52:) is a military strategy to control access to and within an operating environment. In an early definition, anti-access refers to those actions and capabilities, usually long-range, designed to prevent an opposing force from entering an operational area. Area denial refers to those actions and capabilities, usually of shorter range, designed to limit an opposing force's freedom of action within the operational area. In short, A2 affects movement to a theater, while AD affects movement within a theater. A2/AD typically refers to a strategy used by a weaker opponent to defend against an opponent of superior skill, although a stronger opponent can also use A2/AD.
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273:. Mines, coastal submarines, and attack craft could be employed in littoral areas. Other area denial systems include cruise missiles, long-range strike aircraft, mines, and coastal defense artillery. The term A2/AD was created in 2003 to describe the threats posed by long-range missile systems, precision munitions, and satellite technology that will make military operations in the littoral areas challenging for modern naval forces.
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bandied about freely, with no precise definition, that sends a variety of vague or conflicting signals, depending on the context in which it is either transmitted or received. The Navy will avoid using the term A2AD as a stand-alone acronym that can mean many things to different people or almost anything to anyone."
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A2/AD strategy is a significant concern of US policy, viewing it as a weapon of weaker forces that could be used against the US military. The US military considers that enemy adoption of anti-access/area denial strategies "may well be the most difficult operational challenge U.S. forces will face
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and other unconventional means, and information operations." A2/AD strategies on land often take advantage of natural geographic features or bridges that can support anti-access operations. Land-based area denial operations degrade the adversary's ability with techniques such as harassing fires,
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has commented on the vagueness of the term A2/AD, saying: "To some, A2AD is a code-word, suggesting an impenetrable “keep-out zone” that forces can enter only at extreme peril to themselves. To others, A2AD refers to a family of technologies. To still others, a strategy. In sum, A2AD is a term
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in the area, reacting to
Chinese tests and exercises for a possible invasion of Taiwan in 1995, which went effectively uncontested by the Chinese navy. The Chinese A2/AD strategy's main focus lies on sea denial by missiles (see also paragraph
162:), but features submarines and airplanes as well. The Chinese denial capabilities are not sufficient to exclude Japanese and US troops from the South China Sea, but enough to inflict heavy casualties in case of a war for the occupation of
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Attacks in cyberspace are an increasingly important part of the A2/AD threat. Tactical cyber A2/AD operations block access to specific resources, while strategic A2/AD blocks access to cyberspace itself.
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is employing a multi-faceted A2/AD strategy to exclude or deter as many adversary forces from acting within the waters it claims as its territorial waters as outlined by the
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for defeating adversaries across the range of military operations, including adversaries equipped with sophisticated anti-access and area denial capabilities".
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203:. Naval A2/AD typically takes advantage of geographical features that limit access such as chokepoints or the water surrounding an island. A
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from nearby waterways. In response to China's pursuit of such A2/AD capabilities, the United States has developed the
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Department of
Defense Authorization for Appropriations for Fiscal Year 2012 and the Future Years Defense Program
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is an A2/AD strategy in the air, prohibiting access to part of the airspace. A2/AD can be supported by
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all have developed or imported such weapons in an effort to develop a modern A2/AD strategy to counter
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322:. The threat on forward air bases from cruise and ballistic missiles can also impose anti-access.
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deception, and guerrilla-warfare-like tactics that avoid direct confrontation. Land-based
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techniques also include artillery, rocket, and missile strikes, mine fields, and
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513:. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office. 17 February 2011. p. 522.
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661:"Development of the Chinese A2/AD System in the Context of US–China Relations"
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are a modern method of stopping a potential adversary from attacking by sea.
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over the coming decades."The
Department of Defense developed the "joint
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Anti-access warfare: countering anti-access and area-denial strategies
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The concept of A2/AD has long been used by navies under names such as
780:. Washington, DC: Office of the Chief of Staff (Army-HQ). 2001-11-01.
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doctrine. Other methods of area denial at a strategic level include
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475:. Center for Strategic and Budgetary Assessments Washington, DC.
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Krepinevich, Andrew; Watts, Barry; Work, Robert (2003).
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285:, cruise missiles, long-range rockets and artillery,
469:Meeting the anti-access and area denial challenge
755:Center for Strategic & International Studies
751:"The Emerging Anti-Access/Area-Denial Challenge"
362:"Russia's A2/AD Capabilities: Real and Imagined"
207:is an example of a naval anti-access operation.
296:chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear
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281:The anti-access threat for the Army includes "
366:The US Army War College Quarterly: Parameters
73:The examples and perspective in this section
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552:U.S. Department of Defense (February 2010).
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634:Romero Meraner, Fabian-Lucas (2023-02-09).
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636:"China's Anti-Access/Area-Denial Strategy"
420:"Historical Perspective of A2/AD Strategy"
91:, or create a new section, as appropriate.
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665:Herald of the Russian Academy of Sciences
587:Richardson, Adm. John (October 3, 2016).
497:. Department of Defense. 17 January 2012.
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107:Learn how and when to remove this message
724:"Are Aircraft Carriers Still Relevant?"
491:Joint Operational Access Concept (JOAC)
360:Giles, Keir; Boulegue, Mathieu (2019).
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568:from the original on 23 September 2015
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722:Ben, Ho Wan Beng (15 November 2018).
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41:system can be used as an A2/AD asset.
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185:is part of China's A2/AD weaponry.
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555:Quadrennial Defense Review Report
777:Concepts for the Objective Force
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418:Russell, Alison Lawlor (2017).
749:Freier, Nathan (17 May 2012).
608:"China's Stealthy Area Denial"
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424:Strategic A2/AD in Cyberspace
640:The Defence Horizon Journal
287:weapons of mass destruction
87:, discuss the issue on the
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659:Yevtodyeva, M. G. (2022).
283:theater ballistic missiles
201:sea lines of communication
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147:People's Republic of China
132:Chief of Naval Operations
702:"Anti-Access Goes Global"
678:10.1134/S1019331622120048
531:. Naval Institute Press.
432:10.1017/9781316817001.002
606:Lake, Jon (2023-03-14).
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379:10.55540/0031-1723.2860
312:surface-to-air missiles
255:surface-to-air missiles
46:Anti-access/area denial
671:(Suppl 6): S534–S542.
527:Tangredi, Sam (2013).
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127:air-sea battle concept
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39:surface-to-air missile
612:Asian Military Review
593:The National Interest
589:"Deconstructing A2AD"
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155:carrier battle groups
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271:interceptor aircraft
199:and controlling the
134:Adm. John Richardson
85:improve this section
75:may not represent a
197:Command of the seas
341:Area denial weapon
267:electronic warfare
259:ballistic missiles
211:Anti-ship missiles
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798:Military strategy
700:Kazianis, Harry.
538:978-1-61251-187-0
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372:(1): 21–36.
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308:no-fly zone
292:area denial
223:North Korea
760:14 January
734:14 January
708:2011-12-29
645:2024-02-27
617:2024-02-27
347:References
326:Cyberspace
251:submarines
191:Sea denial
687:252600538
572:3 October
426:: 11–25.
388:232333797
97:June 2023
89:talk page
792:Category
563:Archived
335:See also
298:agents.
205:blockade
83:You may
56:Overview
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219:Russia
164:Taiwan
683:S2CID
566:(PDF)
559:(PDF)
495:(PDF)
473:(PDF)
384:S2CID
320:S-400
316:S-300
227:Syria
215:China
180:KD-88
141:China
50:A2/AD
36:S-400
762:2018
736:2019
574:2012
533:ISBN
436:ISBN
318:and
277:Land
269:and
231:Iran
229:and
178:The
145:The
48:(or
18:A2AD
673:doi
428:doi
374:doi
302:Air
170:Sea
160:Sea
34:An
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