341:"Total Terror, Total Submission, Total Loneliness" argue that "hydraulic government" is despotic by its very nature. This was a form of "total power" because there were no social, legal, or cultural constraints. Wittfogel also denies that in the case of imperial China there were "rights of rebellion", such as other Chinese and foreign scholars have seen, but he does hold that a "law of diminishing administrative returns" kept rulers from controlling all aspects of their subjects' lives, so that "genuine elements of freedom remained." This freedom, however, amounted only to a "beggar's democracy." The "rationality coefficient of hydraulic society" means the society's ability to get things done, operating at three levels at which the government must be effective: managing the agrarian economy, ("managerial"); using corvee and taxes, ("consumptive"); and maintaining peace and order, ("judicial)
458:, took advantage of accidents and timing to become absolute ruler. Mote was especially concerned to explain the limits of power and the limits of terror, which he believed Wittfogel did not appreciate. Thus "total power," Mote wrote, "while not a meaningless phrase, must be understood in the context of a complex historical situation." It existed in Ming China, but even then it did not mean that totalitarian power was "omnipresent and omnicompetent." If this power concentrated on any single objective, it probably could accomplish that objective, but by the nature of the cultural environment, it could not accomplish many of them.
225:
no forces in society opposed them. Wittfogel asked whether there was an explanation found only in these societies. Marxists in both the Soviet Union and in
Western countries explored these questions as important in themselves, but with special heat because both liberals and conservatives in the West wanted to decide whether Stalin's Russia was an authentic communist system in Marx's sense or whether it was itself an example of oriental despotism. One historian of the concept remarks that for Wittfogel, "the analysis of Asia was actually intended as a discussion of political relationships within the 'West'".
651:, a Harvard historian of comparative East/West economic and social development, struck back: the "hydraulic thesis has been roundly criticized by a generation of Western sinologists zealous in their political correctness (Maoism and its later avatars are good) and quick to defend China’s supposed commitment to democracy. Wittfogel is the preferred target." Landes explained these criticisms by saying that "almost all these critics of the water connection are courting the favor of an umbrageous regime, dispenser of invitations and access.”
392:
focus on North
America and Western Europe." He added that "the book makes impressively clear that there is a great mass of despotic practice in the most populous parts of the world that cannot be transformed magically by democratic catalysis." Yet "environmental determinism" is "explicitly denied," as Wittfogel speaks of "the opportunity, not the necessity" for agromanagerial despotism.
193:'s dictum that all societies evolved through the same stages of historical growth, which Asia must therefore follow. When he was freed from a Nazi prison in Germany, he came to the United States with his wife in 1933 and made several trips to China for research. Wittfogel's interests in China and immersion in Marxist analysis led him to conclusions on the theory of
500:
Wittfogel's biographer Gary Ulmen replied to these criticisms that to focus on "hydraulic despotism" was to misunderstand
Wittfogel's general thesis. In fact, Ulmen continued, Wittfogel had considered a number of alternative ways to frame his proposition and there were many more demonstrations of the
418:
objected that most of the hydraulic civilisations of the past were in semi-arid regions where irrigation "did not require a despotic monarch to build vast aqueducts and reservoirs; it simply called for elementary and quite localised drainage construction and perhaps the diversion of river flood water
631:
David Price, a scholar of Cold War social science, declared that
Wittfogel's writings "become so mired in his personal anti-communist crusade that it can be difficult to disentangle his anti-totalitarian vehemence from his theoretical contributions." Price argued that Wittfogel took advantage of the
496:
Anderson continued that “this vulgar charivari, devoid of any historical sense, jumbles together pell-mell
Imperial Rome, Tsarist Russia, Hopi Arizona, Sung China, Chaggan East Africa, Mamluk Egypt, Inca Peru, Ottoman Turkey, and Sumerian Mesopotamia – not to speak of Byzantium or Babylonia, Persia,
445:
wrote that
Wittfogel "presents effective arguments, and the neatness of his total view of Chinese despotism is compelling, yet when it is applied to any one period of history there appear certain difficulties in accepting his arguments." Wittfogel "does not write of Chinese government and society as
224:
Wittfogel suggested Asia was immobile because rulers controlled society but there were no slaves, as in Marx's slave society, nor serfs, as in feudal society: there were no classes, no class conflict, and thus no change. This proposition did not explain how rulers gained their absolute power and why
622:
extensively but not uncritically. These thinkers, Blaut charges, share “the most fundamental error,” that is, “to believe, or assume, that one type of environment produces a particular type of society and the latter then persists down through history. Culture changes...." In the 1930s, Wittfogel's
489:
A ubiquitous ‘Asiatism’ represents no improvement on a universal ‘feudalism’: in fact, it is even less rigorous as a term. What serious historical unity exists between Ming China and
Megalithic Ireland, Pharaonic Egypt and Hawaii? It is perfectly clear that such social formations are unimaginably
391:
advised that "every geographer concerned with Asia, and every political geographer whatever the regional concern, should read it". He hoped that "historians, political scientists, deans, and college presidents will see it as evidence that ... 'most of the world' is just as important as traditional
228:
In the late 1920 and early 1930s, orthodox theorists in Moscow spurned
Wittfogel's views because they differed from Stalin's and Chinese Marxists rejected them also because they implied that China did not have the capability to develop. On a trip to Moscow, however, Wittfogel met the young Chinese
607:
credited
Wittfogel with updating Marx and Weber but sharply criticized what he regarded as the misuse of Wittfogel in what he called “the myth of the European miracle,” that is, "the rather archaic doctrine" that environmental factors made Europe modern and the Orient stagnant and despotic. Blaut
99:
in 1957. The book offers an explanation for the despotic governments in "Oriental" societies, where control of water was necessary for irrigation and flood-control. Managing these projects required large-scale bureaucracies, which dominated the economy, society, and religious life. This despotism
265:
and published articles presenting aspects of its argument. He finished a manuscript in 1954, but for several years publishers turned it down. Perhaps the topic did not seem attractive or perhaps the political atmosphere seemed hostile to a book with a
Marxist argument even if that argument was
468:
commented that "despite its analytical sweep and evident learning, Wittfogel's model made it difficult to understand why government involvement in Chinese social life seemed to have been distinctly limited during the imperial era (221 B.C.E. - 1911 CE.) or how Chinese society could have ever
241:, argued that a dynasty's success depended on control of irrigation, which increased agricultural production, and especially water transportation, which gave the government both military and financial control. Wittfogel also had a productive intellectual relation in the 1930s with
419:
into the flat lands on either side of the main stream." Leach further objected that Wittfogel did not deal with India, the state which Marx saw as the ideal type of "Asiatic society", and ignored the other states of South and Southeast Asia, which were all "hydraulic societies."
614:
644:
in the midst of this political struggle. Gregory Blue called final words of the book — "not with the spear only, but with the battleax" —the "Spartan view on how Greeks should fight Persian imperialism" that "represented a highbrow version of 'better red than dead.'"
600:. These scholars tested and challenged Wittfogel's conclusions. Robert McCormick Adams, for instance, found that the archeological evidence in Mesopotamia indicated that irrigation might help consolidate political control but did not by itself cause despotic rule.
525:, Needham remarked that Wittfogel's Marxism in the period before he came to the United States was "chiefly an emphasis on social and economic factors in Chinese history which had been overlooked by others.” After World War II,
399:, for instance, disagreed with the scholars who used the concept of oriental despotism for understanding of Aztec political organization and society. The concept is "demonstrably false," wrote Offner, at least for the state of
632:
fact that he was one of the few Asia scholars to cooperate with Cold War investigations and that this cooperation protected his Marxist analysis from criticism; Wittfogel's ecological materialism escaped criticism even in the
384:
in the American press was wide and warm. Reviewers noted that Wittfogel had been working on these questions in some form since the 1930s but that the book was important for understanding the post-war world. The reviewer in
221:. Modern Europe, in Marx's classic formulation, was created by the conflict between the emerging bourgeois and industrial capitalist classes, on the one hand, and the Ancient Regime of feudal economy on the other.
1280:
430:
in regard to Islamic societies. He saw the earlier oriental despotism theorists and Wittfogel as "precursors, or manifestations of what would later be called the 'Orientalist' approach," which
159:
influenced ecological anthropologists and global economic historians even though some of them found fault with its methodology and empirical basis or questioned Wittfogel's political motives.
640:, Paul Robbins, notes that Wittfogel, having been accused of being a communist sympathizer, protested loudly and accused Owen Lattimore and other colleagues of being communists; he wrote
197:
that differed from Marxist tradition. Marx held that historical development outside Europe did not follow the pattern he saw in Europe. Europe, he wrote, developed through a process of
1244:—— (1938). "New Light on Chinese Society: An Investigation of China's Socio-Economic Structure". NY: International secretariat Institute of Pacific relations.
556:
and ecological political science, that is, theoretical approaches that combined geographical and environmental factors. Wittfogel participated in a 1953 session at the
151:
The book was both welcomed as an historically grounded analysis of despotism that warned the West against the expansion of Communist totalitarianism and criticized as a
403:: irrigation had no significant role, there was extensive private property in land, and the government did not dominate the economy, since the market was extensive.
148:, though they were not themselves hydraulic societies, did not break away from their historical condition and remained systems of "total power" and "total terror".
477:, wrote that historians were burdened with the task of responding to Wittfogel's charge that the dynasty was "despotic," one that he did not think was justified.
529:
invited Wittfogel to Harvard University to deliver a series of talks to his graduate seminar in Area Studies. Wittfogel was one of the influences on Fairbank's
446:
a historian; the reader does not sense any awareness of the steadily cumulative development through the centuries which gave each age its own character." The
266:
strongly critical of the Soviet Union and the communist government in China. Wittfogel may have had to supply a publication subsidy to Yale University Press.
504:
Wittfogel wrote in 1960 that the People's Republic of China was not a "hydraulic society," but that it represented a "stronger form of oriental despotism."
473:'s "Grand Alliance distinction between 'fascist-conservative and communist-progressive forms of totalitarianism'..." Another historian of the Ming dynasty,
519:
appreciated Wittfogel's early work for its combination of Weberian understanding of bureaucracy and Marxist political analysis. In developing his study,
2135:
2171:
533:(1948), a survey that synthesized the standard work of historians and social scientists. Wittfogel left Columbia University in 1949 to join the
245:, whom he met in China. Lattimore, who shared Wittfogel's interest in ecological structures and material conditions, argued that the history of
2176:
1916:"Wittfogel's Theory of Oriental Society (or Hydraulic Society) and the Development of Studies of Chinese Social and Economic History in Japan"
1886:
Eisenstadt, Shmmuel Noah (2003), "Civil Society, Public Sphere, The Myth of Oriental Despotism and Political Dynamic in Islamic Societies",
557:
1944:
Offner, Jerome A. (1981). "On the Inapplicability of" Oriental Despotism" and the" Asiatic Mode of Production" to the Aztecs of Texcoco".
593:
317:, and 20th century Marxist-Leninist regimes. He prefers the term "hydraulic" rather than "Oriental," but uses the terms interchangeably.
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was dominated by the interaction between settled agricultural societies that flourished in the relatively well-watered rim and the
335:"Despotic Power, - Total And Not Benevolent": The absence of effective constitutional and societal checks and "beggars' democracy.
2077:
2156:
100:
differed from the Western experience, where power was distributed among contending groups. The book argues that this form of "
2166:
145:
973:
Lin, Diana Xiaoqing (2012). "John K. Fairbank's Construction of China, 1930s-1950s: Culture, History, and Imperialism".
1586:(1961). "The Growth of Chinese Despotism: A Critique of Wittfogel's Theory of Oriental Despotism as Applied to China".
17:
1205:
Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft Chinas, Versuch der wissenschaftlichen Analyse einer großen asiatischen Agrargesellschaft
1700:
1274:. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, with the cooperation of the American Institute of Pacific Relations.
469:
flourished at all". Wittfogel's reading of China as a hydraulic despotism, Blue speculated, also aimed to undermine
233:, an underground communist who became his intellectual disciple. Ji came to the United States for graduate work at
178:
1915:
1065:
2186:
534:
1991:
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423:
210:
174:
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Beginning in the 1930s, Wittfogel pursued research projects that formed a background and preparation for
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465:
168:
96:
92:
56:
46:
1879:
Key Economic Areas in Chinese History, as Revealed in the Development of Public Works for Water-Control
137:
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work was translated and used by scholars in Japan, but after the war not so much attention was paid.
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294:
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113:
31:
1111:
The European Miracle: Environments, Economies, and Geopolitics in the History of Europe and Asia
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saw Wittfogel as the defining influence in the group, but the historian Alice Miller disagreed.
314:
615:
The European Miracle: Environments, Economies and Geopolitics in the History of Europe and Asia
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2018:
1997:
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2101:
The Science of Society: Toward an Understanding of the Life and Work of Karl August Wittfogel
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2012:
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1472:
1437:
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1333:
1292:
1281:"Oriental Society in Transition with Special Reference to Pre-Communist and Communist China"
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982:
546:
526:
483:
objected that the concept of the Asiatic Mode of Production was too broad to be meaningful:
282:
101:
2078:"'Hydraulic Society in Ceylon': Contesting Wittfogel's Thesis and Sri Lankan Mytho-history"
189:. During the 1920s and early 1930s he debated with orthodox Marxist-Leninists who followed
1508:
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Area specialist scholars, however, questioned the concept for their particular regions.
1935:
1856:
1607:
597:
561:
541:, for instance, used Wittfogel's concept of "beggar's democracy" in his massive study,
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480:
442:
302:
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125:
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1973:
1821:
The Colonizer's Model of the World: Geographical Diffusionism and Eurocentric History
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310:
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129:
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281:. "The Natural Setting Of Hydraulic Society," explains the geographical settings of
1981:
Price, David (2013). "Karl Wittfogel". In McGee, R. Jon; Warms, Richard L. (eds.).
648:
577:
455:
447:
415:
141:
1428:—— (1969). "Results and Problems of the Study of Oriental Despotism".
1395:
2141:
685:
1906:
The Magic of Concepts : History and the Economic in Twentieth-Century China
608:
sees the influence of Wittfogel in the writings of "miracle theorists," such as
431:
290:
230:
182:
133:
109:
1849:. (Conference paper) XIXth International Congress of Historical Sciences. Oslo.
1798:
1684:
986:
246:
2049:
1209:
Schriften des Instituts für Sozialforschung der Universität Frankfurt am Main
1513:"(Review Article) the Study of Oriental Depotisms as Systems of Total Power"
633:
589:
218:
214:
206:
2011:
Rowe, William T. (1985). "Chinese Social History". In Zunz, Olivier (ed.).
2142:
Marxist Geopolitics: Oriental Despotism A Comparative Study of Total Power
1050:
The Rise of Anthropological Theory : A History of Theories of Culture
2129:
1785:
Abrahamian, Ervand (1974). "Oriental Despotism: The Case of Qajar Iran".
1215:—— (1936). "Key Economic Areas in Chinese History (Review)".
450:
emperors, for instance, had great power but did not use it despotically;
173:
Wittfogel, who was educated in German centers of sinology and joined the
152:
1623:
1599:
1168:
The Wealth and Poverty of Nations: Why Some Are So Rich and Some So Poor
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1500:
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1304:
1236:
1965:
1652:
1575:
1420:
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2017:. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. pp. 236–294.
1910:, Ch 2, "Thr Economic and the State: The Asiatic Mode of Production."
2034:"Oriental Despotism and European Orientalism: Botero to Montesquieu"
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1529:
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1492:
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1338:
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1228:
552:
The water-control thesis encouraged the development of the field of
437:
The reception among scholars of China was especially skeptical. The
1957:
1644:
1567:
408:
323:"Hydraulic Economy,- A Managerial And Genuinely Political Economy"
186:
2059:
After Oriental Despotism: Eurasian Growth in a Global Perspective
434:
accused of imposing this type of analysis on Islamic societies.
365:
The Rise And Fall Of The Theory Of The Asiatic Mode Of Production
347:"The Core, The Margin, And The Submargin Of Hydraulic Societies,"
2033:
1983:
Theory in Social and Cultural Anthropology: An Encyclopedia
636:
because he was accepted as anti-communist. The scholar of
1888:
Comparative Civilizations and Multiple Modernitities Pt. 1
1554:
Jones, Stephen B. (1958). "Oriental Despotism (Review)".
1411:—— (1960). "A Stronger Oriental Despotism".
1897:
Rural China: Imperial Control in the Nineteenth Century
1031:
1029:
709:
707:
537:
study group on Modern China. One member, the historian
353:
Patterns Of Proprietary Complexity In Hydraulic Society
1673:
Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies
1477:
Oriental Despotism: A Comparative Study of Total Power
1366:
Oriental Despotism; a Comparative Study of Total Power
515:
was influential for its methodology and its findings.
84:
Oriental Despotism: A Comparative Study of Total Power
18:
Oriental Despotism: A Comparative Study of Total Power
2084:. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ Press. pp. 210–234.
884:
882:
564:
at University of Illinois in 1955. The appearance of
1985:. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage. pp. 935–936.
1088:
1086:
687:
The Asiatic Mode of Production: Science and Politics
568:
in print further influenced anthropologists such as
155:
polemic. The materialist and ecological theories in
237:. Ji's doctoral dissertation, published in 1936 as
72:
62:
52:
42:
1855:
1843:China and the Writing of World History in the West
1818:
1165:
1378:—— (1958). "(Review) Joseph Needham,
592:. Wittfogel's work encouraged the development of
177:in 1920, was dissatisfied with the debate on the
1993:Political Ecology : A Critical Introduction
2014:Reliving the Past: The Worlds of Social History
1369:. New Haven: Yale University Press – via
1728:Venturi, Franco (1968). "Oriental Despotism".
1198:
690:. London; Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
136:. Wittfogel further argues that 20th century
8:
1787:International Journal of Middle East Studies
407:assessed the applicability of the theory to
37:
1671:(1958), "Review of K.A. Wittfogel (1957)",
684:Bailey, Anne M.; Llobera, Josep R. (1981).
560:and in a following conference organized by
1899:. Seattle: University of Washington Press.
1272:History of Chinese Society: Liao, 907-1125
1199:Wittfogel's writings on Oriental Despotism
845:
817:
36:
2138:" by Rolando Minuti Published: 2012-05-03
1934:
1528:
1337:
1151:
1127:
948:
757:
713:
239:The Role of Irrigation In Chinese History
1715:(1958), "Review of Oriental Despotism",
975:Journal of American-East Asian Relations
924:
912:
682:For essays and readings on the AMP, see
1858:The Asiatic Mode of Production in China
1610:(1959). "(Review) Oriental Despotism".
1139:
1020:
960:
829:
666:
659:
1881:. New York: Columbia University Press.
1322:"Chinese Society: A Historical Survey"
1258:
1247:
805:
270:The structure and argument of the book
169:Karl August Wittfogel § Biography
2082:Edmund Leach: An Anthropological Life
1717:The American Political Science Review
1092:
1035:
999:
936:
793:
634:Cold War heightened fear of Communism
7:
1770:. London; New York: Verso Editions.
1052:. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press.
888:
873:
861:
781:
769:
729:
558:American Anthropological Association
501:theory than "hydraulic" despotism.
253:that survived in arid Central Asia.
745:
2076:Tambiah, Stanley Jayaraja (2002).
1936:10.1111/j.1746-1049.1966.tb00481.x
87:is a book of political theory and
25:
1890:, Leiden: Brill, pp. 418–434
1380:Science and Civilization in China
522:Science and Civilisation in China
1767:Lineages of the Absolutist State
1631:Palerm, Angel (1958). "Review".
2103:. The Hague; New York: Mouton.
2038:Journal of Early Modern History
1908:, Durham: Duke University Press
1730:Journal of the History of Ideas
329:"A State Stronger Than Society"
30:For the political concept, see
2172:Books about cultural geography
2057:Stanziani, Alessandro (2014).
596:, for instance in the work of
371:Oriental Society In Transition
1:
2177:Books about politics of China
1862:. Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe.
1701:"(Review) Oriental Despotism"
1396:10.1525/aa.1958.60.2.02a00320
1117:pp. xxxi, 9-10, 203, 206, 211
1113:. Cambridge University Press.
902:Chinese State in Ming Society
1825:. New York: Guilford Press.
1481:American Sociological Review
1320:—— (1956–1957).
359:Classes In Hydraulic Society
1895:Hsiao, Kung-ch'üan (1967).
1270:with Jiasheng Feng (1949).
531:The United States and China
414:The British anthropologist
274:The book has ten chapters:
2203:
2126:Karl Wittfogel (1896-1988)
1914:Masubuchi, Tatsuo (1966).
490:distant from one another.
181:(AMP) that traced back to
179:Asiatic mode of production
166:
146:People's Republic of China
29:
2182:History books about China
2032:Rubiés, Joan-Pau (2005).
1904:Karl, Rebecca E. (2017),
1799:10.1017/S0020743800032761
1685:10.1017/s0041977x0006047x
1285:The Far Eastern Quarterly
1172:. New York: W.W. Norton.
1164:Landes, David S. (1998).
1076:"Hydraulic Civilization"
987:10.1163/18765610-01904003
603:The political geographer
95:(1896–1988) published by
2162:American political books
2050:10.1163/1570065054300275
1923:The Developing Economies
1877:Chi, Chʻao-ting (1936).
1764:Anderson, Perry (1979).
1517:Journal of Asian Studies
1509:Eisenstadt, Shmmuel Noah
1430:Journal of Asian Studies
1326:Journal of Asian Studies
1207:, (Hirschfeld: Leipzig,
535:University of Washington
380:The initial reaction to
1854:Brook, Timothy (1989).
1699:Sherman, A. V. (1959).
1479:by Karl A. Wittfogel".
1384:American Anthropologist
1363:—— (1957).
1279:—— (1955).
1109:Jones, Eric L. (1987).
1078:Encyclopedia Britannica
1048:Harris, Marvin (2001).
554:ecological anthropology
388:The Geographical Review
2157:1957 non-fiction books
2061:. London: Bloomsbury.
1990:Robbins, Paul (2010).
1840:Blue, Gregory (2000).
1257:Cite journal requires
627:Political implications
570:Robert McCormick Adams
424:Shmuel Noah Eisenstadt
175:German Communist Party
2167:Books about communism
2099:Ulmen, G. L. (1978).
466:University of Toronto
454:, the founder of the
140:regimes, such as the
97:Yale University Press
93:Karl August Wittfogel
57:Yale University Press
47:Karl August Wittfogel
2130:The Rise of the West
927:, pp. 487 n. 4.
594:cultural materialism
439:Princeton University
213:, and from there to
211:bourgeois capitalism
1612:Science and Society
1556:Geographical Review
1475:(1958). "Review of
1413:The China Quarterly
235:Columbia University
102:hydraulic despotism
89:comparative history
39:
38:Oriental Despotism
2136:Oriental Despotism
1946:American Antiquity
1713:Toynbee, Arnold J.
1633:American Antiquity
1584:Mote, Frederick W.
642:Oriental Despotism
620:Oriental Despotism
605:James Morris Blaut
566:Oriental Despotism
513:Oriental Despotism
428:Oriental Despotism
382:Oriental Despotism
295:Hellenistic Greece
263:Oriental Despotism
251:pastoral societies
195:oriental despotism
157:Oriental Despotism
114:Hellenistic Greece
32:Oriental despotism
27:1957 American book
2124:David Cosandey, "
1669:Pulleyblank, E.G.
1473:Eberhard, Wolfram
846:Eisenstadt (2003)
818:Abrahamian (1974)
638:political ecology
539:Hsiao Kung-ch'uan
405:Ervand Abrahamian
307:Abbasid Caliphate
283:hydraulic empires
122:Abbasid Caliphate
80:
79:
73:Publication place
16:(Redirected from
2194:
2114:
2095:
2072:
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2044:(1–2): 109–180.
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1724:
1708:
1695:
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1579:
1550:
1532:
1504:
1461:
1424:
1407:
1374:
1371:Internet Archive
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1266:
1260:
1255:
1253:
1245:
1240:
1188:
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1171:
1161:
1155:
1152:Wittfogel (1957)
1149:
1143:
1137:
1131:
1128:Masubuchi (1966)
1125:
1119:
1114:
1106:
1100:
1090:
1081:
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1068:
1063:
1045:
1039:
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1012:
1009:
1003:
997:
991:
990:
981:(3–4): 211–234.
970:
964:
958:
952:
949:Wittfogel (1960)
946:
940:
934:
928:
922:
916:
910:
904:
898:
892:
886:
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871:
865:
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843:
837:
827:
821:
815:
809:
803:
797:
791:
785:
779:
773:
767:
761:
758:Wittfogel (1957)
755:
749:
743:
737:
727:
721:
714:Stanziani (2014)
711:
702:
701:
680:
674:
664:
612:, and his book,
547:Frederic Wakeman
527:John K. Fairbank
422:The sociologist
397:Jerome A. Offner
201:from an ancient
138:Marxist-Leninist
104:" characterized
64:Publication date
40:
21:
2202:
2201:
2197:
2196:
2195:
2193:
2192:
2191:
2187:Eastern culture
2147:
2146:
2121:
2111:
2098:
2092:
2075:
2069:
2056:
2031:
2025:
2010:
2004:
1989:
1980:
1943:
1918:
1913:
1903:
1894:
1885:
1876:
1870:
1853:
1846:
1839:
1833:
1815:Blaut, James M.
1813:
1784:
1778:
1763:
1760:
1758:Further reading
1742:10.2307/2707864
1727:
1711:
1698:
1667:
1630:
1608:Needham, Joseph
1606:
1588:Oriens Extremus
1582:
1553:
1530:10.2307/2941426
1507:
1493:10.2307/2088810
1471:
1468:
1442:10.2307/2943008
1427:
1410:
1377:
1362:
1339:10.2307/2941230
1319:
1297:10.2307/2941830
1278:
1269:
1256:
1246:
1243:
1229:10.2307/2750659
1217:Pacific Affairs
1214:
1201:
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972:
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955:
947:
943:
935:
931:
925:Anderson (1979)
923:
919:
913:Anderson (1979)
911:
907:
900:Timothy Brook,
899:
895:
887:
880:
872:
868:
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683:
681:
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665:
661:
657:
629:
574:Stanley Diamond
510:
378:
272:
259:
217:and eventually
171:
165:
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35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2200:
2198:
2190:
2189:
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2174:
2169:
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2120:
2119:External links
2117:
2116:
2115:
2110:978-9027977663
2109:
2096:
2090:
2073:
2068:978-1472523532
2067:
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2024:978-0807816585
2023:
2008:
2002:
1987:
1978:
1958:10.2307/279985
1941:
1929:(3): 316–326.
1911:
1901:
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1869:978-0873325424
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1212:
1211:, No. 3; 1931)
1200:
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1179:978-0393040173
1178:
1156:
1154:, p. 449.
1144:
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1132:
1120:
1101:
1082:
1069:
1059:978-0759101326
1058:
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1038:, p. 936.
1025:
1021:Robbins (2010)
1013:
1004:
1002:, p. 108.
992:
965:
961:Needham (1959)
953:
941:
929:
917:
915:, p. 486.
905:
893:
878:
866:
854:
838:
830:Tambiah (2002)
822:
810:
798:
796:, p. 306.
786:
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762:
760:, p. 124.
750:
738:
722:
703:
696:
675:
667:Robbins (2010)
658:
656:
653:
628:
625:
618:, which cites
598:Julian Steward
562:Julian Steward
517:Joseph Needham
509:
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481:Perry Anderson
443:Frederick Mote
377:
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336:
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303:imperial China
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243:Owen Lattimore
199:class conflict
167:Main article:
164:
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126:imperial China
78:
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1466:Major reviews
1465:
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1193:
1185:
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1169:
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1148:
1145:
1142:, p. 57.
1141:
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1129:
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1105:
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1008:
1005:
1001:
996:
993:
988:
984:
980:
976:
969:
966:
963:, p. 59.
962:
957:
954:
951:, p. ??.
950:
945:
942:
938:
933:
930:
926:
921:
918:
914:
909:
906:
903:
897:
894:
891:, p. 22.
890:
885:
883:
879:
876:, p. 36.
875:
870:
867:
863:
858:
855:
851:
847:
842:
839:
835:
831:
826:
823:
819:
814:
811:
808:, p. 43.
807:
806:Offner (1981)
802:
799:
795:
790:
787:
783:
778:
775:
771:
766:
763:
759:
754:
751:
747:
742:
739:
735:
731:
726:
723:
719:
715:
710:
708:
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699:
697:9780429855344
693:
689:
688:
679:
676:
672:
668:
663:
660:
654:
652:
650:
646:
643:
639:
635:
626:
624:
621:
617:
616:
611:
610:Eric L. Jones
606:
601:
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587:
583:
582:Marvin Harris
579:
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548:
544:
540:
536:
532:
528:
524:
523:
518:
514:
507:
505:
502:
498:
497:or Hawaii.”
488:
487:
486:
485:
484:
482:
478:
476:
475:Timothy Brook
472:
471:John Fairbank
467:
463:
459:
457:
453:
452:Zhu Yuanzhang
449:
444:
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316:
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311:Moghul empire
308:
304:
300:
299:imperial Rome
296:
292:
288:
287:ancient Egypt
284:
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276:
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256:
254:
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203:slave society
200:
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191:Joseph Stalin
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149:
147:
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130:Moghul empire
127:
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119:
118:imperial Rome
115:
111:
107:
106:ancient Egypt
103:
98:
94:
90:
86:
85:
76:United States
75:
71:
67:
61:
58:
55:
51:
48:
45:
41:
33:
19:
2100:
2081:
2058:
2041:
2037:
2013:
1992:
1982:
1952:(1): 43–61.
1949:
1945:
1926:
1922:
1905:
1896:
1887:
1878:
1857:
1842:
1820:
1790:
1786:
1766:
1733:
1729:
1720:
1716:
1707:. January 1.
1704:
1676:
1672:
1636:
1632:
1618:(1): 58–65.
1615:
1611:
1591:
1587:
1559:
1555:
1520:
1516:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1433:
1429:
1415:(1): 29–34.
1412:
1387:
1383:
1379:
1365:
1329:
1325:
1288:
1284:
1271:
1250:cite journal
1220:
1216:
1208:
1204:
1183:
1167:
1159:
1147:
1135:
1123:
1110:
1104:
1093:Blaut (1993)
1077:
1072:
1049:
1043:
1036:Price (2013)
1016:
1007:
1000:Hsiao (1967)
995:
978:
974:
968:
956:
944:
937:Ulmen (1978)
932:
920:
908:
896:
869:
864:, p. 5.
857:
841:
825:
813:
801:
794:Jones (1958)
789:
784:, p. 2.
777:
772:, p. 1.
765:
753:
741:
725:
686:
678:
662:
649:David Landes
647:
641:
630:
619:
613:
602:
586:Angel Palerm
578:Morton Fried
565:
551:
542:
530:
520:
512:
511:
503:
499:
495:
479:
462:Gregory Blue
460:
456:Ming dynasty
448:Song dynasty
436:
427:
421:
416:Edmund Leach
413:
394:
386:
381:
379:
368:
362:
356:
350:
344:
338:
332:
326:
320:
285:, including
278:
273:
262:
260:
238:
227:
223:
172:
156:
150:
142:Soviet Union
83:
82:
81:
1793:(1): 3–31.
1594:(1): 1–41.
889:Blue (2000)
874:Mote (1961)
862:Mote (1961)
782:Mote (1961)
770:Mote (1961)
730:Rowe (1985)
716:, pp.
669:, pp.
543:Rural China
441:sinologist
432:Edward Said
426:questioned
369:Chapter 10.
291:Mesopotamia
257:Publication
231:Ji Chaoding
183:Montesquieu
110:Mesopotamia
2151:Categories
1705:Commentary
1184:Wittfogel.
1095:, p.
848:, p.
832:, p.
746:Chi (1936)
732:, p.
363:Chapter 9.
357:Chapter 8.
351:Chapter 7.
345:Chapter 6.
339:Chapter 5.
333:Chapter 4.
327:Chapter 3.
321:Chapter 2.
315:Incan Peru
247:Inner Asia
163:Background
134:Incan Peru
1996:. Wiley.
1974:163992626
1807:154871428
1693:162716357
1661:164066742
1547:163098192
1458:147186184
1356:161204356
1313:165540094
590:Eric Wolf
508:Influence
376:Reception
279:Chapter 1
219:communism
215:socialism
207:feudalism
53:Publisher
1817:(1993).
1624:40400613
1600:43382295
1511:(1958).
1187:, p. 27.
1080:(Online)
1066:671- 674
229:scholar
153:Cold War
1750:2707864
1539:2941426
1501:2088810
1450:2943008
1348:2941230
1305:2941830
1237:2750659
1194:Sources
464:of the
411:Iran.
401:Texcoco
209:, then
2107:
2088:
2065:
2021:
2000:
1972:
1966:279985
1964:
1866:
1829:
1805:
1774:
1748:
1691:
1659:
1653:276500
1651:
1622:
1598:
1576:212153
1574:
1545:
1537:
1499:
1456:
1448:
1421:763342
1419:
1404:665188
1402:
1354:
1346:
1311:
1303:
1235:
1176:
1097:83- 90
1056:
1011:Miller
834:211 ff
694:
588:, and
309:, the
305:, the
132:, and
128:, the
120:, the
43:Author
1970:S2CID
1962:JSTOR
1919:(PDF)
1847:(PDF)
1803:S2CID
1746:JSTOR
1689:S2CID
1657:S2CID
1649:JSTOR
1620:JSTOR
1596:JSTOR
1572:JSTOR
1543:S2CID
1535:JSTOR
1497:JSTOR
1454:S2CID
1446:JSTOR
1417:JSTOR
1400:JSTOR
1352:S2CID
1344:JSTOR
1309:S2CID
1301:JSTOR
1233:JSTOR
1115:e.g.
718:17-18
671:56-57
655:Notes
409:Qajar
187:Hegel
2105:ISBN
2086:ISBN
2063:ISBN
2019:ISBN
1998:ISBN
1864:ISBN
1827:ISBN
1772:ISBN
1263:help
1174:ISBN
1064:pp.
1054:ISBN
692:ISBN
297:and
289:and
185:and
144:and
116:and
108:and
68:1957
2128:,"
2046:doi
1954:doi
1931:doi
1795:doi
1738:doi
1723:(1)
1681:doi
1641:doi
1564:doi
1525:doi
1489:doi
1438:doi
1392:doi
1382:".
1334:doi
1293:doi
1225:doi
983:doi
850:418
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205:to
91:by
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2080:.
2040:.
2036:.
1968:.
1960:.
1950:46
1948:.
1925:.
1921:.
1801:.
1789:.
1744:.
1734:24
1732:.
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1703:.
1687:,
1677:21
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1655:.
1647:.
1637:23
1635:.
1616:23
1614:.
1590:.
1570:.
1560:48
1558:.
1541:.
1533:.
1521:17
1519:.
1515:.
1495:.
1485:23
1483:.
1452:.
1444:.
1434:38
1432:.
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1388:60
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1976:.
1956::
1939:.
1933::
1927:4
1872:.
1835:.
1809:.
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1791:5
1780:.
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1740::
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1527::
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1460:.
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