325:
during drawing, meaning one could use rectangles as offscreen drawing areas and then "flip" them onto the visible screen by changing their origin point once the drawing was complete. Small rectangles could be used for movable objects whereas earlier Atari designs used custom sprite hardware for this task. Each of the rectangles had its own bit depth, 1, 2, 4 or 8-bit, and each one had its own color lookup table that mapped the 1, 4, 16 or 256 color registers of the selected bit depth onto an underlying hardware pallet of 4,096 colors. The data could be encoded using
457:
every design note, which is not surprising given that the teams originally came from the same company. By early 1984, Lorraine was farther along in design and nearly ready for production. Atari had already licensed the
Lorraine chipset for a games console machine, and the Gaza team was told to drop their efforts and begin work on a desktop computer design using Lorraine, codenamed "Mickey" (semi-officially known as the Atari 1850XLD).
243:. The screen was drawn from a single line in memory, which the program had to quickly change the memory on-the-fly as the television drew down the screen. This led to both a quirky design as well as surprising programming flexibility; it was some time before programmers learned the knack of "racing the beam", but when they did, 2600 games began to rapidly improve compared to early efforts.
27:
270:) and character-based output. ANTIC allowed the programmer to provide a simple list of instructions which it would then convert into data to be fed to the C/GTIA, freeing the programmer of this task. This separation of duties allowed each sub-system to be more powerful than the all-in-one TIA, while their updated design also greatly reduced programming complexity compared to the 2600.
526:
underlying data. Using line-end interrupts, programs could modify these pointers on-the-fly as the screen was drawn, allowing the system to display different objects on each line. Similar techniques had been used in earlier Atari machines to increase the number of sprites on a single screen. Because Silver required control of the memory, it operated as the bus master and also handled
313:, was tasked with keeping the company on the leading edge, exploring projects beyond the next fiscal year. They began experimenting with the new 16-and 32-bit chips in the early 1980s. By 1982 it was clear Atari was not moving forward with these new chips as rapidly as other companies. Some panic ensued, and a new effort began to develop a working system.
1319:
473:. In a desperate measure to restore cash-flow, whole divisions of the company were laid off over a period of a few weeks. This included the vast majority of the SRL staff. The Amy team convinced the Tramiels that their work could be used in other platforms, and their project continued. The rest of the Sierra team were scattered.
440:
Work on the various Sierra concepts continued through 1983 and into 1984, by which point little progress had been made on the complete design. Several mock-ups of various complexity had been constructed, but no working machines existed. Likewise, little concrete work on the operating system had taken
345:
chips. This led to the creation of the "Silver" and "Gold" chips, each of which implemented one portion of the
Rainbow concept. Silver was responsible for maintaining the rectangle data and priority system and using that to fetch the appropriate data from memory to produce any given pixel, while Gold
476:
As a result, any progress on the Sierra platform ended, Gaza was completed and demonstrated and Mickey was completed, awaiting the Amiga chipset that would never arrive. The "Cray" development frame for Gaza and reused for Mickey was used by the
Tramiel engineers to develop the Atari ST prototype.
390:
The design, then, was more of an outline than a concrete design, the only portions that were positively selected was the use of
Rainbow for graphics and a new synthesizer chip known as "Amy" for sound. Tying all of this together would be a new operating system known as "Eva", although the nature of
456:
who had led the design of the original Atari HCS (Home
Computer System--400/800) and the creation of the TIA for the Atari VCS (AKA 2600), had been making progress with their new platform, codenamed "Lorraine". Lorraine was also based on the 68000 and generally similar to Sierra and Gaza in almost
316:
Steve
Saunders began the process in late 1982 by sitting down with the guru of the 8-bit series chips. He was astonished at the system's limitations and was determined to design something better. His design tracked a set of rectangular areas with different origin points and a priority. The chipset
501:
and the video output. Previous designs had generally used one of two solutions; one was to carefully time the CPU and GPU so they could access memory within the timing constraints of the video system, while other platforms used some sort of system to pause the CPU during the times the GPU needed
324:
Each rectangle in the display could be as large or small as required. One might, for instance, make a rectangle that was larger than the screen, which would allow it to be scrolled simply by updating the origin point in its description block. If this was moved off the screen, it would be ignored
436:
was finally starting to sell in quantity despite being much less sophisticated than Sierra or Gaza. But Atari had no presence in the business world and it was not clear how they could sell into this market. Workstations were an emerging niche that the company might be able to sell into, but the
362:
Sierra came about through a conversation between Alkire and Doug
Crockford. Alkire borrowed Palevich's new Mac computer, using it to make block diagrams of a machine that slowly emerged as the Sierra effort. Each engineer in SRL had their own favorite new CPU design, and the preferred selection
332:
Work on
Rainbow continued through 1983, mainly by Saunders and Bob Alkire, who would continue developing the system on a large whiteboard. A polaroid image of the design was made after every major change. A significant amount of effort was applied to considering the timing of the access process
525:
As implemented in Silver, the object buffer could contain up to twelve "objects" representing rectangular areas. This does not appear to be a design limitation, simply the implementation of this particular chip. Each of the object records contained a pointer to the location in memory for the
591:
There are numerous claims that Gaza was a dual-m68k machine, but this is unlikely due to the way these chips accessed memory. Comments by the engineers suggest the multiple CPUs are referring to co-processors in the traditional Atari usage of the
336:
Jack
Palevich produced a simulator of the system and George Wang of Atari Semiconductor produced a logic design. The logic was initially implemented as a single-chip design, but the only cost-effective chip packaging at the time was the 40-pin
333:
searching through the rectangles for a displayed pixel; it was possible to overload the system, asking it to consider too much memory in the available time, but that was considered suitable as this could be addressed in software.
505:
The system could be used to construct any display from 512 to 768 pixels wide and 384 to 638 lines high. The mode that it was designed to support was 640 x 480 at a maximum 8-bit color depth. The colors were selected from a
203:
with custom chips to improve performance and capabilities. With most designs of the era, graphics, sound and similar tasks would normally be handled by the main CPU, and converted to output using relatively simple
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that was destroying it, and it was not clear that a high-end machine would not become embroiled in a similar price war. The business computing market appeared to be immune to the price war and the
317:
would search through the rectangles in priority order until it found the first one that contained a color value that was visible on the screen at that location. One color from each rectangle's
428:. Arguments broke out in Atari's management over how to best position any 32-bit machine, and which approach better served the company's needs. The home computer market was in the midst of a
497:
As implemented, the Silver and Gold design was based on an internal buffer that constructed the screen one line at a time. This was an effort to relax the timing requirements between the
208:. Offloading these duties to the custom chips allowed the CPU in Atari's design to spend less time on housekeeping chores. Atari referred to these chips as co-processors, sharing the
321:
could be defined as transparent, allowing objects below it to be visible even at a lower priority. In this way, the system would offer the fundamental basis for windowing support.
445:
port was being considered. Only the Amy chip had made considerable progress by this point; the first version to be fabbed, the AMY-1, was moving into production for late 1984.
412:, some effort was put into saving the design by licensing it to a 3rd party. Meetings were made with several potential customers, including Tramel Technology, AMD and others.
408:
By early 1984 it was clear the project was going to be shut down, and the engineers began looking for other jobs. With
Rainbow largely complete by this time, at the point of
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memory. By the time of Rainbow's design, the cost of implementing a buffer had become a non-issue, allowing the system to access memory with some flexibility in timing.
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Although some sources suggest that Rainbow and Silver/Gold were two different GPU systems, documentation from the era clearly shows the latter to be part of Rainbow.
31:
The only known image of the Sierra mock-up. It looks similar to the Amiga 1000 but has an attached keyboard and an Atari-style joystick port can be seen on the left.
278:
By the early 1980s, a new generation of CPU designs was coming to market with much greater capability than the earlier 8-bit designs. Notable among these were the
489:, Atari Corp's 68k-based machine, would be built with custom chips and off-the-shelf hardware, and was significantly less advanced than Sierra, GAZA or Mickey.
329:(RLE) to reduce memory needs. The display was constructed one line at a time into an internal buffer which was then output to the Gold as it asked for data.
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the OS changed as well. At least one design document outlining the entire system exists, referring to the platform as "GUMP", a reference to a character in
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of 4,096 colors. The background color, assuming no data was specified for a given pixel, was set in an internal register. The system naturally output
151:
Sierra was bogged down since its inception through a committee process that never came to a consensus on the design specifications. A second project,
167:. Atari management concluded they had no way to sell into the business market, redirecting Gaza engineers to a new low-cost machine based on the
109:
starting around 1983. The design was one of several new 16-bit computer systems proposing to use a new chipset from Atari Corporate Research.
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took the resulting data from Silver, performed color lookup, and produced the video output using a bank of timers that implemented the
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market with a price point as low as $ 300 using a low power CPU, all the way through business machines, student computers and low-end
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424:
Sierra proceeded alongside similar projects within Atari being run by other divisions, including an upscale m68k machine known as
262:
tasks like keyboard handling, and finally, the software-based display system used in the 2600 was implemented in hardware in the
112:
The graphics portion consisted of a two chip system called "Silver and Gold", Gold generated the video output while Silver was a
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120:, and the system is sometimes referred to by this name. The audio portion of the chipset consisted of a powerful sound
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302:(m68k) which was announced in 1979 and led several other companies to begin development their own 32-bit designs.
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machines and other platforms as early as the late 1970s. But even as these were coming to market, more powerful
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The company's option to use Lorraine for a games console also ended, and Amiga would later sign a deal with
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market was very new. Management vacillated on which of these markets offered a greater chance of success.
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hired a group of thirty engineers from SRL, including Alkire and Saunders, and the Rainbow effort ended.
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At the same time, teams of former Atari engineers were now working at the start-up computer companies
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in July 1984 and the majority of the staff was laid off. Only the synthesizer caught the interest of
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chipset, "Mickey". All of these systems were still incomplete when the company was purchased by
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changed constantly as work on Rainbow continued. Numerous options were explored, including the
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were being considered. Several proposed operating systems were considered including VisiCorps
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Saunders does not note who this guru was but later suggests it might have been Jim Dunion.
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was a graphics chip, greatly updated compared to the TIA, sound was moved to the new
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to communicate instructions and data. In modern terminology, these would be known as
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Some documents suggest "Rainbow" referred to AMY as well, others suggest otherwise.
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used the same basic design concept, but this time supported by three chips. The
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397:. The original design documents suggest different Sierra concepts aimed at the
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One SRL employee stated the goal was to plan for the CES after the next one.
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Atari's earlier consoles and computers generally used an off-the-shelf
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processor that fed data to Gold. The chipset was collectively known as
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405:. It was during this point that the wooden mockup was constructed.
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internals, which initially became available as daughtercards on
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which provided four-channel sound as well as handing some basic
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1180:
1020:(Technical report). Atari Semiconductor Group. 18 August 1983.
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240:
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Sometimes referred to as CRG, for Corporate Research Group.
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and sound, now a common solution for mainstream offerings.
266:, which was responsible for handling background graphics (
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provided graphics and sound support to its stripped-down
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Atari Inc's 16-Bit Computer Systems (Pre-Tramiels/ST)
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239:, the TIA was designed to use almost no traditional
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2018:
1978:
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481:to produce a machine very similar to Mickey, the
223:, a single all-in-one support chip known as the
105:designed by the Sunnyvale Research Lab (SRL) of
1141:Bob Alkire and Steve Saunders (10 June 2016).
1054:
1042:
1030:
999:
965:
905:
696:"National Semiconductor's Series 32000 Family"
148:and Atari's internal OS code-named "Snowcap".
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305:Atari's Sunnyvale Research Lab (SRL), run by
8:
19:
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1975:
1828:
1317:
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1199:
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1144:Bob Alkire and Steve Saunders, Rainbow GPU
183:and the rest of the projects disappeared.
25:
18:
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155:, ran in parallel, designing an upscale
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469:purchased Atari and the company became
1109:Goldberg, Marty; Vendel, Curt (2012).
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613:
383:. Each of these was compared for its
7:
1155:The RAINBOW Gold Chip Specifications
1093:
1081:
1066:
677:from the original on August 19, 2012
620:Montfort, Nick; Bogost, Ian (2009).
1132:Morrison, Jerry (9 February 1983).
298:designs were emerging, notably the
980:"The 1983 Home Computer Price War"
978:Knight, Daniel (10 January 2016).
654:Johnson, Herbert R. (2011-10-13).
14:
1152:Wang, George (28 October 1983).
522:using commonly available chips.
387:for a wide variety of machines.
671:"Chronology of Microprocessors"
441:place, and the idea of using a
373:National Semiconductor NS16032
1:
132:had not been chosen, but the
1134:Proposed Sierra Project Plan
206:analog-to-digital converters
138:National Semiconductor 32016
235:. Due to the high price of
2223:
2207:68000-based home computers
1158:(Technical report). Atari.
1136:(Technical report). Atari.
1113:Atari Inc. Business Is Fun
1055:Goldberg & Vendel 2012
1043:Goldberg & Vendel 2012
1031:Goldberg & Vendel 2012
1000:Goldberg & Vendel 2012
966:Goldberg & Vendel 2012
906:Goldberg & Vendel 2012
673:. Processortimeline.info.
514:and could be converted to
16:Unreleased computer design
1315:
643:. Atari Program Exchange.
452:and Amiga. Amiga, led by
24:
637:Crawford, Chris (1982).
394:The Marvelous Land of Oz
94:was the code name for a
1147:(Audio). Antic Podcast.
479:Commodore International
385:price/performance ratio
311:Kristina Hooper Woolsey
246:The much more powerful
159:machine running either
2046:Transputer Workstation
1855:Software and utilities
2120:825 80-Column Printer
2026:Atari 8-bit computers
248:Atari 8-bit computers
192:Earlier 8-bit designs
2197:All-in-one computers
656:"S-100 and the 8086"
2146:Atari joystick port
1888:Video game consoles
1045:, pp. 748–749.
327:run length encoding
229:MOS Technology 6502
214:integrated graphics
85:- Project Cancelled
21:
2125:1020 Color Printer
2080:Portable computers
2019:Personal computers
1661:Return of the Jedi
1416:Cloak & Dagger
508:color lookup table
319:color lookup table
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2183:
2159:
2158:
2075:
2074:
2014:
2013:
1909:Atari Video Music
1849:
1848:
1313:
1312:
1300:Nightdive Studios
1264:Atari Interactive
1235:Atari Corporation
471:Atari Corporation
231:-derivative, the
201:central processor
177:Tramel Technology
103:personal computer
89:
88:
68:personal computer
2214:
2110:
2057:
1976:
1871:Atari Calculator
1829:
1794:Tournament Table
1360:Atari Basketball
1353:Asteroids Deluxe
1321:
1280:Cyan Engineering
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1117:. Syzygy Press.
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461:Tramiel takeover
286:, designs using
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2171:Atari Flashback
2155:
2129:
2101:
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2055:
2010:
1974:
1883:
1845:
1827:
1570:Missile Command
1430:Crystal Castles
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1309:
1285:Digital Eclipse
1274:Chuck E. Cheese
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1057:, pp. 745.
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879:, pp. 6–7.
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623:Racing the Beam
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237:computer memory
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2202:Atari hardware
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2151:XG-1 light gun
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1423:Crash 'N Score
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1367:Atari Football
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1330:and amusements
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1164:External links
1162:
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1129:
1123:
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1099:
1098:
1086:
1071:
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1047:
1035:
1033:, p. 708.
1023:
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1002:, p. 737.
989:
970:
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958:
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908:, p. 732.
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465:In July 1984,
462:
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421:
418:
377:Motorola 68000
359:
356:
300:Motorola 68000
275:
272:
193:
190:
188:
185:
179:lead engineer
134:Motorola 68000
87:
86:
77:Prototype 1983
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2176:Intellivision
2174:
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2141:CX40 joystick
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1915:Video Pinball
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1402:Canyon Bomber
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1339:Anti-Aircraft
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1252:and spin-offs
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894:Morrison 1983
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669:Ken Polsson.
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443:Unix System V
438:
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420:Other designs
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399:home computer
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181:Shiraz Shivji
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38:Also known as
35:
28:
23:
2066:
2005:
1913:
1901:
1894:
1876:
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1820:
1813:
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1738:Steeplechase
1736:
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1715:
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1701:
1694:
1687:
1680:
1673:
1666:
1659:
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1638:
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1624:
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1610:
1605:Pong Doubles
1603:
1596:
1589:
1582:
1577:Night Driver
1575:
1568:
1561:
1554:
1549:Lunar Lander
1547:
1540:
1533:
1526:
1519:
1512:
1505:
1498:
1491:
1486:Gran Trak 20
1484:
1479:Gran Trak 10
1477:
1470:
1463:
1456:
1449:
1442:
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1428:
1421:
1414:
1407:
1400:
1393:
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1379:
1372:
1365:
1358:
1351:
1344:
1337:
1250:Subsidiaries
1215:Corporations
1154:
1143:
1133:
1112:
1103:Bibliography
1089:
1062:
1050:
1038:
1026:
1013:
1007:
983:
973:
961:
954:Rainbow 2016
949:
942:Rainbow 2016
937:
930:Rainbow 2016
925:
918:Rainbow 2016
913:
901:
872:
865:Rainbow 2016
860:
853:Rainbow 2016
848:
841:Rainbow 2016
836:
829:Rainbow 2016
824:
817:Rainbow 2016
812:
805:Rainbow 2016
800:
793:Rainbow 2016
788:
781:Rainbow 2016
776:
769:Rainbow 2016
764:
757:Rainbow 2016
752:
745:Rainbow 2016
740:
733:Rainbow 2016
728:
721:Rainbow 2016
716:
709:Rainbow 2016
704:
690:
679:. Retrieved
664:
649:
639:
632:
626:. MIT Press.
622:
587:
578:
569:
560:
551:
542:
524:
504:
496:
475:
467:Jack Tramiel
464:
447:
439:
423:
407:
403:workstations
392:
389:
361:
335:
331:
323:
315:
304:
277:
260:input/output
245:
218:
195:
173:Jack Tramiel
150:
117:
111:
91:
90:
74:Release date
20:Atari Sierra
2106:Peripherals
1903:Stunt Cycle
1864:Atari BASIC
1801:Triple Hunt
1745:Stunt Cycle
1556:Major Havoc
1528:Jet Fighter
1388:Black Widow
1276:(1977–1980)
1259:Atari Games
1237:(1984–1996)
1231:(1972–1992)
1229:Atari, Inc.
984:Low End Mac
640:De Re Atari
499:main memory
493:Description
381:Zilog Z8000
365:Intel 80186
284:Zilog Z8000
210:main memory
157:workstation
122:synthesizer
107:Atari, Inc.
51:Atari, Inc.
2191:Categories
2060:Prototypes
1986:Game Brain
1979:Prototypes
1965:VCS (2021)
1832:Prototypes
1808:Ultra Tank
1766:Super Pong
1731:Starship 1
1689:Space Race
1682:Space Duel
1668:Shark Jaws
1619:Quadrapong
1465:Food Fight
1451:Fire Truck
1381:Battlezone
1014:AMY 1 Spec
681:2013-09-27
600:References
483:Amiga 1000
280:Intel 8088
221:Atari 2600
153:Atari Gaza
2097:Portfolio
1896:Home Pong
1878:Atari DOS
1759:Super Bug
1724:Star Wars
1675:Sky Diver
1654:Red Baron
1633:Quiz Show
1563:Millipede
1542:Liberator
1437:Destroyer
1409:Centipede
1374:Avalanche
1346:Asteroids
1295:MobyGames
1290:Kee Games
1094:Wang 1983
1082:Wang 1983
1067:Wang 1983
605:Citations
454:Jay Miner
430:price war
292:S-100 bus
142:Intel 286
124:known as
47:Developer
2113:Printers
2036:MEGA STE
2031:Atari ST
1822:Warlords
1717:Sprint 8
1710:Sprint 4
1703:Sprint 2
1696:Sprint 1
1591:Pin-Pong
1521:Indy 800
1507:I, Robot
1493:Gravitar
1395:Breakout
1269:AtariAge
1241:Atari SA
1069:, 6.3.1.
956:, 41:00.
944:, 40:30.
932:, 39:15.
920:, 35:30.
867:, 34:00.
855:, 32:45.
843:, 19:00.
831:, 21:00.
819:, 20:10.
807:, 16:10.
795:, 15:30.
783:, 14:00.
771:, 32:15.
759:, 31:15.
747:, 12:00.
735:, 25:30.
723:, 10:30.
711:, 10:00.
675:Archived
487:Atari ST
410:tape out
307:Alan Kay
165:CP/M-68k
161:BSD Unix
2092:ST Book
2001:Panther
1840:Tank II
1787:Tempest
1647:Rebound
1626:Quantum
1612:Pursuit
1458:Firefox
1444:Dominos
1328:Arcades
1222:Primary
450:Mindset
414:HP Labs
274:Rainbow
268:bitmaps
219:In the
187:History
146:Visi On
118:Rainbow
79: (
42:Rainbow
2067:Sierra
2051:Falcon
2006:Sierra
1991:Cosmos
1953:Jaguar
1780:Tank 8
1584:Outlaw
1535:LeMans
1514:Indy 4
1500:Hi-way
1472:Gotcha
1305:Tengen
1121:
1096:, 6.1.
485:. The
434:IBM PC
358:Sierra
296:32-bit
288:16-bit
252:C/GTIA
128:. The
114:sprite
100:32-bit
96:16-bit
92:Sierra
65:32-bit
61:16-bit
2164:Other
2087:STacy
2041:TT030
1970:2600+
1640:Qwak!
1208:Atari
1018:(PDF)
592:term.
534:Notes
264:ANTIC
256:POKEY
198:8-bit
169:Amiga
140:and
1996:2700
1948:Lynx
1943:XEGS
1938:7800
1933:5200
1926:2800
1921:2600
1773:Tank
1598:Pong
1119:ISBN
1084:, 2.
528:DRAM
516:NTSC
426:Gaza
379:and
367:and
348:NTSC
343:VLSI
309:and
282:and
233:6507
81:1983
57:Type
520:PAL
518:or
512:RGB
369:286
352:PAL
350:or
339:DIP
241:RAM
225:TIA
163:or
130:CPU
126:AMY
2193::
1958:CD
1074:^
992:^
982:.
884:^
612:^
375:,
371:,
136:,
1200:e
1193:t
1186:v
1127:.
986:.
896:.
698:.
684:.
658:.
98:/
83:)
63:/
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
