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to difficulties in academic achievement and overall communication. Some critics argue that an exclusive focus on oralism can lead to social isolation for deaf individuals. Without a strong foundation in sign language, which may be more accessible and natural for many deaf individuals, they might struggle to communicate effectively within the deaf community. This can result in feelings of isolation and exclusion. The use of sign language has been shown to support cognitive development in deaf individuals, just as spoken language does for hearing individuals. Critics of oralism argue that by discouraging the use of sign language, cognitive development might be hindered, potentially affecting learning, problem-solving, and other cognitive abilities. Many within the deaf community view sign language as an integral part of their cultural identity. An exclusive focus on oralism can undermine the preservation and promotion of deaf culture and identity, as sign language is a crucial aspect of this culture. Emphasizing oralism may send the message that deaf individuals should strive to be more like hearing individuals rather than embracing their unique identity. Learning to speak and lip-read can be stressful and exhausting for some deaf individuals. The pressure to conform to oralist methods and expectations can lead to emotional and psychological stress, potentially impacting their overall well-being and mental health. While some individuals may thrive using oralist methods, others may struggle significantly. The effectiveness of oralism can vary widely based on factors such as the degree of hearing loss, individual communication preferences, and the availability of appropriate resources and support. With advancements in technology such as cochlear implants and hearing aids, the landscape of deaf education has evolved. While these technologies can facilitate oral communication for some, they are not a one-size-fits-all solution. Some deaf individuals may not benefit from or have access to these technologies, and the push for exclusive oralism might overlook their needs. In some cases, the exclusive focus on oralism can lead to a phenomenon known as "language deprivation." This occurs when a deaf individual is not exposed to a full and rich linguistic environment, which can have long-lasting effects on their cognitive and language development.
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by manualism, a pedagogical approach centered on the use of sign language as the primary mode of communication. A pivotal moment in this historical narrative occurred with the establishment of the
Instituto Nacional de Sordomudos (National Institute for the Deaf) in Buenos Aires in 1882. This institution played a notable role in advocating for oralism as the preferred instructional method. Its stance was strongly influenced by the Milan Conference of 1880, which championed oralism over sign language as the superior approach in the education of the deaf. The Argentine Association for the Deaf (Asociación Argentina de Sordomudos), founded in 1887, also contributed significantly to the promotion of oralism in Argentina's deaf education landscape. Over time, educational institutions dedicated to deaf education in Argentina began adopting oralist methodologies. Oralist schools were established, and educators received training in these methods. This era witnessed a decline in the use of sign language as the primary instructional mode.
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addition to traditional academic programs, the school provides a range of workshops to enrich students' learning experiences. One feature of this educational institution is its flexibility, allowing students to concurrently attend regular mainstream schools while benefiting from the specialized services offered by the oralist school. This approach enables students to complement their education and develop a diverse skill set. The school operates with both morning and afternoon shifts. The establishment features the
Assistance Pedagogy Service, staffed by an interdisciplinary team dedicated to providing comprehensive care to disabled children. This team conducts ongoing evaluations of each student's progress and needs, fostering a holistic and inclusive approach to education. The Escuela de Sordos in Buenos Aires, Argentina, plays a crucial role in offering specialized educational services to deaf and hard of hearing students, promoting inclusive and personalized learning experiences within the region.
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what the
English development might have been without the implant. English development was greater and more successful for the implanted deaf child than that of the non-implanted child based on the implementation of a predictive model. The predictive model employs age, residual hearing, and communication mode used by the child to predict the language development. Although deaf implanted children are already at a disadvantage for English development when compared to their hearing counterparts, the implant, on average, reduced what could have been an even larger deficit had the child not been implanted (based on the predictive model). The authors recommend implanting the child as early as possible.
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disagreement within the
Argentine deaf community. Proponents of oralism assert its efficacy in facilitating the integration of deaf individuals into the wider hearing society. Conversely, critics advocate for the use of sign language, viewing it as a naturally occurring and culturally significant form of communication. This educational debate continues to be a prominent issue among experts and stakeholders in Argentina's deaf education landscape.
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406:: a spoken-language early intervention and Pre-K through 5th grade educational institution based in Portland, Oregon. Enrollment includes children who are deaf or hard of hearing, as well as children with typical hearing in an inclusive, co-enrolled, mutually beneficial classroom environment. The school's mission is to teach "deaf and hearing children to listen, talk, learn, and achieve excellence together".
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further their child's literacy and written language skills in the classroom. Some researchers believe that the success of the oral approach in a classroom setting had not been fully evaluated. Recent research has demonstrated that an oral education using
Listening and Spoken Language can provide most deaf children with spoken language skills that are equivalent to those of their hearing peers if using a
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much earlier in their hearing counterparts. Despite efforts to encourage the sole reliance on speech and spoken language in oral schools, some oral-deaf individuals developed sign systems among themselves in non-supervised settings. Additionally, oral-deaf children often used manual gestures/signs simultaneously or in addition to vocalizations during expressive communications at home.
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mouth, tongue, eyes, and lips, suggesting grimacing or excessive emotional display, triggered horror in hearing people. Students were asked to stop moving their faces when they signed, which would later be described as equivalent to asking hearing people to speak in declarative sentences uttered in monotone.
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Altogether, this research provided evidence contrary to the belief that spoken skills are critical to the development of reading skills, and further proposes that educational approaches should include a stronger focus on building awareness of written language forms separate from the related aural aspects.
199:. Oralism provided members of the privileged classes with deaf children a way to channel their children's education and an opportunity to keep them away from the deaf community. Speaking has been associated with the higher classes and higher intellect, and the perception of signing has been the opposite.
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Even though students were not allowed to use manual signs within the classroom, many deaf students preferred manual signs and used them frequently in their dorm rooms at residential schools for the deaf. Some deaf children were considered "oral failures" because they could not pick up oral language.
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One of the primary criticisms of oralism is that it can result in limited language acquisition for deaf individuals. Learning spoken language and lip-reading can be challenging, and some deaf individuals may struggle to develop language skills at the same level as their hearing peers. This can lead
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The history of oralism in
Argentina can be traced back to the late 19th and early 20th centuries, marked by the introduction of European methods of oral education for the deaf within the country. Prior to the widespread acceptance of oralism, deaf education in Argentina was predominantly influenced
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There is little existing research on the social, professional, and mental health of deaf individuals using oral methods in comparison to those using other methods of education and communication. However, some studies suggest that social-emotional outcomes for deaf children who use cochlear implants
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hearing world. Bell also believed that sign language was an instrument of imprisonment and that its use prevented the "gesturer" from being a "true
American". Bell had no opinion regarding whether or whom deaf people should marry. By contrast, negative eugenicists sought to stop the spread of "bad
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Communication in oral-deaf students without cochlear implants is typically less frequent and less complex than hearing peers of the same age. These expressed communications are less clear than that of their hearing peers. Linguistically, these communications are typical of the language skills seen
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There have been few quantitative evaluations regarding the long-term outcomes of oral programs for deaf individuals, but those that do exist tend to study this in relation to children with cochlear implants. One study compared the
English development of deaf children with a cochlear implant versus
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Oralism is no longer used to teach language or communication in the United States. Parental use of the oral approach typically stems from a parental desire for their child to use a spoken language to communicate with the majority hearing population. They also feel the use of a spoken language will
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method, which taught them how to speak and lip read. Oralists believed that signs were no more than gross holistic gestures, which stood for
English words in a one-to-one correspondence. Sentences in sign were thought to have no grammar. The facial expressions, such as exaggerated movements of the
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properties of a language, they showed equal capability of recognizing and understanding the orthographic properties of what they were reading. In fact, compared to their hearing counterparts, the deaf individuals showed an increased rate of written word processing skills as they increased in age.
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This oralist school is situated in Buenos Aires, Argentina. It offers educational services that include both kindergarten and primary school levels. With an enrollment of 172 students, the institution maintains a low student-to-teacher ratio, averaging approximately six students per class. In
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Some studies have called into question the role of developing spoken language skills in relation to developing reading skills. One study in particular demonstrated that while individuals who became deaf before developing spoken language did show a decreased ability to differentiate between the
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Oralism in
Argentina pertains to a pedagogical approach in the realm of deaf education. It underscores spoken language and lipreading as the principal modes of communication and instruction for individuals who are deaf or hard of hearing. This method has generated considerable discussion and
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Since the beginning of formal deaf education in the 18th century in the United States, manualism and oralism have been on opposing sides of a heated debate that continues to this day. Oralism as the systematic education of deaf people began in Spain in the mid-1500s and was the byproduct of
352:, argued against the teaching of oralism because it restricted the ability of deaf students to communicate in what was considered their native language. Moreover, "attempts to eliminate sign language were tantamount to stripping them of their identity, their community, and their culture."
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genes" through invasive measures such as mandatory placement in institutions or sterilization. Bell believed oralism was "an attractive option to sterilization". To Bell, implementation of oralism meant the possibility of a mainstream and "normal" life for deaf individuals.
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socioeconomic motives. The church barred deaf people from Holy Communion because they could not confess aloud. Deaf people were also prohibited from inheriting their family's wealth; therefore, to preserve the family wealth, deaf heirs in Spain were sent to
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perspective. Clarke School for the Deaf in 1867 became a "mainstream service" for deaf students through creating a "learn to listen" mentality. This was done through the proper training of educators in auditory/oral education. Since its start,
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could develop English skills in relation to a hearing child's English development. Multiple studies find that by ensuring a deaf child has access to American Sign Language, their overall academic performance is better than those who are not.
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It has been remarked that, in the United States, the better-funded northern schools switched to oralism while their poorer southern counterparts kept signing because it was difficult to hire new oralist teachers.
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Hearing educators who could not sign replaced deaf teachers and, by the mid-20th century, eighty percent of American secondary schools for the deaf used the oral method exclusively. Some strategies, such as
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were popular supporters of oralism and its impact on deaf education and services. Until the end of the 19th century, many educators of deaf America were deaf themselves. However, oralists like
1680:. La Plata, Argentina.: IV Jornadas de Español como Lengua Segunda y Extranjera, 7 y 8 de noviembre de 2012, La Plata, Argentina. Experiencias, Desarrollos, Propuestas. En Memoria Académica.
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Others thought that the techniques of oralism actually limited them on what they were taught because they always had to concentrate on the way the words were formed, not what they meant.
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Miller, Paul (2007-08-01). "The Role of Phonology in the Word Decoding Skills of Poor Readers: Evidence from Individuals with Prelingual Deafness or Diagnosed Dyslexia".
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388:: focus on helping deaf and hard of hearing children develop spoken English and listening skills. The school's goal is to prepare students for the mainstream setting.
314:, saw classes conducted in a mixture of spoken and signed English with the teacher signing along, in English word order as they delivered their lecture. For example,
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The retraction of laws forbidding the use of sign language in the classroom occurred in 2010 with the International Congress on the Education of the Deaf (ICED) in
174:, which circulated widely as a foundation method for teaching. Bonet was an oralist that defended the use of words to communicate, but also incorporated the use of
1903:
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Introducción a la edición facsímil de la Reducción de las letras, y Arte para enseñar a hablar los mudos, con otros tratados tocantes a la lengua Griega y cifras
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400:: provides listening and spoken language services to children who are deaf or hard of hearing, ages birth to early elementary years, and their families.
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from being used. After the Milan conference, the Deaf community referred to this time in history as "the dark ages for deaf education in America".
1617:"El Congreso de Milán y su efecto dominó en la República Argentina: Aproximación a algunos hechos relacionados con la comunidad sorda argentina"
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Memphis Oral School for the Deaf: teaching children to develop their spoken and written English skills by teaching children in spoken English.
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Cleary School: focus on ASL and spoken English in its elementary, middle, and high school classrooms. Their Pre-K focuses on spoken English.
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and other issues within deaf education. During the congregation, no Deaf members were allowed to testify. In 1880, the ICED met again in
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In relation to the early 16th-century oralism in Spain, 19th-century oralists viewed oral language as a superior form of communication.
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and spoken language are statistically significantly higher than those of their signing deaf counterparts in a world made for ableism.
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216:(now the Clarke School for Hearing and Speech) made its mark in deaf American education in the 1860s, there was a popular support of
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It is reported by some that deaf children in an oral setting may feel depressed, anxious or experience aloneness and embarrassment.
364:. Deaf grassroots activists and the planning committee of ICED created a solution to provide proper education to the deaf globally.
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651:"Listening, language, and learning: Skills of highly qualified Listening and Spoken Language Specialists in educational settings"
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Anglin-Jaffe, Hannah (2013-05-01). "Signs of Resistance: Peer Learning of Sign Languages Within 'Oral' Schools for the Deaf".
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Percy-Smith, Lone (December 2008). "Factors that affect the social well-being of children with cochlear implants".
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The Spanish friar Pedro Ponce created a pure oral method to teach to deaf people how to read, talk and count.
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Svirsky, Mario A.; Robbins, Amy M.; Iler Kirk, Karen; Pisoni, David B.; Miyamoto, Richard T. (March 2000).
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In 1878, the International Congress on the Education of the Deaf (ICED) met in Paris to discuss the use of
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877:"21st International Congress on the Education of the Deaf (ICED) in July 2010 in Vancouver, Canada"
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of speech. Oralism came into popular use in the United States around the late 1860s. In 1867, the
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Greenwald, Brian H. (Spring 2009). "The Real "Toll" of A.G. Bell: Lessons about Eugenics".
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has expanded and provided support for oral communication within deaf education and policy.
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The studies did not consider how a non-implanted child exposed to a signed language and a
1396:"Psychosocial adjustment in adolescents who have used cochlear implants since preschool"
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Fox, Margalit. Talking Hands. Simon & Schuster Paperbacks. New York, New York: 2007
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Veinberg, S. (1996). Argentinien: Anfänge und Entwicklung der Erziehung Gehörloser .
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Das Zeichen. Zeitschrift Zum Thema Gebärdensprache und Kommunikation Gehörlose, 38,
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121:, was the first school to start teaching in this manner. Oralism and its contrast,
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Dr. M. G. R. Home and Higher Secondary School for the Speech and Hearing Impaired
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1262:"Communication of Oral Deaf and Normally Hearing Children at 36 Months of Age"
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Forbidden signs : American culture and the campaign against sign language
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There also was no accurate predictor of oralism's success in the classroom.
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Cohen, Leah. Train Go Sorry. New York, New York: First Vintage Books, 1995.
293:. This meeting created the solely oralist classroom preventing any form of
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Through Deaf Eyes. Diane Garey, Lawrence R. Hott. DVD, PBS (Direct), 2007.
1176:"Language Development in Profoundly Deaf Children with Cochlear Implants"
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166:(1520-1584) is often credited as the inventor of deaf education. Later,
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1103:"Memphis Oral School for the Deaf : Who We Are : Overview"
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1581:"Creación del primer Instituto Educativo Nacional Para Sordo Mudos"
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286:
153:
1729:
1638:"La escuela porteña donde se enseña a hablar a los chicos sordos"
1031:"Early Sign Language Exposure and Cochlear Implantation Benefits"
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Winefield, Richard. Never the Twain Shall Meet. Washington, DC:
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Reducción de las letras y arte para enseñar a hablar a los mudos
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DERECHO A LA COMUNICACIÓN. SORDERA VS LENGUA DE SEÑAS ARGENTINA
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1547:(1st ed. La Plata: Al Margen. ed.). La Plata: Al Margen.
786:
Nielsen, Kim E. (2007). "The Southern Ties of Helen Keller".
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and are a source of controversy for involved communities.
550:
Language deprivation in deaf and hard of hearing children
377:, which is a hotly debated device in the Deaf community.
838:"Introduction | AG Bell | Listening and Spoken Language"
220:. Manual language soon became a less popular choice for
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La comunidad sorda argentina: una mirada antropológica
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with 164 educators attending with one of them being
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Universidad Nacional de Cuyo. Facultad de Educación
191:after hearing that he taught a deaf man to talk in
1491:SAGE Reference - Oralism, Psychological Effects of
1353:Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities
141:, is how oralism continues on in the current day.
1484:
1482:
1266:Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research
2146:Manila Christian Computer Institute for the Deaf
1601:La escuela mixta en los institutos de Sordomudos
1560:"Día Nacional de las Personas Sordas Argentinas"
691:. Diputación Provincial de Zaragoza. p. 56.
1713:"El Derecho a la Minoría Sorda. Cultura Sorda"
545:History of deaf education in the United States
1897:
1745:
1524:"Sign Bilingualism in Spanish Deaf Education"
348:Leaders of the manualist movement, including
40:The examples and perspective in this article
8:
1260:Nicholas, Johanna G.; Geers, Ann E. (1997).
737:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2208:Institut National de Jeunes Sourds de Paris
1598:McCotter, M. A.; Díaz Gómez, J. P. (1899).
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1489:Gertz, Genie; Boudreault, Patrick (2016).
2450:Schools for the deaf in the United States
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898:A Disability History of the United States
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78:Learn how and when to remove this message
2430:Montreal Institute for the Deaf and Mute
2017:Parkash Memorial Deaf & Dumb School
921:Bell, Alexander G. (1891). "Marriage".
900:. Boston, Massachusetts: Beacon Press.
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619:
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507:Hospital de Rehabilitación Manuel Rocca
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2311:St John's Catholic School for the Deaf
2251:Antonio Provolo Institute for the Deaf
2027:Vatika High School for Deaf & Dumb
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2402:Sir James Whitney School for the Deaf
2049:Fukui Prefectural School for the Deaf
1691:Quinteros, A. de los Ángeles (2015).
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386:Clarke Schools for Hearing and Speech
265:began to wield increasing influence.
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2370:British Columbia School for the Deaf
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2375:Ernest C. Drury School for the Deaf
1307:Studies in Philosophy and Education
111:mouth shapes and breathing patterns
2274:St Petersburg College for the Deaf
1642:Buenos Aires: Secretaría de Medios
25:
2391:Metro Toronto School for the Deaf
2012:Patiala School for the Deaf-blind
883:. 2016. Retrieved March 12, 2017.
2332:Centre for Deaf Studies, Bristol
1127:"Moog Center for Deaf Education"
31:
2092:SMK Pendidikan Khas Persekutuan
1445:Cochlear Implants International
788:The Journal of Southern History
709:. University of Chicago Press.
2485:Victorian College for the Deaf
1870:Christian Mission for the Deaf
822:Footnote 37 references Baynton
420:bilingual/bicultural education
398:Moog Center for Deaf Education
1:
2501:Kelston Deaf Education Centre
2177:Singapore School for the Deaf
1002:Swanwick, Ruth (2012-12-06).
935:10.1126/science.ns-17.424.160
705:C., Baynton, Douglas (1996).
649:Estes, Ellen L. (June 2010).
131:Listening and Spoken Language
2537:List of schools for the deaf
2386:Manitoba School for the Deaf
1987:Lutheran School For The Deaf
1412:10.1097/AUD.0b013e3182014c76
1394:Moog, Jean (February 2011).
1079:"Cleary School for the Deaf"
881:World Federation of the Deaf
682:Zaragoza Ayarza, Francisco.
497:Oralist Schools in Argentina
269:and others believed in deaf
2425:Halifax School for the Deaf
2396:Robarts School for the Deaf
2365:Alberta School for the Deaf
2043:Central School for the Deaf
2007:Patiala School for the Deaf
54:, discuss the issue on the
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2381:MacKay School for the Deaf
1953:Tabora Deaf-Mute Institute
1805:Simultaneous communication
1604:. Tipografía de El Tiempo.
517:Controversy and Opposition
455:Oralism in other countries
340:Movement towards manualism
214:Clarke School for the Deaf
125:, manifest differently in
119:Northampton, Massachusetts
115:Clarke School for the Deaf
95:education of deaf students
2533:
2109:Naxal School for the Deaf
1937:Kisii School for the Deaf
1671:Juliarena, G. E. (2012).
1660:modalidadespecial.educ.ar
1522:Morales-López, E (2008).
1365:10.1007/s10882-007-9057-5
1319:10.1007/s11217-012-9350-3
1232:"More Than Meets the Eye"
1029:Geers, Anne (July 2017).
170:(c. 1579–1633) published
2408:W. Ross Macdonald School
1658:488-496. Retrieved from
1457:10.1179/cim.2008.9.4.199
1005:Issues in Deaf Education
668:10.17955/tvr.110.2.m.627
2561:Philosophy of education
1700:. Universidad siglo 21.
1278:10.1044/jslhr.4006.1314
1192:10.1111/1467-9280.00231
2556:Education for the deaf
2410:(for deafblind people)
1833:Edward Miner Gallaudet
1790:Manually coded English
1047:10.1542/peds.2016-3489
247:Gardiner Green Hubbard
193:San Salvador Monastery
159:
2327:Ovingdean Hall School
2231:Claremont Institution
1674:Bilingüismo en sordos
1499:10.4135/9781483346489
1236:gupress.gallaudet.edu
1180:Psychological Science
1151:"Tucker Maxon School"
961:Sign Language Studies
766:www.clarkeschools.org
263:Alexander Graham Bell
259:Alexander Graham Bell
157:
150:16th and 17th century
2072:Gwangju Inhwa School
1932:Humble Hearts School
1912:Schools for the deaf
1083:www.clearyschool.org
605:Gallaudet University
479:Oralism in Argentina
109:, and mimicking the
60:create a new article
52:improve this article
42:may not represent a
2301:Jordanstown Schools
1541:Rey, M. I. (2013).
1406:(1suppl): 75S–83S.
1155:www.tuckermaxon.org
762:"Welcome to Clarke"
404:Tucker Maxon School
350:Edward M. Gallaudet
308:Total Communication
255:Samuel Gridley Howe
189:Pedro Ponce de Leon
164:Pedro Ponce de León
2296:Donaldson's School
2141:Bohol Deaf Academy
1131:www.moogcenter.org
973:10.1353/sls.0.0020
768:. 5 September 2013
535:Baby sign language
182:Early 18th century
160:
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2281:
2239:
2238:
2189:
2188:
2185:
2184:
2155:
2154:Deaf-mute program
2080:
2079:
1995:
1994:
1961:
1960:
1879:
1878:
1720:cultura-sorda.org
1711:Burad, V (2005).
1615:Burad, V (2008).
1585:Museos Nacionales
1558:Burad, V (2009).
503:Escuela de Sordos
203:Late 19th century
139:cochlear implants
88:
87:
80:
62:, as appropriate.
16:(Redirected from
2568:
2517:Van Asch College
2507:
2479:
2467:
2415:
2355:
2317:
2306:Mary Hare School
2264:
2221:
2198:
2167:
2153:
2062:
1977:
1970:
1922:
1906:
1899:
1892:
1883:
1754:
1747:
1740:
1731:
1724:
1723:
1717:
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1701:
1699:
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1624:cultura-sorda.eu
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1391:
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1348:
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1272:(6): 1314–1327.
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844:. Archived from
834:
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168:Juan Pablo Bonet
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2125:Ida Rieu School
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2097:
2076:
2053:
2031:
1991:
1957:
1941:
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907:978-080702204-7
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676:
648:
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629:
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607:Press, 1987. 4.
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510:
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2183:
2182:
2180:
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2173:
2171:
2164:
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2151:Miriam College
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2066:
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2054:
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2051:
2046:
2039:
2037:
2033:
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2030:
2029:
2024:
2019:
2014:
2009:
2003:
2001:
1997:
1996:
1993:
1992:
1990:
1989:
1983:
1981:
1974:
1967:
1963:
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1956:
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1928:
1926:
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1909:
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1894:
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1877:
1876:
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1857:
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1854:
1848:
1842:
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1824:
1817:
1815:
1811:
1810:
1808:
1807:
1802:
1797:
1792:
1787:
1782:
1780:Fingerspelling
1777:
1771:
1769:
1765:
1764:
1761:Deaf education
1759:
1757:
1756:
1749:
1742:
1734:
1726:
1725:
1703:
1683:
1663:
1647:
1629:
1607:
1590:
1572:
1550:
1533:
1514:
1507:
1478:
1451:(4): 199–214.
1435:
1386:
1359:(4): 385–408.
1340:
1313:(3): 261–271.
1297:
1247:
1223:
1186:(2): 153–158.
1166:
1142:
1118:
1094:
1070:
1021:
1014:
994:
967:(3): 258–265.
948:
913:
906:
885:
858:
842:www.agbell.org
824:
778:
744:
715:
694:
674:
661:(2): 169–178.
641:
627:
609:
577:
560:
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382:
379:
369:
366:
357:
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341:
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336:
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302:
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242:
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222:deaf education
209:
206:
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183:
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127:deaf education
86:
85:
46:of the subject
44:worldwide view
39:
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30:
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18:Oral education
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
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2443:United States
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2172:
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2161:
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2149:
2147:
2144:
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2123:
2122:
2120:
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2110:
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2100:
2093:
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2089:
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2083:
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2069:
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2063:
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2050:
2047:
2044:
2041:
2040:
2038:
2034:
2028:
2025:
2023:
2020:
2018:
2015:
2013:
2010:
2008:
2005:
2004:
2002:
1998:
1988:
1985:
1984:
1982:
1980:Hong Kong SAR
1978:
1975:
1971:
1968:
1964:
1954:
1951:
1950:
1948:
1944:
1938:
1935:
1933:
1930:
1929:
1927:
1923:
1920:
1916:
1907:
1902:
1900:
1895:
1893:
1888:
1887:
1884:
1871:
1868:
1867:
1865:
1863:organizations
1859:
1852:
1851:Clayton Valli
1849:
1846:
1845:Andrew Foster
1843:
1840:
1839:Sophia Alcorn
1837:
1834:
1831:
1828:
1827:Laurent Clerc
1825:
1822:
1819:
1818:
1816:
1812:
1806:
1803:
1801:
1800:Sign language
1798:
1796:
1793:
1791:
1788:
1786:
1783:
1781:
1778:
1776:
1773:
1772:
1770:
1768:Communication
1766:
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1755:
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1748:
1743:
1741:
1736:
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1732:
1721:
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1551:
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1534:
1529:
1525:
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1508:9781452259567
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1044:
1040:
1036:
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1025:
1022:
1017:
1015:9781136619977
1011:
1008:. Routledge.
1007:
1006:
998:
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990:
986:
982:
978:
974:
970:
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953:
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899:
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873:
871:
869:
867:
865:
863:
859:
848:on 2017-05-09
847:
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833:
831:
829:
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716:9780226039640
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389:
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367:
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356:Policy change
355:
353:
351:
346:
339:
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332:
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325:
321:
317:
313:
309:
300:
298:
296:
295:sign language
292:
288:
284:
283:sign language
279:
276:
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240:
238:
234:
232:
231:Clarke School
227:
223:
219:
215:
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202:
200:
198:
194:
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181:
179:
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176:sign language
173:
169:
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136:
132:
128:
124:
120:
116:
112:
108:
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100:
99:oral language
96:
92:
82:
79:
71:
68:February 2018
61:
57:
53:
47:
45:
38:
29:
28:
19:
1821:Jean Massieu
1794:
1719:
1706:
1693:
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1403:
1399:
1389:
1356:
1352:
1310:
1306:
1300:
1289:. Retrieved
1269:
1265:
1239:. Retrieved
1235:
1226:
1183:
1179:
1169:
1158:. Retrieved
1154:
1145:
1134:. Retrieved
1130:
1121:
1110:. Retrieved
1107:mosdkids.org
1106:
1097:
1086:. Retrieved
1082:
1073:
1038:
1034:
1024:
1004:
997:
964:
960:
926:
922:
916:
897:
894:Nielsen, Kim
888:
880:
850:. Retrieved
846:the original
841:
791:
787:
781:
770:. Retrieved
765:
706:
684:
677:
658:
655:Volta Review
654:
644:
540:Deaf culture
524:
520:
511:
506:
502:
491:
482:
450:
442:
438:
433:phonological
429:
425:
417:
413:
402:
396:
393:
390:
384:
381:Oral schools
371:
368:Modern usage
359:
347:
343:
335:20th century
328:articulation
323:
319:
315:
304:
280:
271:assimilation
244:
235:
211:
185:
171:
161:
135:hearing aids
90:
89:
74:
65:
41:
2494:New Zealand
2134:Philippines
2058:South Korea
1785:Lip reading
1775:Cued speech
251:Horace Mann
212:Before the
103:lip reading
2550:Categories
2535:See also:
1291:2017-03-28
1241:2017-03-28
1160:2019-01-09
1136:2020-07-08
1112:2017-04-04
1088:2017-04-04
1035:Pediatrics
852:2017-04-19
794:(4): 795.
772:2017-04-04
556:References
275:mainstream
2477:NextSense
2470:Australia
2163:Singapore
1861:Religious
1853:(b. 1951)
1847:(b. 1925)
1841:(b. 1883)
1835:(b. 1837)
1829:(b. 1785)
1823:(b. 1772)
1814:Educators
1381:141473313
1373:1056-263X
1335:145422142
1327:0039-3746
989:144370435
808:0022-4642
733:cite book
461:Argentina
362:Vancouver
301:Classroom
273:with the
226:Darwinist
218:manualism
123:manualism
101:by using
56:talk page
2480:multiple
2118:Pakistan
2094:(Penang)
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