890:Mackie 1992 2878:Mackie 1992 2798:Mackie 1992 2786:Mackie 1992 2487:Flower 2010 2321:Mackie 1992 2268:Mackie 1992 2251:Mackie 1992 1841: 1910 1458:, the word 1377:res publica 1373:mos maiorum 1348:In rhetoric 1265:tactics of 1257:tactics of 888:Ronald Syme 411:Mos maiorum 191:Late Empire 134:AD 395–1453 4299:Categories 3879:1120499560 3786:2009004551 3577:Brunt 1988 3550:Brunt 1988 3538:Brunt 1988 2739:Gruen 1974 2659:, p. 2420:, p. 2418:Gruen 1974 2338:, p. 2336:Gruen 1974 2192:(1): 100. 2116:References 2101:After the 1996:sumptuaria 1988:repetundae 1821:, writing 1767:patricians 1699:seditiosus 1540:Pro Sestio 1535:Pro Sestio 1527:Pro Sestio 1496:Pro Sestio 1202:agitation. 1097:, becomes 858:Pro Sestio 492:Praefectus 400:Public law 255:Centuriate 245:Assemblies 222:Auctoritas 125:AD 395–476 112:AD 284–641 102:Principate 77:753–509 BC 4287:162966973 4271:1753-528X 4257:: 32–52. 4217:171051888 4209:1471-6844 4176:156029173 4160:1753-528X 4127:147545955 4111:0075-4358 4031:160215553 4015:0018-2311 3974:0035-449X 3919:830891947 3637:Robb 2010 3625:Robb 2010 3613:Robb 2010 3601:Robb 2010 3589:Robb 2010 3565:Robb 2010 3526:Robb 2010 3514:Robb 2010 3502:Robb 2010 3487:Robb 2010 3475:Robb 2010 3463:Syme 1939 3451:Robb 2010 3439:Robb 2010 3424:Robb 2010 3380:Robb 2010 3368:Robb 2010 3356:Robb 2010 3344:Robb 2010 3331:252514679 3297:Robb 2010 3231:Robb 2010 3219:Robb 2010 3207:Robb 2010 3195:Robb 2010 3183:Robb 2010 3171:Robb 2010 3147:Robb 2010 3135:Robb 2010 3123:Robb 2010 3111:Robb 2010 3099:Robb 2010 3082:Robb 2010 2932:Robb 2010 2747:populares 2743:optimates 2715:Robb 2010 2685:Robb 2010 2553:0018-2311 2434:Robb 2010 2379:Robb 2010 2367:Robb 2010 2304:Robb 2010 2292:Robb 2010 2280:Robb 2010 2214:232177339 2206:0017-3835 2168:Robb 2010 2121:Footnotes 2069:seditiosi 2065:populares 2061:optimates 2057:populares 2053:optimates 2049:populares 2045:populares 2021:popularis 2017:contiones 2012:popularis 2000:optimates 1984:optimates 1976:popularis 1971:populares 1967:optimates 1957:optimates 1955:The term 1945:popularis 1916:popularis 1909:popularis 1876:populares 1872:optimates 1853:popularis 1849:popularis 1827:optimates 1811:optimates 1807:populares 1775:optimates 1771:popularis 1763:plebeians 1759:optimates 1755:populares 1751:optimates 1747:popularis 1740:populares 1736:optimates 1732:Periochae 1724:optimates 1720:populares 1683:popularis 1678:populares 1654:optimates 1640:nobilitas 1620:popularis 1616:optimates 1589:optimates 1565:popularis 1561:optimates 1557:populares 1552:popularis 1544:popularis 1520:popularis 1516:populares 1512:optimates 1508:popularis 1504:populares 1488:optimates 1484:populares 1468:optimates 1466:The word 1460:popularis 1432:populares 1428:optimates 1411:populares 1407:Popularis 1395:popularis 1361:Popularis 1341:popularis 1325:populares 1320:popularis 1313:popularis 1309:popularis 1278:popularis 1274:popularis 1263:popularis 1255:popularis 1250:popularis 1224:populares 1220:popularis 1213:populares 1208:populares 1200:popularis 1189:Populares 1181:optimates 1177:populares 1173:optimates 1169:optimates 1144:optimates 1136:optimates 1124:popularis 1113:popularis 1103:tribunate 1099:popularis 1082:popularis 1068:populares 1057:populares 1045:populares 1041:optimates 1037:optimates 1032:optimates 1025:Optimates 1014:optimates 1010:optimates 1006:populares 998:populares 994:optimates 982:optimates 978:populares 974:popularis 965:populares 961:optimates 935:populares 931:optimates 927:populares 920:populares 910:to Greek 908:optimates 892:popularis 879:populares 875:optimates 850:populares 842:optimates 830:populares 826:populares 818:optimates 806:popularis 719:populares 618:Optimates 534:Imperator 382:Decemviri 375:Triumviri 345:Corrector 86:509–27 BC 32:Optimatoi 18:Optimates 4097:: 1–11. 4067:26 April 4023:25758311 3982:41233843 3949:Articles 3736:16466585 3395:(1921). 1606:and the 1415:optimate 1365:libertas 1329:libertas 1276:causes: 1157:Optimate 1128:optimate 1095:optimate 970:optimate 564:Tetrarch 554:Augustus 499:Vicarius 478:Officium 389:Interrex 350:Dictator 325:Governor 300:Quaestor 265:Plebeian 211:Imperium 167:Republic 142:Timeline 109:Dominate 2561:4436166 1992:ambitus 1888:nobiles 1880:nobiles 1695:seditio 1650:nobiles 1632:populus 1612:optimas 1600:Sallust 1595:Sallust 1577:Opimius 1500:Clodius 1419:current 1399:exempla 1386:populus 1354:populus 1288:equites 1267:Clodius 1072:populus 945:Meaning 896:optimas 713:optimas 485:Praeses 464:Legatus 455:Emperor 315:Tribune 295:Praetor 260:Curiate 162:Kingdom 130:Eastern 121:Western 64:Periods 4285: 4279:301283 4277: 4269: 4234: 4215: 4207: 4174: 4168:301185 4166: 4158: 4125: 4119:300362 4117: 4109: 4058: 4029: 4021: 4013: 3980: 3972: 3936: 3917: 3896: 3877: 3867: 3846: 3824: 3803: 3784: 3774: 3753: 3734: 3724: 3665: 3329: 3319: 2769: 2559: 2551: 2212: 2204: 2041:Caesar 1994:, and 1860:gentes 1636:nobles 1573:Nasica 1492:Cicero 1474:Cicero 904:Pompey 900:Drusus 854:Cicero 838:senate 828:. The 822:senate 716:) and 559:Caesar 520:Lictor 320:Censor 310:Aedile 290:Consul 270:Tribal 179:Empire 4283:S2CID 4275:JSTOR 4213:S2CID 4172:S2CID 4164:JSTOR 4123:S2CID 4115:JSTOR 4027:S2CID 4019:JSTOR 3978:JSTOR 3707:Books 2581:41.3. 2557:JSTOR 2210:S2CID 2080:Notes 1936:, and 1645:pauci 1456:Latin 1369:leges 1339:) as 1109:Sulla 984:)". 798:Latin 705:Latin 4267:ISSN 4232:ISBN 4205:ISSN 4156:ISSN 4107:ISSN 4069:2021 4056:ISBN 4011:ISSN 3970:ISSN 3934:ISBN 3915:OCLC 3894:ISBN 3875:OCLC 3865:ISBN 3844:ISBN 3822:ISBN 3801:ISBN 3782:LCCN 3772:ISBN 3751:ISBN 3732:OCLC 3722:ISBN 3663:ISBN 3327:OCLC 3317:ISBN 2767:ISBN 2745:and 2579:Jul. 2549:ISSN 2202:ISSN 2092:pay. 2059:and 2051:and 1982:The 1899:and 1882:and 1874:and 1809:and 1765:and 1757:and 1738:and 1722:and 1706:Livy 1697:and 1689:and 1664:and 1614:(or 1583:and 1575:and 1559:and 1486:and 1430:and 1241:The 1165:boni 1118:And 1047:". 1008:and 996:and 963:and 877:and 846:boni 4259:doi 4197:doi 4148:doi 4099:doi 4048:doi 4003:doi 3966:135 3686:6–7 3411:... 2663:–5. 2661:204 2340:500 2194:doi 1969:or 1454:In 1092:the 972:or 929:or 902:or 894:or 856:'s 802:sg. 771:-,- 753:ɛər 709:sg. 471:Dux 418:Ius 368:Rex 4301:: 4281:. 4273:. 4265:. 4255:82 4253:. 4249:. 4211:. 4203:. 4193:22 4191:. 4187:. 4170:. 4162:. 4154:. 4144:79 4142:. 4138:. 4121:. 4113:. 4105:. 4095:76 4093:. 4089:. 4054:. 4046:. 4042:. 4025:. 4017:. 4009:. 3999:59 3997:. 3993:. 3976:. 3964:. 3960:. 3873:. 3780:. 3730:. 3661:. 3659:52 3557:^ 3494:^ 3431:^ 3325:. 3289:^ 3262:^ 3089:^ 3074:^ 2939:^ 2924:^ 2909:^ 2832:^ 2817:^ 2749:". 2707:^ 2692:^ 2601:^ 2586:^ 2555:. 2545:39 2543:. 2539:. 2511:^ 2494:^ 2441:^ 2422:50 2410:^ 2359:^ 2328:^ 2311:^ 2258:^ 2208:. 2200:. 2190:67 2188:. 2184:. 2156:^ 1990:, 1918:: 1878:, 1838:c. 1823:c. 1701:. 1529:: 1371:, 1367:, 796:; 786:iː 780:eɪ 762:,- 756:iː 703:; 690:eɪ 665:, 655:iː 649:eɪ 4289:. 4261:: 4240:. 4219:. 4199:: 4178:. 4150:: 4129:. 4101:: 4071:. 4050:: 4033:. 4005:: 3984:. 3942:. 3921:. 3902:. 3881:. 3852:. 3830:. 3809:. 3788:. 3759:. 3738:. 3688:. 3671:. 3414:. 3333:. 2775:. 2565:. 2563:. 2424:. 2342:. 2216:. 2196:: 1797:. 1638:( 1105:. 914:( 792:/ 789:z 783:r 777:l 774:ˈ 768:ə 765:j 759:z 750:l 747:ˈ 744:ʊ 741:j 738:p 735:ɒ 732:p 729:ˌ 726:/ 722:( 699:/ 696:s 693:t 687:m 684:ɪ 681:t 678:p 675:ɒ 672:ˈ 669:/ 661:/ 658:z 652:t 646:m 643:ˈ 640:ɪ 637:t 634:p 631:ɒ 628:ˌ 625:/ 621:( 605:e 598:t 591:v 34:. 20:)

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