288:
Louis Dupré describes deism as "the result of a filtering process that had strained off all historical and dogmatic data from
Christian theology and retained only that minimum which, by eighteenth-century standards, reason demands." Atheism is perhaps the same process taken a step further. Buckley credits the rise of atheism with the gradual submission of theology to philosophyâas thinkers, including church leaders, began to argue religion on philosophical terms, they opened the way for disbeliefâthey made atheism thinkable. Deism is, in this perspective, a complicated waypoint on the path to atheism: deism is the philosophical belief in a deity based on reason. Once belief in God is based on reason, it becomes thinkable to reason one's way into disbelief.
360:
but simply an incidental one in regard to those who would have been immoral from disposition or temperament, whether
Atheists or not." In response to criticism, he included an essay "Clarifications: On Atheists" in the 1702 edition of the Dictionary. In it, he continued defending his thesis that "there have been atheists and Epicureans whose propriety in moral matters has surpassed that of most idolators", arguing that religion is not the sole basis of morality. It is, he wrote, "a very likely possibility that some men without religion are more motivated to lead a decent, moral life by their constitution, in conjunction with the love of praise and the fear of disgrace, than are some others by the instincts of conscience."
392:âinstead of publishing his atheistic works, he tended to circulate them among his friends or give them to Naigeon for posthumous publishing. Diderot espoused a materialist worldview. He attempted to solve the problems of how the cosmos could begin without a creator, and theorized about how life could come from inorganic matter. According to DuprĂ©, Diderot concluded that if one abandons "the unproved principle that the cosmos must have a beginning" then the need to establish the "efficient cause" of creation is no longer a problem. Diderot thought that the origin of life might be a process of the natural internal evolution of matter.
203:
The
Radical Enlightenment, on the other hand, was the view of toleration where the radicals demanded freedom of thought and expression, rather than existing peacefully among each other. This movement was shaped by the lesser-known figures of d'Holbach, Diderot, Condorcet, and, in particular, Spinoza, who provided the heart and soul of this faction. Where reason reigned supreme for the radicals, the moderate thinkers maintained that reason must be limited by faith and tradition. Together, the two different views of Enlightenment forged powerfully contrasting notions of toleration.
244:
He similarly denied toleration to
Catholics on the grounds that papal authority made them a danger to the state. In essence, Locke advanced a freedom of worship, not a freedom of thought. The vast majority of eighteenth-century writers, like Locke, had no interest in granting religious tolerance to ideas that deviated from the core of revealed religion. Most of these writers were strongly opposed to Spinoza's ideal of toleration, which is "chiefly about individual freedom and decidedly not the freedom of large ecclesiastical structures to impose themselves on society".
371:(1711â1776) was often seen as an atheist in his own day. His skeptical attitude toward religion in such works as "Of Superstition and Religion", "Essays Moral and Political", "On Suicide", "On the Immortality of the Soul", "Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion", as well as his death-bed conversations with Boswell (later published), earned Hume the reputation as a practicing atheist. Hume was even turned down for a teaching position at the University of Edinburgh in the 1740s because of his alleged atheism.
418:
some doubt as to the accuracy of this statement. In any case, D'Holbach himself was a professed atheist. The salon was the site of a great deal of discussion about atheism, and the atheistic and theistic guests seem to have spent a great deal of time good-naturedly arguing for their respective positions. Despite claims that the salon was a hotbed of atheism, there seem to only have been three convinced atheists in regular attendance: D'Holbach, Denis
Diderot and
280:, who adopted deistic attitudes to varying degrees. Deism, in this respect, is very different from atheism, which denies the existence of a deity altogether. Voltaire, for instance, was convinced that the existence of god was a demonstrable fact. The deistic god, however, often bore little resemblance to the God of Christian scripture, which meant that deists were often heavily criticized by the adherents of confessional faiths and could be accused of atheism.
338:, criticized Judaism (his birth religion) and all organized religion. His philosophical orientation is often called "pantheism", a term coined by John Toland after Spinoza's death. However, in the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, Spinoza's name was often associated with atheism, freethinking, materialism, deism, and any other heterodox religious belief. Whether or not "pantheism" constitutes atheism is still debated by modern scholars.
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469:. This was probably the most common conception of atheism by the public and by some of the "philosophes". Yvon identifies the main causes of atheism as ignorance and stupidity, and debauchery and the corruption of morals. The article "Athées" is primarily concerned with refuting Bayle's assertions, insisting that atheists "cannot have an exact and complete understanding of the morality of human actions".
30:
250:, in his 1763 "A Treatise on Toleration", continued in the tradition of John Locke, arguing that toleration allowed communication and good relationships between differing confessions in the marketplace. Allowing the Huguenots to return to France would boost the French economy. He would not be the only one to espouse this viewpoint.
316:, borrowing the term coined by Toland. Jacob argues that "there is a streak of freethinking or deism that turns up at moments in the history of Continental Freemasonry right into, and especially during, the 1790s." This religious ambiguity could be interpreted as contributing to the "thinkability" of atheism.
193:. Linton argues that together, these causes shifted public opinion towards religious toleration. Religious toleration was not accepted by everyone; for instance, Abbé Houtteville condemned the rise of toleration in France because it weakened ecclesiastical authority and encouraged irreligion. However, in 1787
287:
In historiographical terms, it has been quite common to see a close link between deism and atheism. Buckley critiques Peter Gay's view of the direct tie between deism and atheism, writing, "the vectors which Gay charts are certainly there, but the distinction may be somewhat too neat, too overdrawn."
243:
suggested a pragmatic view of toleration, although he advanced a concept of toleration only between certain
Christian sects. He vehemently denied the atheists' right to toleration since they did not believe in a god, practiced no recognizable form of worship, and were not seeking to save their souls.
221:
summarized his position, that anti-toleration laws were engineered "for personal advantage but also at great cost to the state and the public", and that they exacerbated religious conflict rather than diminishing it. Spinoza constructed his theories about toleration based on a freedom to think rather
129:
had been issued in 1598, then revoked in 1685, there was very little support for religious toleration at the beginning of the eighteenth century. States were concerned with maintaining religious uniformity for two reasons: first, they believed that their chosen confession was the way to God and other
202:
Toleration itself boiled down to two different factions. The "acceptable face" of toleration was essentially the mainstream view, the freedom of worship and peaceful coexistence of different churches. This view was supported by Kant, Locke, Voltaire and Hume, as the public face of the
Enlightenment.
417:
he hosted in his Paris home. The salon has been interpreted as a meeting place for
Parisian atheists, based on an anecdote in which D'Holbach told David Hume, who claimed not to believe anything, that of the eighteen guests at his salon, fifteen were atheists and three had not yet decided. There is
359:
he stated that while atheists were "exceedingly blind and ignorant of the nature of things" there were many atheists "who are no way distinguished for their vices", and that "if atheists exist, who, morally speaking, are well-disposed, it follows that
Atheism is not a necessary cause of immorality,
283:
Deists often pushed for religious toleration, a move which would have supported the open expression of atheism. This is not because they supported atheismâthey did notâbut because deist philosophers tended to be in favour of the civil freedom of conscience. As
Michael J. Buckley writes, "If atheism
142:
describes the rise of toleration, and of atheism itself, as a response to religious violence in the preceding years: the expulsion of the Huguenots from France, the Spanish inquisition, the witch trials, the civil wars of England, Scotland and the Netherlands. Buckley argues that "religious warfare
299:
in continental Europe during the Enlightenment era were accused of atheism. The masonic "Constitutions" of 1723 are vague on the matter of religion, stating that if a Freemason "rightly understands the Art, he will never be a stupid Atheist, nor an irreligious Libertine", while also asking that he
300:
follow "that religion to which all men agree, leaving their particular opinions to themselves". Although Masonic literature referred sporadically and vaguely to a "Grand Architect of the Universe", their secretive practices made the religious affiliation of each Freemason a matter of speculation.
197:
granted an Edict of Toleration acknowledging their civil rights to marry and own property, although they were still denied the official right to worship and could not hold public office or become teachers. Full religious toleration for Protestants would not be granted until the French Revolution.
175:
Because France was an absolutist monarchy in which the king was seen as ruling by divine right, it was generally thought that French people had to share his religious views. The Edict of Nantes, which granted toleration to the Huguenot minority in France, was revoked in 1685. Marisa Linton argues
443:
as being particularly concerned with advancing the cause of atheism. Kors summarized some of the basic themes of these three texts as the idea that rigorous materialism was the only coherent viewpoint, and that "the only humane and beneficial morality was one deduced from the imperatives for the
216:
argued for individual freedom to express personal beliefs, while discouraging large congregations unless they belonged to a somewhat deistic idealized state religion. According to Spinoza, freedom of thought, speech and expression were the core values of tolerationâas such, Spinoza opposed
303:
Freemasonic culture originated in Britain and spread to the Continent, bringing with it ideas about natural rights and the rights of the governed. In some areas, Continental Freemasonry may have drawn from more subversive English sources. Margaret C. Jacob outlines a relationship between
171:
contains an example of this sort of anticlerical thought. Hobbes, like Toland and other anticlerical writers of the period, understood religion in terms of history. By viewing religious truth and the church as separate, they helped open the way for further religious dissent.
492:, Maréchal proclaimed that he had no more need of God than God needed him, and proclaimed such an attitude was "true atheism" after rejecting several competing stances. He outright rejected the idea of masters ruling his life, and that included the will of any god. For him,
180:
did contribute to some extent to the rise of French toleration, the activities of French Huguenots also played a part: they began to worship more publicly in the more remote regions of France, and their continued loyalty to the French crown on the eve of and during the
150:
According to Justin Champion, the question in England was not one of determining religious truth, whether or not there was a god, but rather one of understanding how the priesthood had gained the power to determine what was accepted as truth. Republican radicals like
236:
would wage war on intolerance and superstition". Although he wanted to diminish the influence of Spinoza, Bayle was treated in a similar fashion by the Huguenots of the United Provinces, who saw him as a dangerous thinker and a potential atheist.
222:
than the right to worship, and was established according to philosophical principles rather than being based on any interpretation of scripture. Consequently, Spinoza was essentially arguing for everyone, atheists, Catholics and Jews included.
130:
religions were heretical, and second, religious unity was necessary for social and political stability. The advancement of toleration was the result of pragmatic political motives as well as the principles espoused by Enlightenment
134:. Religion was a central topic of conversation during much of the eighteenth century. It was the subject of debate in the coffeehouses and debate societies of Enlightenment Europe, and a bone of contention among the
253:
Opponents tended to conflate the views of those who wrote in favour of toleration under the heading of dangerous anti-orthodoxy and atheism, despite their radically differing viewpoints and confessions.
2235:
967:
Douglas Nobbs, 'The Political Ideas of William Cleghorn, Hume's Academic Rival', in Journal of the History of Ideas, (1965), Vol. 26, No. 4: 575â586; Boswell, J. Boswell in Extremes, 1776â1778.
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understood religion as a social and cultural institution, rather than as transcendent principles. They were primarily motivated by priestly fraud or "priestcraft". The second half of
461:(published 1751â1772) was driven and edited by the atheist Denis Diderot, the encyclopedia's articles on atheism and atheists take a negative tone, having been written by the pastor
143:
had irrevocably discredited confessional primacy in the growing secularized sensitivity of much of European culture." This is a view echoed by Ole Peter Brell and Ray Porter.
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was unacceptable, superstition and fanaticism were even more so." Deists were not pro-atheist, but their anticlerical leanings indirectly benefited the evolution of atheism.
125:
In the Reformation and Counter-Reformation eras, Europe was a "persecuting society" which did not tolerate religious minorities or atheism. Even in France, where the
1262:
1223:
232:. He even defended the idea of an ethical atheist society in his famous dictionary. Martin Fitzpatrick credits him with making a "powerful contribution to the way
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happiness and survival of mankind." What was relatively unique about D'Holbach was that, as Kors writes, he "was an atheist, and he proselytized".
1806:
1846:
1551:
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is the philosophical belief in a deity based on reason rather than religious revelation or dogma. It was a popular perception among the
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Champion, Justin. "Toleration and Citizenship in Enlightenment England: John Toland and the Naturalization of the Jews, 1714â1753." In
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Justin Champion, "Toleration and Citizenship in Enlightenment England: John Toland and the Naturalization of the Jews, 1714â1753" in
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Israel, Jonathan I. (2000). "Spinoza, Locke and the Enlightenment Battle for Toleration". In Ole Peter Grell; Roy Porter (eds.).
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Russell, Paul. "The Riddle of Hume's Treatise: Skepticism, Naturalism and Irreligion." New York: Oxford University Press, 2008.
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147:, however, points out that it was a common conception that religious diversity would lead to unrest and possibly civil war.
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Accusations of atheism were common, but most of the people suspected by their peers of atheism were not actually atheists.
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1983:
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66:, is "the opinion of those who deny the existence of a God in the world. The simple ignorance of God doesn't constitute
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1948:
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78:, avowed and open atheism was made possible by the advance of religious toleration, but was also far from encouraged.
349:(1647â1706) was widely accused of atheism for his espousal of religious toleration, although he professed himself a
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Locke, Spinoza and the Philosophical Debate Concerning Toleration in the Early Enlightenment (c. 1670 â c. 1750)
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interpretation of scriptureâHenry Hammond, a former friend, described him in a letter as a "Christian Atheist".
1978:
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seem to be two of the very small number of publicly identified atheists in Europe during this period.
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may have helped to ease the monarch's suspicions about their faith. In the mid-eighteenth century,
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17:
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1963:
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1185:, edited by Ole Peter Grell and Roy Porter, 157â174. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
1126:, edited by Ole Peter Grell and Roy Porter, 133â156. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
1104:
139:
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1786:
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A Revolution of the Mind: Radical Enlightenment and the Intellectual Origins of Modern Democracy
1304:
1195:, edited by Ole Peter Grell and Roy Porter, 86â101. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
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2011:
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1801:
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1171:
1140:, edited by Ole Peter Grell and Roy Porter, 1â22. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
994:
881:
481:
426:
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382:(1713â1784) was one of the central guests of d'Holbach's salon and the primary editor of the
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388:. Although Diderot wrote extensively about atheism, he was not as polemic as d'Holbach or
218:
126:
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was accused of atheism for defending the possibility of an ethical atheist society in his
34:
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1235:
457:
384:
62:
1269:(Winter 2008 ed.). University of Chicago: ARTFL Encyclopédie Projet. Archived from
1240:(Winter 2008 ed.). University of Chicago: ARTFL Encyclopédie Projet. Archived from
705:, ed. Ole Peter Grell and Roy Porter (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 135.
574:, ed. Ole Peter Grell and Roy Porter (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 157.
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1973:
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797:, ed. Ole Peter Grell and Ray Porter (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 93.
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110:
42:
558:, ed. Ole Peter Grell and Roy Porter (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 1.
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312:, the founder of the Masonic lodge in the Dutch Republic in 1735 was a self-described
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ed. Ole Peter Grell and Ray Porter (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 36.
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379:
164:
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117:". However, all three of these figures defended themselves against such accusations.
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The Pillars of Priestcraft Shaken: The Church of England and its Enemies, 1660â1730
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Living the Enlightenment: Freemasonry and Politics in Eighteenth-Century Europe
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Living the Enlightenment: Freemasonry and Politics in Eighteenth-Century Europe
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was accused of atheism for his writings on the "natural history of religion";
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Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers
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Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers
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Ole Peter Grell and Roy Porter, "Toleration in Enlightenment and Europe" in
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313:
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186:
114:
29:
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Tomaselli, Sylvana. "Intolerance, the Virtue of Princes and Radicals." In
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Grell, Ole Peter and Roy Porter. "Toleration in Enlightenment Europe." In
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353:. He encountered a great deal of criticism for defending atheism. In his
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Sylvana Tomaselli, "Intolerance, the Virtue of Princes and Radicals" in
504:) in order to present atheism as a respectable philosophical tradition.
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1061:"Preliminary discourse, or Answer to the question: What is an atheist?"
213:
53:
49:
1532:
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Linton, Marisa. "Citizenship and Religious Toleration in France." In
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Preliminary discourse, or Answer to the question: What is an atheist?
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one must have the notion of God and reject it." In the period of the
1300:
Denying and Disclosing God: The Ambiguous Process of Modern Atheism
1418:
714:
Marin Fitzpatrick, "Toleration and the Enlightenment Movement" in
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28:
1151:. Amsterdam: Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen.
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was a strong advocate of tolerance, the basis of a quarrel with
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1373:
1335:
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Atheism in France, 1650â1729: The Orthodox Sources of Disbelief
834:(Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 2008), 43
189:
intellectuals began campaigning for religious toleration for
1133:. Notre Dama, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 2008.
425:
D'Holbach's written works often included atheistic themes.
1178:. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1976.
1160:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 102â113.
1202:(2003). "The 'Christian Atheism' of Thomas Hobbes". In
570:, "Citizenship and Religious Toleration in France" in
544:
Hume on Religion (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
1265:. In Denis Diderot; Jean le Rond d'Alembert (eds.).
1214:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 111â130.
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1911:
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1043:
1041:
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724:
1212:Atheism from the Reformation to the Enlightenment
617:(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 7.
488:, was also a staunch atheist. In his 1799 essay,
1095:Bayle, Pierre (2000). Sally L. Jenkinson (ed.).
113:was frequently regarded as an atheist for his "
1176:D'Holbach's Coterie: An Enlightenment in Paris
1119:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
999:D'Holbach's Coterie: An Enlightenment in Paris
652:
650:
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8:
1476:
1447:
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872:, originally published anonymously in 1670;
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1031:
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847:(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991), 87
498:Dictionnaire des athées anciens et modernes
494:to believe in God is to submit to hierarchy
409:(1723â1789) was the central figure of the '
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1589:
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1370:
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519:
502:Dictionary of Atheists, Ancient and Modern
1318:. New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
70:. To be charged with the odious title of
1168:. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991.
1099:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
93:was widely viewed as an atheist for his
1131:Religion and the Rise of Modern Culture
832:Religion and the Rise of Modern Culture
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1088:An Historical and Critical Dictionary
1014:41â42 for a discussion of this claim.
1001:(Princeton University Press, 1976), 9
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716:Toleration in Enlightenment Europe,
356:Dictionnaire historique et critique
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880:. Oxford University Press: 2001.
615:The Pillars of Priestcraft Shaken
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1111:. London: Yale University Press.
1109:At the Origins of Modern Atheism
888:; Spinoza is also mentioned in
258:Related philosophical movements
1:
870:Theologico-Political Treatise
335:Theologico-Political Treatise
52:, as defined by the entry in
1479:Liberté, égalité, fraternité
1314:Israel, Jonathan I. (2010).
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429:cites three in particular,
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1097:Bayle â Political Writings
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1493:Methodological skepticism
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1259:Formey, Jean-Henri-Samuel
1090:. London: Hunt and Clark.
332:(1632â1677), in his 1670
320:Contemporary perspectives
2582:Enlightenment philosophy
1066:Marxist Internet Archive
463:Jean-Henri-Samuel Formey
1232:Jean le Rond d'Alembert
1010:See Alan Charles Kors,
308:and Dutch Freemasonry;
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1443:Enlightened absolutism
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1282:Robert Morrissey (ed.)
1253:Robert Morrissey (ed.)
520:Yvon & Formey 2008
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1409:Counter-Enlightenment
878:Radical Enlightenment
784:Grell and Porter, 4â5
626:Champion (1992), 134.
480:(1750-1803), a proto-
441:La Morale universelle
420:Jacques-André Naigeon
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310:Jean Rousset de Missy
208:Writers on toleration
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1363:Age of Enlightenment
1309:The System of Nature
895:The Portable Atheist
890:Christopher Hitchens
496:. He also wrote the
432:SystĂšme de la nature
39:The Folly of Atheism
2369:FeijĂło y Montenegro
2320:Vorontsova-Dashkova
1293:Buckley, Michael J.
1164:Jacob, Margaret C.
1145:Israel, Jonathan I.
1105:Buckley, Michael J.
1012:D'Holbach's Coterie
934:, pp. 173â174.
874:Israel, Jonathan I.
843:Margaret C. Jacob,
751:, pp. 103â104.
680:, pp. 104â105.
411:coterie holbachique
402:D'Holbach's Coterie
107:Critical Dictionary
2577:History of atheism
1508:Natural philosophy
1323:Kors, Alan Charles
1172:Kors, Alan Charles
1115:Champion, Justin.
140:Michael J. Buckley
121:Rise of toleration
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1051:
1045:
1036:
1033:
1024:
1021:
1015:
1008:
1002:
992:
986:
983:
977:
974:
968:
965:
959:
953:
947:
941:
935:
929:
923:
917:
911:
905:
899:
863:
857:
854:
848:
841:
835:
828:
822:
816:
810:
804:
798:
791:
785:
782:
776:
770:
764:
758:
752:
746:
740:
737:
731:
730:Fitzpatrick, 36.
728:
719:
712:
706:
699:
693:
687:
681:
675:
669:
663:
657:
654:
645:
642:
636:
633:
627:
624:
618:
611:
605:
602:
596:
590:
584:
583:Linton, 157â158.
581:
575:
565:
559:
552:
546:
541:
535:
529:
523:
517:
478:Sylvain Maréchal
473:Sylvain Maréchal
204:
183:Seven Years' War
33:Frontispiece to
21:
2597:
2596:
2592:
2591:
2590:
2588:
2587:
2586:
2567:
2566:
2565:
2560:
2559:
2546:
2524:
2486:
2388:
2345:
2324:
2271:
2240:
2236:Carvalho e Melo
2224:
2171:
2105:
2057:
2021:
1988:
1907:
1866:
1710:
1595:
1576:
1562:Spanish America
1436:Encyclopédistes
1399:Civil liberties
1376:
1365:
1360:
1313:
1305:Baron d'Holbach
1289:
1287:Further reading
1276:
1274:
1256:
1247:
1245:
1218:
1198:
1155:
1143:
1103:
1094:
1082:
1079:
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1022:
1018:
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1005:
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942:
938:
930:
926:
918:
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591:
587:
582:
578:
566:
562:
553:
549:
542:
538:
530:
526:
518:
514:
510:
484:, bordering on
475:
453:
407:Baron d'Holbach
404:
398:
377:
366:
344:
327:
322:
294:
271:
266:
260:
219:Jonathan Israel
210:
201:
176:that while the
127:Edict of Nantes
123:
35:Richard Bentley
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2595:
2593:
2585:
2584:
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2517:
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2207:
2202:
2197:
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2170:
2169:
2164:
2159:
2154:
2149:
2144:
2139:
2134:
2129:
2124:
2119:
2113:
2111:
2107:
2106:
2104:
2103:
2098:
2093:
2088:
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2078:
2073:
2067:
2065:
2059:
2058:
2056:
2055:
2050:
2045:
2040:
2035:
2029:
2027:
2023:
2022:
2020:
2019:
2014:
2009:
2004:
1998:
1996:
1990:
1989:
1987:
1986:
1981:
1976:
1971:
1966:
1961:
1956:
1951:
1946:
1941:
1936:
1931:
1926:
1921:
1915:
1913:
1909:
1908:
1906:
1905:
1900:
1895:
1890:
1885:
1880:
1874:
1872:
1868:
1867:
1865:
1864:
1859:
1854:
1849:
1844:
1839:
1834:
1829:
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1814:
1809:
1804:
1799:
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1784:
1779:
1774:
1769:
1764:
1759:
1754:
1749:
1744:
1739:
1734:
1729:
1724:
1718:
1716:
1712:
1711:
1709:
1708:
1706:Wollstonecraft
1703:
1698:
1693:
1688:
1683:
1678:
1673:
1668:
1663:
1658:
1653:
1648:
1643:
1638:
1633:
1628:
1623:
1618:
1613:
1607:
1605:
1597:
1596:
1593:
1586:
1585:
1582:
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1574:
1569:
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1559:
1554:
1549:
1540:
1535:
1530:
1525:
1520:
1515:
1510:
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1500:
1495:
1490:
1483:
1474:
1469:
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1454:
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1431:
1426:
1421:
1416:
1411:
1406:
1401:
1396:
1391:
1385:
1378:
1377:
1374:
1367:
1366:
1361:
1359:
1358:
1351:
1344:
1336:
1330:
1329:
1320:
1311:
1302:
1288:
1285:
1284:
1283:
1257:Yvon, Claude;
1254:
1216:
1204:Michael Hunter
1196:
1189:
1186:
1179:
1169:
1162:
1153:
1141:
1134:
1129:Dupré, Louis.
1127:
1120:
1113:
1101:
1092:
1078:
1075:
1073:
1072:
1052:
1037:
1025:
1016:
1003:
987:
978:
969:
960:
958:, p. 313.
948:
946:, p. 312.
936:
924:
922:, p. 173.
912:
910:, p. 162.
900:
866:Baruch Spinoza
858:
849:
836:
823:
811:
799:
786:
777:
775:, p. 104.
765:
763:, p. 102.
753:
741:
732:
720:
707:
694:
682:
670:
658:
646:
637:
628:
619:
606:
597:
585:
576:
560:
547:
536:
534:, p. 111.
524:
511:
509:
506:
474:
471:
452:
446:
397:
394:
376:
373:
365:
362:
343:
340:
330:Baruch Spinoza
326:
323:
321:
318:
293:
290:
270:
267:
259:
256:
212:The Dutch Jew
209:
206:
157:Charles Blount
122:
119:
111:Baruch Spinoza
43:Boyle Lectures
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2594:
2583:
2580:
2578:
2575:
2574:
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2556:
2548:
2547:
2545:
2543:
2535:
2521:
2518:
2516:
2513:
2511:
2508:
2506:
2503:
2501:
2498:
2497:
2495:
2493:
2492:United States
2489:
2483:
2480:
2478:
2475:
2473:
2470:
2468:
2465:
2463:
2460:
2458:
2455:
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2430:
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2413:
2410:
2408:
2405:
2403:
2400:
2399:
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2391:
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2377:
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2367:
2365:
2362:
2360:
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2337:
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2313:
2311:
2308:
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2303:
2301:
2298:
2296:
2293:
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2283:
2282:
2280:
2278:
2274:
2268:
2265:
2263:
2260:
2258:
2255:
2253:
2252:Budai-Deleanu
2250:
2249:
2247:
2243:
2237:
2234:
2233:
2231:
2227:
2221:
2218:
2216:
2213:
2211:
2208:
2206:
2203:
2201:
2198:
2196:
2193:
2191:
2188:
2186:
2183:
2182:
2180:
2178:
2174:
2168:
2165:
2163:
2160:
2158:
2155:
2153:
2150:
2148:
2145:
2143:
2140:
2138:
2135:
2133:
2130:
2128:
2125:
2123:
2120:
2118:
2115:
2114:
2112:
2108:
2102:
2099:
2097:
2094:
2092:
2089:
2087:
2084:
2082:
2079:
2077:
2074:
2072:
2069:
2068:
2066:
2064:
2060:
2054:
2051:
2049:
2046:
2044:
2041:
2039:
2036:
2034:
2031:
2030:
2028:
2024:
2018:
2015:
2013:
2010:
2008:
2005:
2003:
2000:
1999:
1997:
1995:
1991:
1985:
1982:
1980:
1977:
1975:
1972:
1970:
1967:
1965:
1962:
1960:
1957:
1955:
1952:
1950:
1947:
1945:
1942:
1940:
1937:
1935:
1932:
1930:
1927:
1925:
1922:
1920:
1917:
1916:
1914:
1910:
1904:
1901:
1899:
1896:
1894:
1891:
1889:
1886:
1884:
1881:
1879:
1876:
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1843:
1840:
1838:
1835:
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1830:
1828:
1825:
1823:
1820:
1818:
1815:
1813:
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1805:
1803:
1800:
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1795:
1793:
1790:
1788:
1785:
1783:
1780:
1778:
1775:
1773:
1770:
1768:
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1763:
1760:
1758:
1755:
1753:
1750:
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1723:
1720:
1719:
1717:
1713:
1707:
1704:
1702:
1699:
1697:
1694:
1692:
1689:
1687:
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1679:
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1672:
1669:
1667:
1664:
1662:
1659:
1657:
1654:
1652:
1649:
1647:
1644:
1642:
1639:
1637:
1634:
1632:
1629:
1627:
1624:
1622:
1619:
1617:
1616:Ashley-Cooper
1614:
1612:
1609:
1608:
1606:
1602:
1598:
1591:
1587:
1573:
1570:
1568:
1565:
1563:
1560:
1558:
1555:
1553:
1550:
1547:
1546:
1541:
1539:
1536:
1534:
1531:
1529:
1526:
1524:
1521:
1519:
1518:Progressivism
1516:
1514:
1511:
1509:
1506:
1504:
1501:
1499:
1496:
1494:
1491:
1489:
1488:
1484:
1481:
1480:
1475:
1473:
1470:
1468:
1467:Individualism
1465:
1463:
1460:
1458:
1455:
1452:
1451:
1446:
1444:
1441:
1438:
1437:
1432:
1430:
1427:
1425:
1422:
1420:
1417:
1415:
1412:
1410:
1407:
1405:
1402:
1400:
1397:
1395:
1392:
1390:
1387:
1386:
1383:
1379:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1357:
1352:
1350:
1345:
1343:
1338:
1337:
1334:
1328:
1324:
1321:
1317:
1312:
1310:
1306:
1303:
1301:
1297:
1294:
1291:
1290:
1286:
1273:on 2012-12-15
1272:
1268:
1264:
1260:
1255:
1244:on 2012-12-15
1243:
1239:
1238:
1233:
1229:
1228:Denis Diderot
1225:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1209:
1208:David Wootton
1205:
1201:
1200:Tuck, Richard
1197:
1194:
1190:
1187:
1184:
1180:
1177:
1173:
1170:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1139:
1135:
1132:
1128:
1125:
1121:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1093:
1089:
1085:
1084:Bayle, Pierre
1081:
1080:
1076:
1068:
1067:
1062:
1056:
1053:
1049:
1044:
1042:
1038:
1032:
1030:
1026:
1020:
1017:
1013:
1007:
1004:
1000:
996:
991:
988:
982:
979:
973:
970:
964:
961:
957:
952:
949:
945:
940:
937:
933:
928:
925:
921:
916:
913:
909:
904:
901:
897:
896:
891:
887:
886:0-19-925456-7
883:
879:
875:
871:
867:
862:
859:
853:
850:
846:
840:
837:
833:
830:Louis Dupré,
827:
824:
821:, p. 37.
820:
815:
812:
809:, p. 38.
808:
803:
800:
796:
790:
787:
781:
778:
774:
769:
766:
762:
757:
754:
750:
745:
742:
739:Tomaselli, 93
736:
733:
727:
725:
721:
717:
711:
708:
704:
698:
695:
692:, p. 16.
691:
686:
683:
679:
674:
671:
667:
662:
659:
653:
651:
647:
641:
638:
632:
629:
623:
620:
616:
610:
607:
601:
598:
595:, p. 39.
594:
589:
586:
580:
577:
573:
569:
568:Marisa Linton
564:
561:
557:
551:
548:
545:
540:
537:
533:
528:
525:
521:
516:
513:
507:
505:
503:
499:
495:
491:
487:
483:
479:
472:
470:
468:
465:and the abbé
464:
460:
459:
455:Although the
451:
447:
445:
442:
438:
434:
433:
428:
423:
421:
416:
412:
408:
403:
393:
391:
387:
386:
381:
380:Denis Diderot
374:
372:
370:
363:
361:
358:
357:
352:
348:
341:
339:
337:
336:
331:
324:
319:
317:
315:
311:
307:
301:
298:
291:
289:
285:
281:
279:
275:
268:
265:
257:
255:
251:
249:
245:
242:
238:
235:
231:
227:
223:
220:
215:
207:
205:
199:
196:
192:
188:
184:
179:
173:
170:
166:
165:Thomas Hobbes
162:
158:
154:
148:
146:
145:Marisa Linton
141:
137:
133:
128:
120:
118:
116:
112:
108:
104:
100:
96:
92:
91:Thomas Hobbes
88:
87:Denis Diderot
84:
79:
77:
76:Enlightenment
73:
69:
65:
64:
59:
55:
51:
44:
40:
36:
31:
27:
19:
2540:
2285:Catherine II
1737:Beaumarchais
1567:Universality
1538:Reductionism
1485:
1462:Human rights
1388:
1326:
1315:
1308:
1299:
1275:. Retrieved
1271:the original
1266:
1246:. Retrieved
1242:the original
1236:
1220:Yvon, Claude
1211:
1192:
1182:
1175:
1165:
1157:
1148:
1137:
1130:
1123:
1116:
1108:
1096:
1087:
1064:
1055:
1019:
1011:
1006:
998:
990:
981:
972:
963:
951:
939:
927:
915:
903:
893:
877:
869:
861:
852:
844:
839:
831:
826:
819:Buckley 1987
814:
807:Buckley 1987
802:
794:
789:
780:
768:
756:
744:
735:
715:
710:
702:
697:
685:
673:
668:, p. 6.
661:
656:Linton, 172.
644:Linton, 170.
640:
631:
622:
614:
609:
604:Linton, 158.
600:
593:Buckley 1987
588:
579:
571:
563:
555:
550:
539:
527:
515:
501:
497:
489:
476:
458:Encyclopédie
456:
454:
450:Encyclopédie
449:
440:
436:
430:
424:
405:
385:Encyclopédie
383:
378:
367:
354:
347:Pierre Bayle
345:
342:Pierre Bayle
333:
328:
302:
295:
286:
282:
277:
272:
264:Jean Meslier
252:
246:
239:
233:
226:Pierre Bayle
224:
217:censorship.
211:
200:
177:
174:
153:Henry Stubbe
149:
135:
131:
124:
106:
103:Pierre Bayle
80:
71:
67:
63:Encyclopédie
61:
48:
38:
26:
2542:Romanticism
2364:Charles III
2205:Poniatowski
2142:Leeuwenhoek
2122:de la Court
2110:Netherlands
1954:Mendelssohn
1949:Lichtenberg
1827:Montesquieu
1545:Sapere aude
1528:Rationalism
1523:Rationality
1513:Objectivity
1023:Kors, 42â43
773:Israel 2000
761:Israel 2000
749:Israel 2000
690:Israel 1999
678:Israel 2000
666:Israel 1999
635:Linton, 169
467:Claude Yvon
437:Le Bon-sens
306:John Toland
292:Freemasonry
278:philosophes
234:philosophes
178:philosophes
161:John Toland
136:philosophes
132:philosophes
95:materialist
2571:Categories
2384:Villarroel
2379:Jovellanos
2315:Radishchev
2262:Micu-Klein
2200:Niemcewicz
2167:Swammerdam
2157:Nieuwentyt
2147:Mandeville
2002:Farmakidis
1888:Burlamaqui
1797:La Mettrie
1772:Fontenelle
1727:d'Argenson
1722:d'Alembert
1646:Harrington
1572:Utopianism
1472:Liberalism
1429:Empiricism
1404:Classicism
1394:Capitalism
1277:2021-11-28
1263:"Atheisme"
1248:2021-11-28
985:Dupré, 50.
956:Bayle 2000
944:Bayle 2000
932:Bayle 1826
920:Bayle 1826
908:Bayle 1826
856:Jacob, 94.
413:' and the
400:See also:
369:David Hume
364:David Hume
297:Freemasons
262:See also:
241:John Locke
191:Calvinists
99:David Hume
58:d'Alembert
2505:Jefferson
2447:Hutcheson
2336:ObradoviÄ
2305:Lomonosov
2300:Kheraskov
2210:Ćniadecki
1974:Weishaupt
1969:Thomasius
1959:Pufendorf
1802:Lavoisier
1787:d'Holbach
1782:Helvétius
1762:Descartes
1757:Condorcet
1752:Condillac
1686:Priestley
1503:Modernity
1424:Democracy
1048:Yvon 2008
1035:Kors, 45.
976:Kors, 47.
532:Tuck 2003
486:anarchism
396:D'Holbach
314:pantheist
230:Louis XIV
195:Louis XVI
187:Jansenist
169:Leviathan
115:pantheism
83:D'Holbach
2555:Category
2500:Franklin
2467:Playfair
2437:Ferguson
2394:Scotland
2341:MrazoviÄ
2295:Kantemir
2290:Fonvizin
2229:Portugal
2195:Krasicki
2190:Konarski
2185:KoĆĆÄ
taj
2137:Koerbagh
2086:Genovesi
2071:Beccaria
2033:Berkeley
1964:Schiller
1929:Humboldt
1903:Saussure
1898:Rousseau
1862:Voltaire
1817:Maréchal
1792:Jaucourt
1747:ChĂątelet
1742:Chamfort
1691:Reynolds
1594:Thinkers
1498:Midlands
1487:LumiĂšres
1457:Humanism
1450:Haskalah
1261:(2008).
1234:(eds.).
1224:"Athées"
1222:(2008).
1210:(eds.).
1147:(1999).
1107:(1987).
1086:(1826).
351:Huguenot
248:Voltaire
2510:Madison
2482:Stewart
2422:Burnett
2417:Boswell
2402:Beattie
2374:MoratĂn
2359:Cadalso
2310:Novikov
2245:Romania
2220:Wybicki
2215:Staszic
2162:Spinoza
2132:Huygens
2127:Grotius
2081:Galvani
2076:Galiani
2026:Ireland
2007:Feraios
1979:Wieland
1944:Lessing
1939:Leibniz
1912:Germany
1893:Prévost
1878:Abauzit
1842:Quesnay
1832:Morelly
1822:Meslier
1807:Leclerc
1767:Diderot
1656:Johnson
1631:Collins
1626:Bentham
1611:Addison
1604:England
1552:Science
1389:Atheism
1077:Sources
898:, 2007.
390:Naigeon
375:Diderot
325:Spinoza
214:Spinoza
167:' book
72:atheism
68:atheism
54:Diderot
50:Atheism
45:, 1692)
2462:Newton
2452:Hutton
2432:Cullen
2329:Serbia
2277:Russia
2267:Èincai
2177:Poland
2117:Bekker
2091:Pagano
2053:Toland
2017:Korais
2012:Kairis
1994:Greece
1924:Herder
1919:Goethe
1883:Bonnet
1871:Geneva
1857:Turgot
1847:Raynal
1837:Pascal
1777:Gouges
1715:France
1701:Tindal
1696:Sidney
1671:Newton
1666:Milton
1641:Godwin
1636:Gibbon
1533:Reason
1375:Topics
884:
109:, and
2520:Paine
2515:Mason
2477:Smith
2427:Burns
2412:Blair
2407:Black
2351:Spain
2257:Maior
2152:Meyer
2096:Verri
2063:Italy
2048:Swift
2043:Burke
2038:Boyle
1984:Wolff
1812:Mably
1732:Bayle
1681:Price
1661:Locke
1651:Hooke
1621:Bacon
1419:Deism
1226:. In
508:Notes
415:salon
274:Deism
269:Deism
2472:Reid
2457:Mill
2442:Hume
2101:Vico
1934:Kant
1852:Sade
1676:Pope
882:ISBN
448:The
439:and
159:and
85:and
56:and
60:'s
37:'s
2573::
1325:,
1307:,
1298:.
1296:SJ
1230:;
1206:;
1174:.
1063:.
1040:^
1028:^
997:,
892:'
876:,
868:,
723:^
649:^
435:,
422:.
155:,
138:.
2544:â
1355:e
1348:t
1341:v
1280:.
1251:.
1069:.
1050:.
522:.
500:(
41:(
20:)
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