560:, used to predict the future state of the atmosphere. These equations are initialized from the analysis data and rates of change are determined. These rates of change predict the state of the atmosphere a short time into the future, with each time increment known as a time step. The equations are then applied to this new atmospheric state to find new rates of change, and these new rates of change predict the atmosphere at a yet further time into the future.
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512:. Reconnaissance aircraft are also flown over the open oceans during the cold season into systems which cause significant uncertainty in forecast guidance, or are expected to be of high impact from three to seven days into the future over the downstream continent. Sea ice began to be initialized in forecast models in 1971. Efforts to involve
640:, by processes of various sophistication. In the earliest models, if a column of air in a model gridbox was unstable (i.e., the bottom warmer than the top) then it would be overturned, and the air in that vertical column mixed. More sophisticated schemes add enhancements, recognizing that only some portions of the box might
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technique, which assumes that the output of numerical weather prediction guidance is perfect. MOS can correct for local effects that cannot be resolved by the model due to insufficient grid resolution, as well as model biases. Forecast parameters within MOS include maximum and minimum temperatures,
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models, or LAMs. Regional models use finer grid spacing to resolve explicitly smaller-scale meteorological phenomena, since their smaller domain decreases computational demands. Regional models use a compatible global model for initial conditions of the edge of their domain. Uncertainty and errors
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The amount of solar radiation reaching ground level in rugged terrain, or due to variable cloudiness, is parameterized as this process occurs on the molecular scale. Also, the grid size of the models is large when compared to the actual size and roughness of clouds and topography. Sun angle as well
143:
Forecasts are computed using mathematical equations for the physics and dynamics of the atmosphere. These equations are nonlinear and are impossible to solve exactly. Therefore, numerical methods obtain approximate solutions. Different models use different solution methods. Global models often use
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for air assuming it is incompressible, or elastically, meaning it solves the complete continuity equation for air and is fully compressible. Nonhydrostatic models use altitude or sigma altitude for their vertical coordinates. Altitude coordinates can intersect land while sigma-altitude coordinates
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vertical coordinates. Pressure coordinates intersect topography while sigma coordinates follow the contour of the land. Its hydrostatic assumption is reasonable as long as horizontal grid resolution is not small, which is a scale where the hydrostatic assumption fails. Models which use the entire
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is a regional climate model developed at the Danish
Meteorological Institute and the Alfred Wegener Institute in Potsdam. It is also based on the HIRLAM dynamics with physical schemes based on those in the ECHAM model. Like the RACMO model HIRHAM has been used widely in many different parts of the
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Edward N. Rappaport; James L. Franklin; Lixion A. Avila; Stephen R. Baig; John L. Beven II; Eric S. Blake; Christopher A. Burr; Jiann-Gwo Jiing; Christopher A. Juckins; Richard D. Knabb; Christopher W. Landsea; Michelle
Mainelli; Max Mayfield; Colin J. McAdie; Richard J. Pasch; Christopher Sisko;
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Because forecast models based upon the equations for atmospheric dynamics do not perfectly determine weather conditions near the ground, statistical corrections were developed to attempt to resolve this problem. Statistical models were created based upon the three-dimensional fields produced by
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model developed by a large consortium of
European weather forecastign and research institutes . It is a model system that like WRF can be run in many configurations, including at high resolution with the non-hydrostatic Arome physics or at lower resolutions with hydrostatic physics based on the
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partial differential equations which are impossible to solve exactly through analytical methods, with the exception of a few idealized cases. Therefore, numerical methods obtain approximate solutions. Different models use different solution methods: some global models use
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in the model's atmosphere gave a roughly 2 °C rise in global temperature. Several other kinds of computer models gave similar results: it was impossible to make a model that gave something resembling the actual climate and not have the temperature rise when the
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is a comprehensive multi-scale nonhydrostatic simulation and prediction system that can be used for regional-scale weather prediction up to the tornado-scale simulation and prediction. Advanced radar data assimilation for thunderstorm prediction is a key part of the
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as the impact of multiple cloud layers is taken into account. Soil type, vegetation type, and soil moisture all determine how much radiation goes into warming and how much moisture is drawn up into the adjacent atmosphere. Thus, they are important to parameterize.
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The Meso-NH Model is a limited-area non-hydrostatic model developed jointly by the Centre
National de Recherches Météorologiques and the Laboratoire d'Aérologie (France, Toulouse) since 1998. Its application is from mesoscale to centimetric scales weather
265:. This latter equation can be solved over a single layer of the atmosphere. Since the atmosphere at a height of approximately 5.5 kilometres (3.4 mi) is mostly divergence-free, the barotropic model best approximates the state of the atmosphere at a
1136:. The latest update (version 3.1) of the standalone CAM was issued on 1 February 2006. In 1986, efforts began to initialize and model soil and vegetation types, resulting in more realistic forecasts. Coupled ocean-atmosphere climate models, such as the
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and that entrainment and other processes occur. Weather models that have gridboxes with sides between 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) and 25 kilometres (16 mi) can explicitly represent convective clouds, although they still need to parameterize
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operates over the North
American domain. NCEP began using this designation system in January 2005. Between January 2005 and May 2006 the Eta model used this designation. Beginning in May 2006, NCEP began to use the WRF-NMM as the operational
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High
Resolution Limited Area Model, is developed by the European NWP research consortia co-funded by 10 European weather services. The meso-scale HIRLAM model is known as HARMONIE and developed in collaboration with Meteo France and ALADIN
741:. The first model used for operational forecasts, the single-layer barotropic model, used a single pressure coordinate at the 500-millibar (15 inHg) level, and thus was essentially two-dimensional. High-resolution models—also called
460:. On land, terrain maps available at resolutions down to 1 kilometer (0.6 mi) globally are used to help model atmospheric circulations within regions of rugged topography, in order to better depict features such as downslope winds,
3391:
Alexander
Baklanov; Alix Rasmussen; Barbara Fay; Erik Berge; Sandro Finardi (September 2002). "Potential and Shortcomings of Numerical Weather Prediction Models in Providing Meteorological Data for Urban Air Pollution Forecasting".
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The COSMO Model, formerly known as LM, aLMo or LAMI, is a limited-area non-hydrostatic model developed within the framework of the
Consortium for Small-Scale Modelling (Germany, Switzerland, Italy, Greece, Poland, Romania, and
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is repeated until the solution reaches the desired forecast time. The length of the time step chosen within the model is related to the distance between the points on the computational grid, and is chosen to maintain
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and objective analysis methods, which perform quality control and obtain values at locations usable by the model's mathematical algorithms. The data are then used in the model as the starting point for a forecast.
569:. Time steps for global models are on the order of tens of minutes, while time steps for regional models are between one and four minutes. The global models are run at varying times into the future. The
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Lac, C., Chaboureau, P., Masson, V., Pinty, P., Tulet, P., Escobar, J., ... & Aumond, P. (2018). Overview of the Meso-NH model version 5.4 and its applications. Geoscientific Model
Development, 11,
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information for tracking the movement of pollutants. In 1970, a private company in the U.S. developed the regional Urban
Airshed Model (UAM), which was used to forecast the effects of air pollution and
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percentage chance of rain within a several hour period, precipitation amount expected, chance that the precipitation will be frozen in nature, chance for thunderstorms, cloudiness, and surface winds.
604:
for the vertical dimension, while regional models and other global models usually use finite-difference methods in all three dimensions. The visual output produced by a model solution is known as a
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can be related to a critical relative humidity of 70% for stratus-type clouds, and at or above 80% for cumuliform clouds, reflecting the sub grid scale variation that would occur in the real world.
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has a scale of less than 1 kilometre (0.62 mi), and would require a grid even finer than this to be represented physically by the equations of fluid motion. Therefore, the processes that such
343:
created the first computer forecasts in 1950, and more powerful computers later increased the size of initial datasets and included more complicated versions of the equations of motion. In 1966,
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within LAMs are introduced by the global model used for the boundary conditions of the edge of the regional model, as well as within the creation of the boundary conditions for the LAMs itself.
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or simple dynamical models. Predicting the intensity of tropical cyclones using NWP has also been challenging. As of 2009, dynamical guidance remained less skillful than statistical methods.
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Lafore, Jean Philippe, et al. "The Meso-NH atmospheric simulation system. Part I: Adiabatic formulation and control simulations." Annales geophysicae. Vol. 16. No. 1. Copernicus GmbH, 1998.
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ALADIN physical schemes. It has mostly been used in Europe and the Arctic for climate studies including 3km downscaling over Scandinavia and in studies looking at extreme weather events.
543:
1199:. Despite the constantly improving dynamical model guidance made possible by increasing computational power, it was not until the 1980s that numerical weather prediction (NWP) showed
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used to calculate the forecast—introduce errors which double every five days. The use of model ensemble forecasts since the 1990s helps to define the forecast uncertainty and extend
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The high-resolution limited-area hydrostatic and non-hydrostatic model developed and operated by several European and North African countries under the leadership of Météo-France
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for numerical simulations of atmospheric meteorology and other environmental phenomena on scales from meters to hundreds of kilometers – now supported in the public domain
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world under the CORDEX scheme to provide regional climate projections. It also has a polar mode that has been used for polar ice sheet studies in Greenland and Antarctica
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140:, hydrostatic, and nonhydrostatic. Some of the model types make assumptions about the atmosphere which lengthens the time steps used and increases computational speed.
217:
of the geostrophic wind. It also implies that thickness contours (a proxy for temperature) are parallel to upper level height contours. In this type of atmosphere,
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reaches some prescribed value. Still, sub grid scale processes need to be taken into account. Rather than assuming that clouds form at 100% relative humidity, the
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In 1956, Norman Phillips developed a mathematical model that realistically depicted monthly and seasonal patterns in the troposphere. This was the first successful
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numerical weather models, surface observations, and the climatological conditions for specific locations. These statistical models are collectively referred to as
2722:"3.7 Improving Precipitation Forecasts by the Operational Nonhydrostatic Mesoscale Model with the Kain-Fritsch Convective Parameterization and Cloud Microphysics"
1978:
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is a polar version of the model used in many studies to provide surface mass balance of the polar ice sheets that was developed at the University of Utrecht
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A variety of methods are used to gather observational data for use in numerical models. Sites launch radiosondes in weather balloons which rise through the
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and related cloudiness that affects incoming solar radiation. The main inputs from country-based weather services are observations from devices (called
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937:(Modele Atmospherique Regionale) is a regional climate model developed at the University of Grenoble in France and the University of Liege in Belgium.
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took over the development of the UAM and then used the results from a regional air pollution study to improve it. Although the UAM was developed for
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was developed at the Netherlands Meteorological Institute, KNMI and is based on the dynamics of the HIRLAM model with physical schemes from the IFS
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112:, and convection. Most atmospheric models are numerical, i.e. they discretize equations of motion. They can predict microscale phenomena such as
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of numerical weather models only extends to about two weeks into the future, since the density and quality of observations—together with the
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vertical momentum equation are known as nonhydrostatic. A nonhydrostatic model can be solved anelastically, meaning it solves the complete
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2007:
Molteni, F.; Buizza, R.; Palmer, T.N.; Petroliagis, T. (January 1996). "The ECMWF Ensemble Prediction System: Methodology and validation".
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acts to standardize the instrumentation, observing practices and timing of these observations worldwide. Stations either report hourly in
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for the vertical dimension, while regional models usually use finite-difference methods in all three dimensions. For specific locations,
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led to the first climate models. The development of limited area (regional) models facilitated advances in forecasting the tracks of
1101:. The first general circulation climate model combined oceanic and atmospheric processes and was developed in the late 1960s at the
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to estimate the state of the fluid at some time in the future. The process of entering observation data into the model to generate
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from the vertical momentum equation, which significantly increases the time step used within the model's run. This is known as the
233:
have strengthening winds with height, with the reverse true for cold-core highs (shallow arctic highs) and warm-core lows (such as
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Weather and climate model gridboxes have sides of between 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) and 300 kilometres (190 mi). A typical
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was developed cooperatively by NCEP, NCAR, and the meteorological research community. WRF has several configurations, including:
808:
444:. As such, the idea of numerical weather prediction is to sample the state of the fluid at a given time and use the equations of
258:
120:, sub-microscale turbulent flow over buildings, as well as synoptic and global flows. The horizontal domain of a model is either
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Developments in teracomputing: proceedings of the ninth ECMWF Workshop on the Use of High Performance Computing in Meteorology
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The WRF Nonhydrostatic Mesoscale Model is the primary short-term weather forecast model for the U.S., replacing the Eta model.
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468:) in weather balloons that measure various atmospheric parameters and transmits them to a fixed receiver, as well as from
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The vertical coordinate is handled in various ways. Some models, such as Richardson's 1922 model, use geometric height (
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Computational Science – ICCS 2005: 5th International Conference, Atlanta, GA, USA, May 22–25, 2005, Proceedings, Part 1
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1986:
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had developed the Community Atmosphere Model (CAM), which can be run by itself or as the atmospheric component of the
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information for future times at given locations and altitudes. Within any model is a set of equations, known as the
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500:. Information from weather satellites is used where traditional data sources are not available. Commerce provides
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corresponding to that altitude, which corresponds to the atmosphere's 500 mb (15 inHg) pressure surface.
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in forecasting the track of tropical cyclones. And it was not until the 1990s that NWP consistently outperformed
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Supercomputers are capable of running highly complex models to help scientists better understand Earth's climate.
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1956:
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in model initialization began in 1972 due to its role in modulating weather in higher latitudes of the Pacific.
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737:, greatly simplifying the primitive equations. This follows since pressure decreases with height through the
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Stacy R. Stewart; Ahsha N. Tribble (April 2009). "Advances and Challenges at the National Hurricane Center".
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Global Environmental Multiscale Limited Area Model, the high resolution 2.5 km (1.6 mi) GEM by the
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1947:
1287:"A Test of Numerical Prediction Methods Based on the Barotropic and Two-Parameter Baroclinic Models"
845:, DWD, jointly with the Max-Planck-Institute (MPI) for Meteorology, Hamburg, NWP Global model of DWD
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Harper, Kristine; Uccellini, Louis W.; Kalnay, Eugenia; Carey, Kenneth; Morone, Lauren (May 2007).
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The Use of Ensemble Forecasts to Produce Improved Medium Range (3–15 days) Weather Forecasts.
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models, followed by the United Kingdom in 1972 and Australia in 1977. The development of global
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Zwieflhofer, Walter; Norbert Kreitz; European Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasts (2001).
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Short-wave solar radiation in the earth's atmosphere: calculation, observation, interpretation
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1635:"Real-time limited area numerical weather prediction in Australia: a historical perspective"
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to develop statistical relationships which account for model bias and resolution issues.
136:), covering only part of the Earth. The different types of models run are thermotropic,
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2020:
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Results Of Numerical Forecasting With The Barotropic And Thermotropic Atmospheric Models
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of the air in the atmosphere is small. If the assumption is made that the atmosphere is
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The main assumption made by the thermotropic model is that while the magnitude of the
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1843:. United States Air Force Environmental Technical Applications Center. pp. 1–16.
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along aircraft routes and ship reports along shipping routes. Research projects use
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Parameterization schemes: keys to understanding numerical weather prediction models
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Parameterization schemes: keys to understanding numerical weather prediction models
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Parameterization schemes: keys to understanding numerical weather prediction models
2045:
Parameterization schemes: keys to understanding numerical weather prediction models
1902:
Weickmann, Klaus, Jeff Whitaker, Andres Roubicek and Catherine Smith (2001-12-01).
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are centers of warm and cold temperature anomalies. Warm-core highs (such as the
17:
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360:
352:
182:
42:
2494:
Sunderam, V. S.; G. Dick van Albada; Peter M. A. Sloot; J. J. Dongarra (2005).
1759:"History of Numerical Weather Prediction at the National Meteorological Center"
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that gave a roughly accurate representation of the current climate. Doubling CO
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developed its own set of MOS based upon their dynamical weather model by 1983.
181:
may change, its direction does not change with respect to height, and thus the
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1964:
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reports. These observations are irregularly spaced, so they are processed by
2359:"NOAA Dispatches High-Tech Research Plane to Improve Winter Storm Forecasts"
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that computation time was reduced to less than the forecast period itself.
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81:
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The Movable Fine-Mesh model, which began operating in 1978, was the first
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The term North American Mesoscale model refers to whatever regional model
4000:
1923:(December 1997). "Ensemble Forecasting at NCEP and the Breeding Method".
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72:
which govern atmospheric motions. It can supplement these equations with
35:
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Invisible in the Storm: the role of mathematics in understanding weather
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2193:"Radiosonde Observations and Their Use in SPARC-Related Investigations"
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30:
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709:) as the vertical coordinate. Later models substituted the geometric
681:, covering only part of the Earth. Regional models also are known as
631:
347:
and the United States began producing operational forecasts based on
89:
3324:"Impact of vegetation properties on U. S. summer weather prediction"
2556:
Global Perspectives on Tropical Cyclones: From Science to Mitigation
2124:
Krishnamurti, T. N. (January 1995). "Numerical Weather Prediction".
1592:"2007: 50th Anniversary of Operational Numerical Weather Prediction"
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378:(locations). Even with the increasing power of supercomputers, the
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Atmosphere, ocean, and climate dynamics : an introductory text
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1982:
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The Emergence of Numerical Weather Prediction: Richardson's Dream
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Janjic, Zavisa; Gall, Robert; Pyle, Matthew E. (February 2010).
2212:"Systematic Differences in Aircraft and Radiosonde Temperatures"
1530:
Lynch, Peter (2006). "Weather Prediction by Numerical Process".
1112:
By 1975, Manabe and Wetherald had developed a three-dimensional
786:
432:, provide data that is then used in numerical weather forecasts.
101:
4166:
3692:
3604:
3568:
3545:
RAMS source code available under the GNU General Public License
3554:
3262:"Description of the NCAR Community Atmosphere Model (CAM 3.0)"
3010:
3072:
Fog and boundary layer clouds: fog visibility and forecasting
771:
Vorticity-divergence semi-Lagrangian global atmospheric model
3197:
Concentration on the Climate of a General Circulation Model"
2640:
Finite difference schemes and partial differential equations
1806:
1804:
1400:"Numerical Integration of the Barotropic Vorticity Equation"
580:
model is run out to 10 days into the future, while the
3595:
Atmospheric, oceanographic, cryospheric, and climate models
3559:
3222:
10.1175/1520-0469(1975)032<0003:teodtc>2.0.co;2
1957:
10.1175/1520-0493(1997)125<3297:EFANAT>2.0.CO;2
1786:
10.1175/1520-0434(1989)004<0286:HONWPA>2.0.CO;2
1314:
10.1175/1520-0469(1956)013<0127:ATONPM>2.0.CO;2
1270:: Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratories. Archived from
749:
tend to use normalized pressure coordinates referred to as
729:
coordinate with a pressure coordinate system, in which the
653:-type) clouds is more physically based, they form when the
374:(MOS) were developed in the 1970s and 1980s for individual
2932:
Essentials of meteorology: an invitation to the atmosphere
2696:
Essentials of meteorology: an invitation to the atmosphere
2103:"SYNOP Data Format (FM-12): Surface Synoptic Observations"
508:
to fly in and around weather systems of interest, such as
237:). A barotropic model tries to solve a simplified form of
3322:
Yongkang Xue & Michael J. Fennessey (20 March 1996).
2815:
MelĘąnikova, Irina N. & Alexander V. Vasilyev (2005).
1813:
Air pollution modeling and its application VIII, Volume 8
2170:"The WRF Variational Data Assimilation System (WRF-Var)"
1361:
Marshall, John; Plumb, R. Alan (2008). "Balanced flow".
1164:
within the National Hurricane Center limited area models
871:
Some of the better known regional numerical models are:
213:
are independent of height. In other words, no vertical
2210:
Ballish, Bradley A.; V. Krishna Kumar (November 2008).
1365:. Amsterdam: Elsevier Academic Press. pp. 109–12.
988:
the Advanced Region Prediction System developed at the
933:
417:
413:
2415:. Cambridge University Press archive. pp. 49–50.
894:
Advanced Research WRF developed primarily at the U.S.
763:
Some of the better known global numerical models are:
185:
in the atmosphere can be simulated using the 500
3096:
Barry, Roger Graham & Richard J. Chorley (2003).
2996:
2009:
Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society
1683:
Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society
715:
695:
535:
prediction from a numerical weather prediction model.
3540:
WRF Source Codes and Graphics Software Download Page
2610:
Famine early warning systems and remote sensing data
1058:
for their suite of weather forecasting models. The
335:. It was not until the advent of the computer and
197:
surfaces and the average thermal wind between them.
4376:
4330:
4304:
4248:
4200:
4087:
4071:
4045:
4014:
3928:
3879:
3821:
3759:
3703:
2553:Chan, Johnny C. L. & Jeffrey D. Kepert (2010).
1859:
Air Weather Service Model Output Statistics Systems
3045:When nature strikes: weather disasters and the law
2900:Lynch, Peter (2006). "The Fundamental Equations".
1861:. Air Force Global Weather Central. pp. 1–90.
1633:Leslie, L.M.; Dietachmeyer, G.S. (December 1992).
819:European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts
721:
701:
578:European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts
241:based on the assumption that the atmosphere is in
209:, which means that the direction and speed of the
205:Barotropic models assume the atmosphere is nearly
3432:"National Hurricane Center Forecast Verification"
1749:
1747:
1285:Thompson, P. D.; W. Lawrence Gates (April 1956).
1138:Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research
394:farther into the future than otherwise possible.
2720:Narita, Masami & Shiro Ohmori (2007-08-06).
2583:An introduction to dynamic meteorology, Volume 1
2331:"Drone, Sensors May Open Path Into Eye of Storm"
2262:"The WMO Voluntary Observing Ships (VOS) Scheme"
1445:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 138–143.
981:Fifth Generation Penn State/NCAR Mesoscale Model
3302:University Corporation for Atmospheric Research
3269:University Corporation for Atmospheric Research
3167:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
2355:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
2266:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
2220:Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society
2174:University Corporation for Atmospheric Research
2078:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
1597:Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society
1107:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
366:Because the output of forecast models based on
2848:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 12–14.
2754:"The Diagnostic Cloud Parameterization Scheme"
1386:
1384:
1382:
1336:Wallace, John M. & Peter V. Hobbs (1977).
1097:. Several groups then began working to create
428:Weather reconnaissance aircraft, such as this
4178:
3580:
3260:William D. Collins; et al. (June 2004).
3121:
3119:
2958:"Scientific Documentation for the NMM Solver"
2902:The Emergence of Numerical Weather Prediction
1532:The Emergence of Numerical Weather Prediction
1182:United States Environmental Protection Agency
908:is a limited area climate model based on the
288:. Hydrostatic models use either pressure or
8:
552:A model is a computer program that produces
3048:. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 189.
2314:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
2074:"Key to METAR Surface Weather Observations"
1668:
1666:
1464:
1462:
1338:Atmospheric Science: An Introductory Survey
673:The horizontal domain of a model is either
4185:
4171:
4163:
3700:
3689:
3601:
3587:
3573:
3565:
2048:. Cambridge University Press. p. 56.
327:began in the 1920s through the efforts of
3517:. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
3485:
3352:
3220:
2794:. Cambridge University Press. p. 6.
2632:
2630:
2548:
2546:
2544:
1946:
1857:L. Best, D. L. & S. P. Pryor (1983).
1841:Model output statistics forecast guidance
1784:
1715:
1713:
1617:
1423:
1340:. Academic Press, Inc. pp. 384–385.
1312:
851:developed by the French Weather Service,
714:
694:
27:Mathematical model of atmospheric motions
2965:National Center for Atmospheric Research
2872:Numerical Weather and Climate Prediction
2260:National Data Buoy Center (2009-01-28).
1171:depend on atmospheric models to provide
1130:National Center for Atmospheric Research
1065:Model output statistics differ from the
896:National Center for Atmospheric Research
370:requires corrections near ground level,
305:
3394:Water, Air, & Soil Pollution: Focus
1878:. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp.
1252:
325:history of numerical weather prediction
319:History of numerical weather prediction
4353:Construction and management simulation
3513:Roulstone, Ian; Norbury, John (2013).
2729:12th Conference on Mesoscale Processes
2559:. World Scientific. pp. 295–301.
2307:
1979:"The Ensemble Prediction System (EPS)"
1834:
1832:
1726:. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p.
1565:. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p.
880:Weather Research and Forecasting model
861:Intermediate General Circulation Model
747:Weather Research and Forecasting model
312:Moore School of Electrical Engineering
3009:Consortium on Small Scale Modelling.
1103:Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory
805:Global Environmental Multiscale Model
733:of constant-pressure surfaces become
588:is run 16 days into the future.
576:is run six days into the future, the
331:who utilized procedures developed by
156:use climate information, output from
7:
4430:Numerical climate and weather models
4389:List of computer simulation software
3880:Regional and mesoscale oceanographic
3011:Consortium for Small-scale Modeling.
2291:53rd Weather Reconnaissance Squadron
1442:Fundamentals of atmospheric modeling
1144:model, are being used as inputs for
967:Regional Atmospheric Modeling System
310:The ENIAC main control panel at the
3442:from the original on 2 January 2011
3298:"CAM3.0 COMMUNITY ATMOSPHERE MODEL"
3201:Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences
3191:Manabe S.; Wetherald R. T. (1975).
2148:10.1146/annurev.fl.27.010195.001211
193:) and 1,000 mb (30 inHg)
64:constructed around the full set of
3822:Regional and mesoscale atmospheric
1642:Australian Meteorological Magazine
1260:Gates, W. Lawrence (August 1955).
600:for the horizontal dimensions and
148:for the horizontal dimensions and
25:
3102:. Psychology Press. p. 172.
2699:. Cengage Learning. p. 244.
2666:Mesoscale Meteorological Modeling
2527:. World Scientific. p. 276.
2467:Mesoscale Meteorological Modeling
2438:Mesoscale Meteorological Modeling
1673:Norman A. Phillips (April 1956).
1180:. In the mid- to late-1970s, the
1054:(MOS), and were developed by the
649:. The formation of large-scale (
474:World Meteorological Organization
298:follow the contours of the land.
104:, vegetation, surface water, the
3099:Atmosphere, weather, and climate
2967:. pp. 12–13. Archived from
2935:. Cengage Learning. p. 10.
2409:Houghton, John Theodore (1985).
2127:Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics
1815:. Birkhäuser. pp. 241–242.
1482:Journal of Computational Physics
1010:Meteorological Service of Canada
809:Meteorological Service of Canada
785:(previously AVN) – developed by
677:, covering the entire Earth, or
4317:Integrated assessment modelling
3646:Atmospheric dispersion modeling
3641:Tropical cyclone forecast model
3332:Journal of Geophysical Research
3193:"The Effects of Doubling the CO
2869:Warner, Thomas Tomkins (2010).
2752:Frierson, Dargan (2000-09-14).
2733:American Meteorological Society
2586:. Academic Press. p. 480.
2329:Lee, Christopher (2007-10-08).
1439:Jacobson, Mark Zachary (2005).
1193:tropical cyclone forecast model
480:reports, or every six hours in
2821:. Springer. pp. 226–228.
2763:. pp. 4–5. Archived from
2191:Gaffen, Dian J. (2007-06-07).
1134:Community Climate System Model
388:partial differential equations
1:
2070:National Climatic Data Center
1128:By the early 1980s, the U.S.
1125:concentration was increased.
586:Environmental Modeling Center
280:filter out vertically moving
263:barotropic vorticity equation
229:and Bermuda-Azores high) and
4286:Hydrological transport model
4240:Protein structure prediction
4235:Modelling biological systems
4046:Land surface parametrization
3636:Numerical weather prediction
2637:Strikwerda, John C. (2004).
2176:. 2007-08-14. Archived from
2109:. 2008-05-25. Archived from
1227:Numerical weather prediction
408:Numerical weather prediction
162:surface weather observations
158:numerical weather prediction
4230:Metabolic network modelling
2842:Stensrud, David J. (2007).
2788:Stensrud, David J. (2007).
2378:Stensrud, David J. (2007).
2042:Stensrud, David J. (2007).
4446:
4343:Business process modelling
3136:Cambridge University Press
3075:. Springer. p. 1144.
2929:Ahrens, C. Donald (2008).
2906:Cambridge University Press
2877:Cambridge University Press
2693:Ahrens, C. Donald (2008).
2643:. SIAM. pp. 165–170.
2386:Cambridge University Press
1907:Climate Diagnostics Center
1536:Cambridge University Press
1105:, a component of the U.S.
1099:general circulation models
1082:
1042:
619:
401:
316:
34:A 96-hour forecast of 850
4215:Chemical process modeling
4132:
3699:
3688:
3671:Meteorological reanalysis
3611:
3600:
3436:National Hurricane Center
3171:"The First Climate Model"
2664:Pielke, Roger A. (2002).
2613:. Springer. p. 121.
2580:Holton, James R. (2004).
2500:. Springer. p. 132.
2465:Pielke, Roger A. (2002).
2436:Pielke, Roger A. (2002).
1503:10.1016/j.jcp.2007.02.034
1425:10.3402/tellusa.v2i4.8607
1242:Chemistry transport model
1089:General circulation model
971:Colorado State University
622:Parametrization (climate)
602:finite difference methods
286:hydrostatic approximation
150:finite-difference methods
4261:Chemical transport model
4225:Infectious disease model
3656:Upper-atmospheric models
3651:Chemical transport model
3550:MM5 Source Code download
3496:10.1175/2008WAF2222128.1
3128:"The ENIAC Integrations"
3069:Gultepe, Ismail (2007).
3042:Baum, Marsha L. (2007).
3013:Retrieved on 2008-01-13.
2761:University of Washington
2607:Brown, Molly E. (2008).
1237:Static atmospheric model
1232:Upper-atmospheric models
1162:Hurricane Ernesto (2006)
1056:National Weather Service
905:HARMONIE-Climate (HCLIM)
363:in the 1970s and 1980s.
3666:Model output statistics
3555:The source code of ARPS
3465:Weather and Forecasting
3406:10.1023/A:1021394126149
2287:"The Hurricane Hunters"
1909:. Retrieved 2007-02-16.
1764:Weather and Forecasting
1169:Air pollution forecasts
1060:United States Air Force
1052:model output statistics
1045:Model output statistics
1039:Model output statistics
798:to compare with the GFS
591:The equations used are
514:sea surface temperature
506:reconnaissance aircraft
372:model output statistics
154:model output statistics
3929:Atmospheric dispersion
2241:10.1175/2008BAMS2332.1
2029:10.1002/qj.49712252905
1926:Monthly Weather Review
1704:10.1002/qj.49708235202
1292:Journal of Meteorology
1268:Hanscom Air Force Base
1217:Atmospheric reanalysis
1165:
990:University of Oklahoma
843:German Weather Service
783:Global Forecast System
723:
703:
582:Global Forecast System
549:
536:
433:
314:
124:, covering the entire
49:
47:Global Forecast System
4394:Mathematical modeling
4338:Biopsychosocial model
1872:Cox, John D. (2002).
1839:Harry Hughes (1976).
1811:Steyn, D. G. (1991).
1650:Bureau of Meteorology
1619:10.1175/BAMS-88-5-639
1559:Cox, John D. (2002).
1159:
1152:Limited area modeling
724:
704:
547:
527:
427:
309:
118:boundary layer eddies
33:
4348:Catastrophe modeling
4194:Scientific modelling
4147:Scientific modelling
3661:Ensemble forecasting
3278:on 26 September 2019
3126:Peter Lynch (2006).
2473:. pp. 285–287.
1755:Shuman, Frederick G.
1720:John D. Cox (2002).
1394:; Fjörtoft, Ragnar;
1197:atmospheric dynamics
1114:global climate model
731:geopotential heights
713:
693:
368:atmospheric dynamics
329:Lewis Fry Richardson
245:; that is, that the
239:atmospheric dynamics
4291:Modular Ocean Model
4152:Computer simulation
3621:Oceanographic model
3560:Model Visualisation
3478:2009WtFor..24..395R
3345:1996JGR...101.7419X
3213:1975JAtS...32....3M
2335:The Washington Post
2285:403rd Wing (2011).
2233:2008BAMS...89.1689B
2140:1995AnRFM..27..195K
2021:1996QJRMS.122...73M
1939:1997MWRv..125.3297T
1777:1989WtFor...4..286S
1696:1956QJRMS..82..123P
1610:2007BAMS...88..639H
1495:2008JCoPh.227.3431L
1416:1950Tell....2..237C
1305:1956JAtS...13..127T
807:– developed by the
794:– developed by the
735:dependent variables
567:numerical stability
558:primitive equations
533:geopotential height
392:weather forecasting
337:computer simulation
295:continuity equation
267:geopotential height
243:geostrophic balance
195:geopotential height
70:dynamical equations
54:atmospheric science
39:geopotential height
4384:Data visualization
4368:Input–output model
4281:Hydrological model
4271:Geologic modelling
4137:Mathematical model
4072:Cryospheric models
4015:Chemical transport
3237:"CAM 3.1 Download"
2999:on April 30, 2018.
2908:. pp. 45–46.
2444:. pp. 48–49.
2412:The Global Climate
1989:on 25 January 2011
1757:(September 1989).
1166:
1160:Model spread with
739:Earth's atmosphere
719:
699:
647:cloud microphysics
550:
537:
528:An example of 500
496:and well into the
470:weather satellites
454:initial conditions
434:
353:forecasting models
349:primitive-equation
315:
278:Hydrostatic models
223:low pressure areas
62:mathematical model
50:
18:Atmospheric models
4417:
4416:
4296:Wildfire modeling
4276:Groundwater model
4256:Atmospheric model
4160:
4159:
4142:Statistical model
4128:
4127:
4124:
4123:
3684:
3683:
3626:Cryospheric model
3616:Atmospheric model
3524:978-0-691-15272-1
3430:(20 April 2010).
3363:10.1029/95JD02169
3241:www.cesm.ucar.edu
3145:978-0-521-85729-1
3109:978-0-415-27171-4
3082:978-3-7643-8418-0
3055:978-0-275-22129-4
2942:978-0-495-11558-8
2915:978-0-521-85729-1
2886:978-0-521-51389-0
2855:978-0-521-86540-1
2828:978-3-540-21452-6
2801:978-0-521-86540-1
2706:978-0-495-11558-8
2679:978-0-12-554766-6
2650:978-0-89871-567-5
2620:978-3-540-75367-4
2593:978-0-12-354015-7
2566:978-981-4293-47-1
2534:978-981-02-4761-4
2507:978-3-540-26032-5
2480:978-0-12-554766-6
2451:978-0-12-554766-6
2422:978-0-521-31256-1
2395:978-0-521-86540-1
2227:(11): 1689–1708.
2055:978-0-521-86540-1
1933:(12): 3297–3319.
1889:978-0-471-38108-2
1822:978-0-306-43828-8
1737:978-0-471-38108-2
1576:978-0-471-38108-2
1545:978-0-521-85729-1
1538:. pp. 1–27.
1452:978-0-521-83970-9
1398:(November 1950).
1396:von Neumann, John
1372:978-0-12-558691-7
1347:978-0-12-732950-5
1274:on July 22, 2011.
867:Regional versions
841:developed by the
829:developed by the
817:developed by the
775:Hydrometcenter RF
752:sigma coordinates
722:{\displaystyle z}
702:{\displaystyle z}
655:relative humidity
584:model run by the
545:
510:tropical cyclones
486:data assimilation
261:reduces into the
235:tropical cyclones
227:subtropical ridge
74:parameterizations
58:atmospheric model
16:(Redirected from
4437:
4409:Visual analytics
4404:Systems thinking
4322:Population model
4187:
4180:
4173:
4164:
3701:
3690:
3602:
3589:
3582:
3575:
3566:
3528:
3500:
3499:
3489:
3458:
3452:
3451:
3449:
3447:
3424:
3418:
3417:
3388:
3382:
3381:
3379:
3377:
3371:
3365:. Archived from
3356:
3328:
3319:
3313:
3312:
3310:
3308:
3294:
3288:
3287:
3285:
3283:
3277:
3271:. Archived from
3266:
3257:
3251:
3250:
3248:
3247:
3233:
3227:
3226:
3224:
3188:
3182:
3181:
3179:
3177:
3163:
3157:
3156:
3154:
3152:
3123:
3114:
3113:
3093:
3087:
3086:
3066:
3060:
3059:
3039:
3033:
3030:
3024:
3020:
3014:
3007:
3001:
3000:
2995:. Archived from
2989:
2983:
2982:
2980:
2979:
2973:
2962:
2953:
2947:
2946:
2926:
2920:
2919:
2897:
2891:
2890:
2866:
2860:
2859:
2839:
2833:
2832:
2812:
2806:
2805:
2785:
2779:
2778:
2776:
2775:
2769:
2758:
2749:
2743:
2742:
2740:
2739:
2726:
2717:
2711:
2710:
2690:
2684:
2683:
2661:
2655:
2654:
2634:
2625:
2624:
2604:
2598:
2597:
2577:
2571:
2570:
2550:
2539:
2538:
2518:
2512:
2511:
2491:
2485:
2484:
2462:
2456:
2455:
2433:
2427:
2426:
2406:
2400:
2399:
2375:
2369:
2368:
2366:
2365:
2351:
2345:
2344:
2342:
2341:
2326:
2320:
2319:
2313:
2305:
2303:
2302:
2293:. Archived from
2282:
2276:
2275:
2273:
2272:
2257:
2251:
2250:
2248:
2247:
2216:
2207:
2201:
2200:
2195:. Archived from
2188:
2182:
2181:
2166:
2160:
2159:
2121:
2115:
2114:
2099:
2093:
2092:
2090:
2089:
2080:. Archived from
2066:
2060:
2059:
2039:
2033:
2032:
2004:
1998:
1997:
1995:
1994:
1985:. Archived from
1975:
1969:
1968:
1950:
1916:
1910:
1900:
1894:
1893:
1869:
1863:
1862:
1854:
1845:
1844:
1836:
1827:
1826:
1808:
1799:
1798:
1788:
1751:
1742:
1741:
1717:
1708:
1707:
1690:(352): 123–154.
1679:
1670:
1661:
1660:
1658:
1657:
1639:
1630:
1624:
1623:
1621:
1587:
1581:
1580:
1556:
1550:
1549:
1527:
1521:
1520:
1518:
1517:
1511:
1505:. Archived from
1478:
1466:
1457:
1456:
1436:
1430:
1429:
1427:
1388:
1377:
1376:
1358:
1352:
1351:
1333:
1327:
1326:
1316:
1282:
1276:
1275:
1257:
1079:Climate modeling
743:mesoscale models
728:
726:
725:
720:
708:
706:
705:
700:
616:Parameterization
606:prognostic chart
598:spectral methods
546:
421:
402:This section is
357:tropical cyclone
333:Vilhelm Bjerknes
211:geostrophic wind
146:spectral methods
21:
4445:
4444:
4440:
4439:
4438:
4436:
4435:
4434:
4420:
4419:
4418:
4413:
4372:
4326:
4312:Energy modeling
4300:
4244:
4220:Ecosystem model
4196:
4191:
4161:
4156:
4120:
4083:
4067:
4041:
4010:
3924:
3875:
3817:
3755:
3695:
3694:Specific models
3680:
3676:Parametrization
3607:
3596:
3593:
3536:
3531:
3525:
3512:
3508:
3506:Further reading
3503:
3487:10.1.1.207.4667
3460:
3459:
3455:
3445:
3443:
3426:
3425:
3421:
3390:
3389:
3385:
3375:
3373:
3372:on 10 July 2010
3369:
3326:
3321:
3320:
3316:
3306:
3304:
3296:
3295:
3291:
3281:
3279:
3275:
3264:
3259:
3258:
3254:
3245:
3243:
3235:
3234:
3230:
3196:
3190:
3189:
3185:
3175:
3173:
3169:(22 May 2008).
3165:
3164:
3160:
3150:
3148:
3146:
3138:. p. 208.
3125:
3124:
3117:
3110:
3095:
3094:
3090:
3083:
3068:
3067:
3063:
3056:
3041:
3040:
3036:
3031:
3027:
3021:
3017:
3008:
3004:
2991:
2990:
2986:
2977:
2975:
2971:
2960:
2955:
2954:
2950:
2943:
2928:
2927:
2923:
2916:
2899:
2898:
2894:
2887:
2879:. p. 259.
2868:
2867:
2863:
2856:
2841:
2840:
2836:
2829:
2814:
2813:
2809:
2802:
2787:
2786:
2782:
2773:
2771:
2770:on 1 April 2011
2767:
2756:
2751:
2750:
2746:
2737:
2735:
2724:
2719:
2718:
2714:
2707:
2692:
2691:
2687:
2680:
2663:
2662:
2658:
2651:
2636:
2635:
2628:
2621:
2606:
2605:
2601:
2594:
2579:
2578:
2574:
2567:
2552:
2551:
2542:
2535:
2520:
2519:
2515:
2508:
2493:
2492:
2488:
2481:
2464:
2463:
2459:
2452:
2435:
2434:
2430:
2423:
2408:
2407:
2403:
2396:
2388:. p. 137.
2377:
2376:
2372:
2363:
2361:
2353:
2352:
2348:
2339:
2337:
2328:
2327:
2323:
2306:
2300:
2298:
2284:
2283:
2279:
2270:
2268:
2259:
2258:
2254:
2245:
2243:
2214:
2209:
2208:
2204:
2190:
2189:
2185:
2168:
2167:
2163:
2123:
2122:
2118:
2101:
2100:
2096:
2087:
2085:
2068:
2067:
2063:
2056:
2041:
2040:
2036:
2015:(529): 73–119.
2006:
2005:
2001:
1992:
1990:
1977:
1976:
1972:
1948:10.1.1.324.3941
1921:Kalnay, Eugenia
1918:
1917:
1913:
1901:
1897:
1890:
1871:
1870:
1866:
1856:
1855:
1848:
1838:
1837:
1830:
1823:
1810:
1809:
1802:
1753:
1752:
1745:
1738:
1719:
1718:
1711:
1677:
1672:
1671:
1664:
1655:
1653:
1637:
1632:
1631:
1627:
1589:
1588:
1584:
1577:
1558:
1557:
1553:
1546:
1529:
1528:
1524:
1515:
1513:
1509:
1476:
1468:
1467:
1460:
1453:
1438:
1437:
1433:
1390:
1389:
1380:
1373:
1360:
1359:
1355:
1348:
1335:
1334:
1330:
1284:
1283:
1279:
1259:
1258:
1254:
1250:
1213:
1195:to be based on
1154:
1124:
1119:
1091:
1083:Main articles:
1081:
1076:
1047:
1041:
869:
773:– developed by
761:
759:Global versions
711:
710:
691:
690:
671:
624:
618:
539:
522:
422:
411:
400:
376:forecast points
321:
304:
275:
259:Euler equations
251:divergence-free
203:
175:
170:
86:moist processes
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4443:
4441:
4433:
4432:
4422:
4421:
4415:
4414:
4412:
4411:
4406:
4401:
4399:Systems theory
4396:
4391:
4386:
4380:
4378:
4377:Related topics
4374:
4373:
4371:
4370:
4365:
4363:Economic model
4360:
4355:
4350:
4345:
4340:
4334:
4332:
4328:
4327:
4325:
4324:
4319:
4314:
4308:
4306:
4305:Sustainability
4302:
4301:
4299:
4298:
4293:
4288:
4283:
4278:
4273:
4268:
4263:
4258:
4252:
4250:
4246:
4245:
4243:
4242:
4237:
4232:
4227:
4222:
4217:
4212:
4210:Cellular model
4206:
4204:
4198:
4197:
4192:
4190:
4189:
4182:
4175:
4167:
4158:
4157:
4155:
4154:
4149:
4144:
4139:
4133:
4130:
4129:
4126:
4125:
4122:
4121:
4119:
4118:
4113:
4108:
4103:
4098:
4095:
4091:
4089:
4085:
4084:
4082:
4081:
4075:
4073:
4069:
4068:
4066:
4065:
4060:
4055:
4049:
4047:
4043:
4042:
4040:
4039:
4034:
4029:
4024:
4018:
4016:
4012:
4011:
4009:
4008:
4003:
3998:
3993:
3988:
3983:
3978:
3973:
3968:
3963:
3958:
3953:
3948:
3943:
3938:
3932:
3930:
3926:
3925:
3923:
3922:
3917:
3912:
3907:
3902:
3897:
3892:
3887:
3883:
3881:
3877:
3876:
3874:
3873:
3870:
3865:
3860:
3857:
3854:
3849:
3846:
3841:
3836:
3831:
3825:
3823:
3819:
3818:
3816:
3815:
3812:
3807:
3804:
3799:
3794:
3789:
3784:
3779:
3774:
3769:
3763:
3761:
3760:Global weather
3757:
3756:
3754:
3753:
3748:
3743:
3738:
3733:
3728:
3723:
3718:
3713:
3707:
3705:
3697:
3696:
3693:
3686:
3685:
3682:
3681:
3679:
3678:
3673:
3668:
3663:
3658:
3653:
3648:
3643:
3638:
3633:
3628:
3623:
3618:
3612:
3609:
3608:
3605:
3598:
3597:
3594:
3592:
3591:
3584:
3577:
3569:
3563:
3562:
3557:
3552:
3547:
3542:
3535:
3534:External links
3532:
3530:
3529:
3523:
3509:
3507:
3504:
3502:
3501:
3472:(2): 395–419.
3453:
3428:James Franklin
3419:
3383:
3354:10.1.1.453.551
3314:
3289:
3252:
3228:
3194:
3183:
3158:
3144:
3115:
3108:
3088:
3081:
3061:
3054:
3034:
3025:
3015:
3002:
2984:
2948:
2941:
2921:
2914:
2892:
2885:
2861:
2854:
2834:
2827:
2807:
2800:
2780:
2744:
2712:
2705:
2685:
2678:
2672:. p. 65.
2670:Academic Press
2656:
2649:
2626:
2619:
2599:
2592:
2572:
2565:
2540:
2533:
2513:
2506:
2486:
2479:
2471:Academic Press
2457:
2450:
2442:Academic Press
2428:
2421:
2401:
2394:
2370:
2357:(2010-11-12).
2346:
2321:
2277:
2252:
2202:
2199:on 2007-06-07.
2183:
2180:on 2007-08-14.
2161:
2134:(1): 195–225.
2116:
2113:on 2007-12-30.
2094:
2072:(2008-08-20).
2061:
2054:
2034:
1999:
1970:
1919:Toth, Zoltan;
1911:
1895:
1888:
1875:Storm Watchers
1864:
1846:
1828:
1821:
1800:
1771:(3): 286–296.
1743:
1736:
1723:Storm Watchers
1709:
1662:
1625:
1604:(5): 639–650.
1582:
1575:
1562:Storm Watchers
1551:
1544:
1522:
1489:(7): 3431–44.
1472:(2008-03-20).
1458:
1451:
1431:
1410:(4): 237–254.
1378:
1371:
1353:
1346:
1328:
1299:(2): 127–141.
1277:
1251:
1249:
1246:
1245:
1244:
1239:
1234:
1229:
1224:
1219:
1212:
1209:
1153:
1150:
1146:climate change
1122:
1117:
1080:
1077:
1075:
1072:
1043:Main article:
1040:
1037:
1036:
1035:
1026:
1019:
1013:
1003:
994:
983:
974:
960:
947:
938:
930:
929:
928:
914:
901:
900:
899:
889:
868:
865:
864:
863:
855:
846:
836:
821:
812:
799:
789:
777:
760:
757:
718:
698:
670:
667:
659:cloud fraction
634:represent are
620:Main article:
617:
614:
554:meteorological
521:
518:
462:mountain waves
458:initialization
450:thermodynamics
446:fluid dynamics
399:
398:Initialization
396:
386:nature of the
380:forecast skill
317:Main article:
303:
300:
290:sigma-pressure
282:acoustic waves
274:
271:
231:cold-core lows
202:
199:
174:
171:
169:
166:
160:, and current
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4442:
4431:
4428:
4427:
4425:
4410:
4407:
4405:
4402:
4400:
4397:
4395:
4392:
4390:
4387:
4385:
4382:
4381:
4379:
4375:
4369:
4366:
4364:
4361:
4359:
4358:Crime mapping
4356:
4354:
4351:
4349:
4346:
4344:
4341:
4339:
4336:
4335:
4333:
4329:
4323:
4320:
4318:
4315:
4313:
4310:
4309:
4307:
4303:
4297:
4294:
4292:
4289:
4287:
4284:
4282:
4279:
4277:
4274:
4272:
4269:
4267:
4266:Climate model
4264:
4262:
4259:
4257:
4254:
4253:
4251:
4249:Environmental
4247:
4241:
4238:
4236:
4233:
4231:
4228:
4226:
4223:
4221:
4218:
4216:
4213:
4211:
4208:
4207:
4205:
4203:
4199:
4195:
4188:
4183:
4181:
4176:
4174:
4169:
4168:
4165:
4153:
4150:
4148:
4145:
4143:
4140:
4138:
4135:
4134:
4131:
4117:
4114:
4112:
4109:
4107:
4104:
4102:
4099:
4096:
4093:
4092:
4090:
4086:
4080:
4077:
4076:
4074:
4070:
4064:
4061:
4059:
4056:
4054:
4051:
4050:
4048:
4044:
4038:
4035:
4033:
4030:
4028:
4025:
4023:
4020:
4019:
4017:
4013:
4007:
4004:
4002:
3999:
3997:
3994:
3992:
3989:
3987:
3984:
3982:
3979:
3977:
3974:
3972:
3969:
3967:
3964:
3962:
3959:
3957:
3954:
3952:
3949:
3947:
3944:
3942:
3939:
3937:
3934:
3933:
3931:
3927:
3921:
3918:
3916:
3913:
3911:
3908:
3906:
3903:
3901:
3898:
3896:
3893:
3891:
3888:
3885:
3884:
3882:
3878:
3871:
3869:
3866:
3864:
3861:
3858:
3855:
3853:
3850:
3847:
3845:
3842:
3840:
3837:
3835:
3832:
3830:
3827:
3826:
3824:
3820:
3813:
3811:
3808:
3805:
3803:
3800:
3798:
3795:
3793:
3790:
3788:
3785:
3783:
3780:
3778:
3775:
3773:
3770:
3768:
3765:
3764:
3762:
3758:
3752:
3749:
3747:
3744:
3742:
3739:
3737:
3734:
3732:
3729:
3727:
3724:
3722:
3719:
3717:
3714:
3712:
3709:
3708:
3706:
3702:
3698:
3691:
3687:
3677:
3674:
3672:
3669:
3667:
3664:
3662:
3659:
3657:
3654:
3652:
3649:
3647:
3644:
3642:
3639:
3637:
3634:
3632:
3631:Climate model
3629:
3627:
3624:
3622:
3619:
3617:
3614:
3613:
3610:
3603:
3599:
3590:
3585:
3583:
3578:
3576:
3571:
3570:
3567:
3561:
3558:
3556:
3553:
3551:
3548:
3546:
3543:
3541:
3538:
3537:
3533:
3526:
3520:
3516:
3511:
3510:
3505:
3497:
3493:
3488:
3483:
3479:
3475:
3471:
3467:
3466:
3457:
3454:
3441:
3437:
3433:
3429:
3423:
3420:
3415:
3411:
3407:
3403:
3399:
3395:
3387:
3384:
3368:
3364:
3360:
3355:
3350:
3346:
3342:
3338:
3334:
3333:
3325:
3318:
3315:
3303:
3299:
3293:
3290:
3274:
3270:
3263:
3256:
3253:
3242:
3238:
3232:
3229:
3223:
3218:
3214:
3210:
3206:
3202:
3198:
3187:
3184:
3172:
3168:
3162:
3159:
3147:
3141:
3137:
3133:
3129:
3122:
3120:
3116:
3111:
3105:
3101:
3100:
3092:
3089:
3084:
3078:
3074:
3073:
3065:
3062:
3057:
3051:
3047:
3046:
3038:
3035:
3029:
3026:
3019:
3016:
3012:
3006:
3003:
2998:
2994:
2988:
2985:
2974:on 2011-08-23
2970:
2966:
2959:
2952:
2949:
2944:
2938:
2934:
2933:
2925:
2922:
2917:
2911:
2907:
2903:
2896:
2893:
2888:
2882:
2878:
2874:
2873:
2865:
2862:
2857:
2851:
2847:
2846:
2838:
2835:
2830:
2824:
2820:
2819:
2811:
2808:
2803:
2797:
2793:
2792:
2784:
2781:
2766:
2762:
2755:
2748:
2745:
2734:
2730:
2723:
2716:
2713:
2708:
2702:
2698:
2697:
2689:
2686:
2681:
2675:
2671:
2667:
2660:
2657:
2652:
2646:
2642:
2641:
2633:
2631:
2627:
2622:
2616:
2612:
2611:
2603:
2600:
2595:
2589:
2585:
2584:
2576:
2573:
2568:
2562:
2558:
2557:
2549:
2547:
2545:
2541:
2536:
2530:
2526:
2525:
2517:
2514:
2509:
2503:
2499:
2498:
2490:
2487:
2482:
2476:
2472:
2468:
2461:
2458:
2453:
2447:
2443:
2439:
2432:
2429:
2424:
2418:
2414:
2413:
2405:
2402:
2397:
2391:
2387:
2383:
2382:
2374:
2371:
2360:
2356:
2350:
2347:
2336:
2332:
2325:
2322:
2317:
2311:
2297:on 2012-05-30
2296:
2292:
2288:
2281:
2278:
2267:
2263:
2256:
2253:
2242:
2238:
2234:
2230:
2226:
2222:
2221:
2213:
2206:
2203:
2198:
2194:
2187:
2184:
2179:
2175:
2171:
2165:
2162:
2157:
2153:
2149:
2145:
2141:
2137:
2133:
2129:
2128:
2120:
2117:
2112:
2108:
2104:
2098:
2095:
2084:on 2002-11-01
2083:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2065:
2062:
2057:
2051:
2047:
2046:
2038:
2035:
2030:
2026:
2022:
2018:
2014:
2010:
2003:
2000:
1988:
1984:
1980:
1974:
1971:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1949:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1927:
1922:
1915:
1912:
1908:
1905:
1899:
1896:
1891:
1885:
1881:
1877:
1876:
1868:
1865:
1860:
1853:
1851:
1847:
1842:
1835:
1833:
1829:
1824:
1818:
1814:
1807:
1805:
1801:
1796:
1792:
1787:
1782:
1778:
1774:
1770:
1766:
1765:
1760:
1756:
1750:
1748:
1744:
1739:
1733:
1729:
1725:
1724:
1716:
1714:
1710:
1705:
1701:
1697:
1693:
1689:
1685:
1684:
1676:
1669:
1667:
1663:
1651:
1647:
1643:
1636:
1629:
1626:
1620:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1603:
1599:
1598:
1593:
1586:
1583:
1578:
1572:
1568:
1564:
1563:
1555:
1552:
1547:
1541:
1537:
1533:
1526:
1523:
1512:on 2010-07-08
1508:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1492:
1488:
1484:
1483:
1475:
1471:
1465:
1463:
1459:
1454:
1448:
1444:
1443:
1435:
1432:
1426:
1421:
1417:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1392:Charney, Jule
1387:
1385:
1383:
1379:
1374:
1368:
1364:
1357:
1354:
1349:
1343:
1339:
1332:
1329:
1324:
1320:
1315:
1310:
1306:
1302:
1298:
1294:
1293:
1288:
1281:
1278:
1273:
1269:
1265:
1264:
1256:
1253:
1247:
1243:
1240:
1238:
1235:
1233:
1230:
1228:
1225:
1223:
1222:Climate model
1220:
1218:
1215:
1214:
1210:
1208:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1189:
1187:
1183:
1179:
1174:
1170:
1163:
1158:
1151:
1149:
1147:
1143:
1139:
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3767:IFS (ECMWF)
3606:Model types
3207:(3): 3–15.
1205:statistical
520:Computation
494:troposphere
466:radiosondes
430:WP-3D Orion
404:transcluded
361:air quality
359:as well as
273:Hydrostatic
108:effects of
80:diffusion,
43:temperature
4202:Biological
3991:PUFF-PLUME
3951:AUSTAL2000
3810:GME / ICON
3777:GEM / GDPS
3726:GFDL CM2.X
3307:6 February
3246:2019-06-25
3151:6 February
3023:1929-1969.
2978:2011-01-03
2774:2011-02-15
2738:2011-02-15
2364:2010-12-22
2340:2008-02-22
2301:2006-03-30
2271:2011-02-15
2246:2011-02-16
2088:2011-02-11
1993:2011-01-05
1656:2011-01-03
1516:2010-12-23
1248:References
1186:California
1173:fluid flow
1002:consortia.
924:RACMO2.3p2
834:Met Office
456:is called
438:atmosphere
215:wind shear
207:barotropic
201:Barotropic
138:barotropic
4032:GEOS-Chem
3482:CiteSeerX
3446:2 January
3376:6 January
3349:CiteSeerX
3282:3 January
3176:8 January
2156:122230747
1965:1520-0493
1943:CiteSeerX
1795:1520-0434
1323:1520-0469
1178:acid rain
1148:studies.
593:nonlinear
189:(15
114:tornadoes
106:kinematic
82:radiation
78:turbulent
66:primitive
45:from the
4424:Category
4001:SAFE AIR
3834:RR / RAP
3440:Archived
3414:94747027
2993:"HIRLAM"
2310:cite web
1211:See also
1025:Russia).
993:system..
910:HARMONIE
679:regional
130:regional
4037:CHIMERE
3996:RIMPUFF
3976:MERCURE
3956:CALPUFF
3806:JMA-GSM
3721:HadGEM1
3704:Climate
3474:Bibcode
3341:Bibcode
3209:Bibcode
2229:Bibcode
2136:Bibcode
2017:Bibcode
1935:Bibcode
1880:222–224
1773:Bibcode
1692:Bibcode
1652:: 61–77
1606:Bibcode
1491:Bibcode
1412:Bibcode
1301:Bibcode
1030:Meso-NH
1006:GEM-LAM
942:HIRHAM5
892:WRF-ARW
886:WRF-NMM
796:US Navy
669:Domains
651:stratus
642:convect
418:history
416:|
384:chaotic
302:History
257:of the
110:terrain
4331:Social
4111:NOGAPS
4027:MOZART
3946:ATSTEP
3941:AERMOD
3920:ADCIRC
3910:MITgcm
3852:HIRLAM
3814:ARPEGE
3797:NAVGEM
3716:HadCM3
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792:NOGAPS
675:global
632:clouds
472:. The
253:, the
122:global
90:clouds
4058:CLASS
4053:JULES
4022:CLaMS
4006:SILAM
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3905:FVCOM
3886:HyCOM
3872:HRDPS
3848:RAQMS
3792:NAEFS
3751:ECHAM
3746:CFSv2
3410:S2CID
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1983:ECMWF
1678:(PDF)
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3731:CGCM
3711:IGCM
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