2021:. The overshoot trajectory has the highest heat load and sets the TPS thickness. The undershoot trajectory is defined by the steepest allowable trajectory. For crewed missions the steepest entry angle is limited by the peak deceleration. The undershoot trajectory also has the highest peak heat flux and dynamic pressure. Consequently, the undershoot trajectory is the basis for selecting the TPS material. There is no "one size fits all" TPS material. A TPS material that is ideal for high heat flux may be too conductive (too dense) for a long duration heat load. A low-density TPS material might lack the tensile strength to resist spallation if the dynamic pressure is too high. A TPS material can perform well for a specific peak heat flux, but fail catastrophically for the same peak heat flux if the wall pressure is significantly increased (this happened with NASA's R-4 test spacecraft). Older TPS materials tend to be more labor-intensive and expensive to manufacture compared to modern materials. However, modern TPS materials often lack the flight history of the older materials (an important consideration for a risk-averse designer).
3905:"Avcoat 5026-39/HC-G is an epoxy novolac resin with special additives in a fiberglass honeycomb matrix. In fabrication, the empty honeycomb is bonded to the primary structure and the resin is gunned into each cell individually. ... The overall density of the material is 32 lb/ft3 (512 kg/m3). The char of the material is composed mainly of silica and carbon. It is necessary to know the amounts of each in the char because in the ablation analysis the silica is considered to be inert, but the carbon is considered to enter into exothermic reactions with oxygen. ... At 2160O R (12000 K), 54 percent by weight of the virgin material has volatilized and 46 percent has remained as char. ... In the virgin material, 25 percent by weight is silica, and since the silica is considered to be inert the char-layer composition becomes 6.7 lb/ft3 (107.4 kg/m3) of carbon and 8 lb/ft3 (128.1 kg/m3) of silica."
1518:
2032:. A shock wave will remain attached to the tip of a sharp cone if the cone's half-angle is below a critical value. This critical half-angle can be estimated using perfect gas theory (this specific aerodynamic instability occurs below hypersonic speeds). For a nitrogen atmosphere (Earth or Titan), the maximum allowed half-angle is approximately 60°. For a carbon dioxide atmosphere (Mars or Venus), the maximum-allowed half-angle is approximately 70°. After shock wave detachment, an entry vehicle must carry significantly more shocklayer gas around the leading edge stagnation point (the subsonic cap). Consequently, the aerodynamic center moves upstream thus causing aerodynamic instability. It is incorrect to reapply an aeroshell design intended for Titan entry (
2541:
2556:
577:
1713:
spaceplanes and lifting bodies. SHARP materials have exhibited effective TPS characteristics from zero to more than 2,000 °C (3,630 °F), with melting points over 3,500 °C (6,330 °F). They are structurally stronger than RCC, and, thus, do not require structural reinforcement with materials such as
Inconel. SHARP materials are extremely efficient at reradiating absorbed heat, thus eliminating the need for additional TPS behind and between the SHARP materials and conventional vehicle structure. NASA initially funded (and discontinued) a multi-phase R&D program through the
312:: "In the case of meteors, which enter the atmosphere with speeds as high as 30 miles (48 km) per second, the interior of the meteors remains cold, and the erosion is due, to a large extent, to chipping or cracking of the suddenly heated surface. For this reason, if the outer surface of the apparatus were to consist of layers of a very infusible hard substance with layers of a poor heat conductor between, the surface would not be eroded to any considerable extent, especially as the velocity of the apparatus would not be nearly so great as that of the average meteor."
1301:
2494:
1049:
follows a solution path dictated by chemical and reaction rate formulas. The five species model has 17 chemical formulas (34 when counting reverse formulas). The
Lighthill-Freeman model is based upon a single ordinary differential equation and one algebraic equation. The five species model is based upon 5 ordinary differential equations and 17 algebraic equations. Because the 5 ordinary differential equations are tightly coupled, the system is numerically "stiff" and difficult to solve. The five species model is only usable for entry from
2513:
1903:
373:
2478:
2525:
2568:
660:
129:
354:; i.e., the greater the drag, the less the heat load. If the reentry vehicle is made blunt, air cannot "get out of the way" quickly enough, and acts as an air cushion to push the shock wave and heated shock layer forward (away from the vehicle). Since most of the hot gases are no longer in direct contact with the vehicle, the heat energy would stay in the shocked gas and simply move around the vehicle to later dissipate into the atmosphere.
289:
1534:
conductivity. Materials with these properties tend to be brittle, delicate, and difficult to fabricate in large sizes, so they are generally fabricated as relatively small tiles that are then attached to the structural skin of the spacecraft. There is a tradeoff between toughness and thermal conductivity: less conductive materials are generally more brittle. The space shuttle used multiple types of tiles. Tiles are also used on the
1319:, is a modern TPS material and has the advantages of low density (much lighter than carbon phenolic) coupled with efficient ablative ability at high heat flux. It is a good choice for ablative applications such as high-peak-heating conditions found on sample-return missions or lunar-return missions. PICA's thermal conductivity is lower than other high-heat-flux-ablative materials, such as conventional carbon phenolics.
1153:
916:. An approximate rule of thumb for shock wave standoff distance is 0.14 times the nose radius. One can estimate the time of travel for a gas molecule from the shock wave to the stagnation point by assuming a free stream velocity of 7.8 km/s and a nose radius of 1 meter, i.e., time of travel is about 18 microseconds. This is roughly the time required for shock-wave-initiated chemical dissociation to approach
2081:
1197:, so that the ablative performance can be evaluated. Ablation can also provide blockage against radiative heat flux by introducing carbon into the shock layer thus making it optically opaque. Radiative heat flux blockage was the primary thermal protection mechanism of the Galileo Probe TPS material (carbon phenolic). Carbon phenolic was originally developed as a rocket nozzle throat material (used in the
1499:
2157: – a combination of launch damage, protruding gap filler, and tile installation error resulted in serious damage to the orbiter, only some of which the crew was aware. Had the crew known the extent of the damage before attempting reentry, they would have flown the shuttle to a safe altitude and then bailed out. Nevertheless, reentry was successful, and the orbiter proceeded to a normal landing.
1570:
5558:
1233:
760:
2179:
1446:
post-processing, heat treating, or additional coatings required (unlike Space
Shuttle tiles). Since SIRCA can be machined to precise shapes, it can be applied as tiles, leading edge sections, full nose caps, or in any number of custom shapes or sizes. As of 1996, SIRCA had been demonstrated in backshell interface applications, but not yet as a forebody TPS material.
1925:-coated fabric, to a mushroom shape in space several minutes after liftoff." The rocket apogee was at an altitude of 131 miles (211 km) where it began its descent to supersonic speed. Less than a minute later the shield was released from its cover to inflate at an altitude of 124 miles (200 km). The inflation of the shield took less than 90 seconds.
1867:... an evident composite type of entry, which combines some of the desirable features of lifting and nonlifting trajectories, would be to enter first without lift but with a... drag device; then, when the velocity is reduced to a certain value... the device is jettisoned or retracted, leaving a lifting vehicle... for the remainder of the descent.
1033:(dissociation and recombination). Because of its simplicity, the Lighthill-Freeman model is a useful pedagogical tool, but is too simple for modelling non-equilibrium air. Air is typically assumed to have a mole fraction composition of 0.7812 molecular nitrogen, 0.2095 molecular oxygen and 0.0093 argon. The simplest real gas model for air is the
453:
604:
148:
596:
1101:
normally driven by collisions between molecules. If gas pressure is slowly reduced such that chemical reactions can continue then the gas can remain in equilibrium. However, it is possible for gas pressure to be so suddenly reduced that almost all chemical reactions stop. For that situation the gas is considered frozen.
48:
1414:
553:
592:
12.5°. Subsequent advances in nuclear weapon and ablative TPS design allowed RVs to become significantly smaller with a further reduced bluntness ratio compared to the Mk-6. Since the 1960s, the sphere-cone has become the preferred geometry for modern ICBM RVs with typical half-angles being between 10° and 11°.
1250:
conductivity could allow heat flux conduction into the TPS bondline material thus leading to TPS failure. Consequently, for entry trajectories causing lower heat flux, carbon phenolic is sometimes inappropriate and lower-density TPS materials such as the following examples can be better design choices:
564:
Corp. The Mk-2's design was derived from blunt-body theory and used a radiatively cooled thermal protection system (TPS) based upon a metallic heat shield (the different TPS types are later described in this article). The Mk-2 had significant defects as a weapon delivery system, i.e., it loitered too
544:
or blunted cone attached. The sphere-cone's dynamic stability is typically better than that of a spherical section. The vehicle enters sphere-first. With a sufficiently small half-angle and properly placed center of mass, a sphere-cone can provide aerodynamic stability from
Keplerian entry to surface
1817:
The configuration increases drag, as the craft is now less streamlined and results in more atmospheric gas particles hitting the spacecraft at higher altitudes than otherwise. The aircraft thus slows down more in higher atmospheric layers which is the key to efficient reentry. Secondly, the aircraft
1549:
Because insulation cannot be perfect, some heat energy is stored in the insulation and in the underlying material ("thermal soaking") and must be dissipated after the spacecraft exits the high-temperature flight regime. Some of this heat will re-radiate through the surface or will be carried off the
1392:
has developed an open carbon-phenolic ablative material, called the HEFDiG Ablation-Research
Laboratory Experiment Material (HARLEM), from commercially available materials. HARLEM is prepared by impregnating a preform of a carbon fiber porous monolith (such as Calcarb rigid carbon insulation) with a
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was the first Mars lander and based upon a very conservative design. The Viking aeroshell had a base diameter of 3.54 meters (the largest used on Mars until Mars
Science Laboratory). SLA-561V is applied by packing the ablative material into a honeycomb core that is pre-bonded to the aeroshell's
1091:
are among the more esoteric aspects of aerospace engineering. Most of the aerospace research work related to understanding radiative heat flux was done in the 1960s, but largely discontinued after conclusion of the Apollo
Program. Radiative heat flux in air was just sufficiently understood to ensure
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where entry velocity is approximately 7.8 km/s (28,000 km/h; 17,000 mph). For lunar return entry of 11 km/s, the shock layer contains a significant amount of ionized nitrogen and oxygen. The five-species model is no longer accurate and a twelve-species model must be used instead.
1933:
Following the success of the initial IRVE experiments, NASA developed the concept into the more ambitious
Hypersonic Inflatable Aerodynamic Decelerator (HIAD). The current design is shaped like a shallow cone, with the structure built up as a stack of circular inflated tubes of gradually increasing
1876:
Deceleration for atmospheric reentry, especially for higher-speed Mars-return missions, benefits from maximizing "the drag area of the entry system. The larger the diameter of the aeroshell, the bigger the payload can be." An inflatable aeroshell provides one alternative for enlarging the drag area
1330:
aeroshell. The
Stardust sample-return capsule was the fastest man-made object ever to reenter Earth's atmosphere, at 28,000 mph (ca. 12.5 km/s) at 135 km altitude. This was faster than the Apollo mission capsules and 70% faster than the Shuttle. PICA was critical for the viability of
1108:
etc.) for the same thermodynamic state; e.g., pressure and temperature. Frozen gas can be a significant issue in the wake behind an entry vehicle. During reentry, free stream air is compressed to high temperature and pressure by the entry vehicle's shock wave. Non-equilibrium air in the shock layer
920:
in a shock layer for a 7.8 km/s entry into air during peak heat flux. Consequently, as air approaches the entry vehicle's stagnation point, the air effectively reaches chemical equilibrium thus enabling an equilibrium model to be usable. For this case, most of the shock layer between the shock
855:
The perfect gas theory is elegant and extremely useful for designing aircraft but assumes that the gas is chemically inert. From the standpoint of aircraft design, air can be assumed to be inert for temperatures less than 550 K (277 °C; 530 °F) at one atmosphere pressure. The perfect
851:
during their undergraduate education. Most of the important perfect gas equations along with their corresponding tables and graphs are shown in NACA Report 1135. Excerpts from NACA Report 1135 often appear in the appendices of thermodynamics textbooks and are familiar to most aeronautical engineers
811:
As velocity increases, both convective and radiative heating increase, but at different rates. At very high speeds, radiative heating will dominate the convective heat fluxes, as radiative heating is proportional to the eighth power of velocity, while convective heating is proportional to the third
695:
on 20 December 1979, 8 October 1980 and 4 October 1981. AMaRV had an entry mass of approximately 470 kg, a nose radius of 2.34 cm, a forward-frustum half-angle of 10.4°, an inter-frustum radius of 14.6 cm, aft-frustum half-angle of 6°, and an axial length of 2.079 meters. No accurate
471:
The simplest axisymmetric shape is the sphere or spherical section. This can either be a complete sphere or a spherical section forebody with a converging conical afterbody. The aerodynamics of a sphere or spherical section are easy to model analytically using
Newtonian impact theory. Likewise, the
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mission. Since the mission failed due to the launcher malfunction, the NPO Lavochkin and DASA/ESA have designed a mission for Earth orbit. The Inflatable Reentry and Descent Technology (IRDT) demonstrator was launched on Soyuz-Fregat on 8 February 2000. The inflatable shield was designed as a cone
1860:
It may be desirable to combine lifting and nonlifting entry in order to achieve some advantages... For landing maneuverability it obviously is advantageous to employ a lifting vehicle. The total heat absorbed by a lifting vehicle, however, is much higher than for a nonlifting vehicle... Nonlifting
1785:
Fuel permitting, nothing prevents a vehicle from entering the atmosphere with a retrograde engine burn, which has the double effect of slowing the vehicle down much faster than atmospheric drag alone would, and forcing the compressed hot air away from the vehicle's body. During reentry, the first
1489:
Thermal soak is a part of almost all TPS schemes. For example, an ablative heat shield loses most of its thermal protection effectiveness when the outer wall temperature drops below the minimum necessary for pyrolysis. From that time to the end of the heat pulse, heat from the shock layer convects
971:
would be used instead for manual calculation. However, graphical solution with a Mollier diagram is now considered obsolete with modern heat shield designers using computer programs based upon a digital lookup table (another form of Mollier diagram) or a chemistry based thermodynamics program. The
2943:
The purpose of the Apollo entry maneuver is to dissipate the energy of a spacecraft traveling at high speed through the atmosphere of the earth so that the flight crew, their equipment, and their cargo are returned safely to a preselected location on the surface of the earth. This purpose must be
2409:
was deliberately de-orbited after one of its gyroscopes failed. The debris that did not burn up fell harmlessly into the Pacific Ocean. The observatory was still operational, but the failure of another gyroscope would have made de-orbiting much more difficult and dangerous. With some controversy,
2063:
A 45° half-angle sphere-cone is typically used for atmospheric probes (surface landing not intended) even though TPS mass is not minimized. The rationale for a 45° half-angle is to have either aerodynamic stability from entry-to-impact (the heat shield is not jettisoned) or a short-and-sharp heat
1776:
In the early 1960s various TPS systems were proposed to use water or other cooling liquid sprayed into the shock layer, or passed through channels in the heat shield. Advantages included the possibility of more all-metal designs which would be cheaper to develop, be more rugged, and eliminate the
1387:
PICA and most other ablative TPS materials are either proprietary or classified, with formulations and manufacturing processes not disclosed in the open literature. This limits the ability of researchers to study these materials and hinders the development of thermal protection systems. Thus, the
1135:
during the searing heat of atmospheric reentry. Multiple approaches for the thermal protection of spacecraft are in use, among them ablative heat shields, passive cooling, and active cooling of spacecraft surfaces. In general they can be divided into two categories: ablative TPS and reusable TPS.
1062:
An important aspect of modelling non-equilibrium real gas effects is radiative heat flux. If a vehicle is entering an atmosphere at very high speed (hyperbolic trajectory, lunar return) and has a large nose radius then radiative heat flux can dominate TPS heating. Radiative heat flux during entry
1048:
When running a Gibbs free energy equilibrium program, the iterative process from the originally specified molecular composition to the final calculated equilibrium composition is essentially random and not time accurate. With a non-equilibrium program, the computation process is time accurate and
1001:(CEA) which was written by Bonnie J. McBride and Sanford Gordon at NASA Lewis (now renamed "NASA Glenn Research Center"). Other names for CEA are the "Gordon and McBride Code" and the "Lewis Code". CEA is quite accurate up to 10,000 K for planetary atmospheric gases, but unusable beyond 20,000 K (
1635:
is the most refractory material known, with a one-atmosphere sublimation temperature of 3,825 °C (6,917 °F) for graphite. This high temperature made carbon an obvious choice as a radiatively cooled TPS material. Disadvantages of RCC are that it is currently expensive to manufacture, is
868:
An entry vehicle's pitching moment can be significantly influenced by real-gas effects. Both the Apollo command module and the Space Shuttle were designed using incorrect pitching moments determined through inaccurate real-gas modelling. The Apollo-CM's trim-angle angle of attack was higher than
507:
used a spherical section forebody heat shield with a converging conical afterbody. It flew a lifting entry with a hypersonic trim angle of attack of −27° (0° is blunt-end first) to yield an average L/D (lift-to-drag ratio) of 0.368. The resultant lift achieved a measure of cross-range control by
1100:
The frozen gas model describes a special case of a gas that is not in equilibrium. The name "frozen gas" can be misleading. A frozen gas is not "frozen" like ice is frozen water. Rather a frozen gas is "frozen" in time (all chemical reactions are assumed to have stopped). Chemical reactions are
591:
This new RV was the Mk-6 which used a non-metallic ablative TPS, a nylon phenolic. This new TPS was so effective as a reentry heat shield that significantly reduced bluntness was possible. However, the Mk-6 was a huge RV with an entry mass of 3,360 kg, a length of 3.1 m and a half-angle of
1712:
7 flight at sea level, Mach 11 flight at 100,000-foot (30,000 m) altitudes, and significant improvements for vehicles designed for continuous hypersonic flight. SHARP TPS materials enable sharp leading edges and nose cones to greatly reduce drag for airbreathing combined-cycle-propelled
988:
times temperature. A chemical equilibrium program normally does not require chemical formulas or reaction-rate equations. The program works by preserving the original elemental abundances specified for the gas and varying the different molecular combinations of the elements through numerical
679:
is a sphere-cone with an additional frustum attached. The biconic offers a significantly improved L/D ratio. A biconic designed for Mars aerocapture typically has an L/D of approximately 1.0 compared to an L/D of 0.368 for the Apollo-CM. The higher L/D makes a biconic shape better suited for
1533:
Refractory insulation keeps the heat in the outermost layer of the spacecraft surface, where it is conducted away by the air. The temperature of the surface rises to incandescent levels, so the material must have a very high melting point, and the material must also exhibit very low thermal
1249:
of a particular TPS material is usually proportional to the material's density. Carbon phenolic is a very effective ablative material, but also has high density which is undesirable. If the heat flux experienced by an entry vehicle is insufficient to cause pyrolysis then the TPS material's
1445:
probes with their 0.35-meter-base-diameter (1.1 ft) aeroshells. SIRCA is a monolithic, insulating material that can provide thermal protection through ablation. It is the only TPS material that can be machined to custom shapes and then applied directly to the spacecraft. There is no
1109:
is then transported past the entry vehicle's leading side into a region of rapidly expanding flow that causes freezing. The frozen air can then be entrained into a trailing vortex behind the entry vehicle. Correctly modelling the flow in the wake of an entry vehicle is very difficult.
929:, which is of extreme importance towards modeling heat flux, owes its validity to the stagnation point being in chemical equilibrium. The time required for the shock layer gas to reach equilibrium is strongly dependent upon the shock layer's pressure. For example, in the case of the
1277:(MSL). SLA-561V begins significant ablation at a heat flux of approximately 110 W/cm, but will fail for heat fluxes greater than 300 W/cm. The MSL aeroshell TPS is currently designed to withstand a peak heat flux of 234 W/cm. The peak heat flux experienced by the
350:. In 1951, they made the counterintuitive discovery that a blunt shape (high drag) made the most effective heat shield. From simple engineering principles, Allen and Eggers showed that the heat load experienced by an entry vehicle was inversely proportional to the
1362:
mission on 8 December 2010. The PICA-X heat shield was designed, developed and fully qualified by a small team of a dozen engineers and technicians in less than four years. PICA-X is ten times less expensive to manufacture than the NASA PICA heat shield material.
2173:
nose cap struck the orbiter during launch, causing significant tile damage. This dislodged one tile completely, over an aluminum mounting plate for a TACAN antenna. The antenna sustained extreme heat damage, but prevented the hot gas from penetrating the vehicle
1087:; i.e., radiative heat flux. The whole process takes place in less than a millisecond which makes modelling a challenge. The experimental measurement of radiative heat flux (typically done with shock tubes) along with theoretical calculation through the unsteady
1592:
were used to initially absorb heat flux during the heat pulse, and, then, after the heat pulse, radiate and convect the stored heat back into the atmosphere. However, the earlier version of this technique required a considerable quantity of metal TPS (e.g.,
1561:) have remarkable thermal protection properties. An LI-900 tile exposed to a temperature of 1,000 K on one side will remain merely warm to the touch on the other side. However, they are relatively brittle and break easily, and cannot survive in-flight rain.
199:
probe. Crewed space vehicles must be slowed to subsonic speeds before parachutes or air brakes may be deployed. Such vehicles have high kinetic energies, and atmospheric dissipation is the only way of expending this, as it is highly impractical to use
904:). When air is processed by a shock wave, it is superheated by compression and chemically dissociates through many different reactions. Direct friction upon the reentry object is not the main cause of shock-layer heating. It is caused mainly from
151:
1331:
the Stardust mission, which returned to Earth in 2006. Stardust's heat shield (0.81 m base diameter) was made of one monolithic piece sized to withstand a nominal peak heating rate of 1.2 kW/cm. A PICA heat shield was also used for the
935:
probe's entry into Jupiter's atmosphere, the shock layer was mostly in equilibrium during peak heat flux due to the very high pressures experienced (this is counterintuitive given the free stream velocity was 39 km/s during peak heat flux).
155:
154:
150:
149:
839:. This chemical dissociation necessitates various physical models to describe the shock layer's thermal and chemical properties. There are four basic physical models of a gas that are important to aeronautical engineers who design heat shields:
963:. For a real gas, the ratio of specific heats can wildly oscillate as a function of temperature. Under a perfect gas model there is an elegant set of equations for determining thermodynamic state along a constant entropy stream line called the
156:
1437:(MER) aeroshells. The BIP was at the attachment points between the aeroshell's backshell (also called the afterbody or aft cover) and the cruise ring (also called the cruise stage). SIRCA was also the primary TPS material for the unsuccessful
2382:
2021-0035B) weighing 23,000 kilograms ) made an uncontrolled reentry, just west of the Maldives in the Indian Ocean (approximately 72.47°E longitude and 2.65°N latitude). Witnesses reported rocket debris as far away as the Arabian peninsula.
1176:
of gaseous reaction products from the heat shield material and provides protection against all forms of heat flux. The overall process of reducing the heat flux experienced by the heat shield's outer wall by way of a boundary layer is called
411:
such that equipment, cargo, and any passengers are slowed and land near a specific destination on the surface at zero velocity while keeping stresses on the spacecraft and any passengers within acceptable limits. This may be accomplished by
3723:
SpaceX's material, called PICA-X, is one-tenth as expensive than the original , ... a single PICA-X heat shield could withstand hundreds of returns from low Earth orbit; it can also handle the much higher energy reentries from the Moon or
232:, and are slowed by friction upon encountering Earth's atmosphere. Meteors are also often travelling quite fast relative to the Earth simply because their own orbital path is different from that of the Earth before they encounter Earth's
2272:
Because the Earth's surface is predominantly water, most objects that survive reentry land in one of the world's oceans. The estimated chance that a given person would get hit and injured during their lifetime is around 1 in a trillion.
1777:
need for classified and unknown technology. The disadvantages are increased weight and complexity, and lower reliability. The concept has never been flown, but a similar technology (the plug nozzle) did undergo extensive ground testing.
2215:. However, approximately 48.5 minutes after launch, at an altitude of 65km, contact with the spacecraft was lost, indicating that it burned up on reentry. This was caused by excessive vehicle rolling due to clogged vents on the vehicle.
2135: - One of the three ringsail parachutes failed during the ocean landing, likely damaged as the spacecraft vented excess control fuel. The spacecraft was designed to land safely with only two parachutes, and the crew were uninjured.
1989:
selects the TPS material. Heat load selects the thickness of the TPS material stack. Peak deceleration is of major importance for crewed missions. The upper limit for crewed return to Earth from low Earth orbit (LEO) or lunar return is
212:
do not require heat shielding because the gravitational acceleration of an object starting at relative rest from within the atmosphere itself (or not far above it) cannot create enough velocity to cause significant atmospheric heating.
1651:, deal with heating similar to that experienced by spacecraft, but at much lower intensity, and for hours at a time. Studies of the SR-71's titanium skin revealed that the metal structure was restored to its original strength through
822:
While NASA's Earth entry interface is at 400,000 feet (122 km), the main heating during controlled entry takes place at altitudes of 65 to 35 kilometres (213,000 to 115,000 ft), peaking at 58 kilometres (190,000 ft).
1616:, while an underlying porous ceramic layer serves to protect the structure from high surface temperatures. High thermally stable emissivity values coupled with low thermal conductivity are key to the functionality of such systems.
1825:
However, the velocity attained by SpaceShipOne prior to reentry is much lower than that of an orbital spacecraft, and engineers, including Rutan, recognize that a feathered reentry technique is not suitable for return from orbit.
4532:
1480:
crew module, which first flew in a December 2014 test and then operationally in November 2022. The Avcoat to be used on Orion has been reformulated to meet environmental legislation that has been passed since the end of Apollo.
484:
was still embryonic. Because the spherical section was amenable to closed-form analysis, that geometry became the default for conservative design. Consequently, crewed capsules of that era were based upon the spherical section.
1228:
wind tunnel. Testing of ablative materials occurs at the Ames Arc Jet Complex. Many spacecraft thermal protection systems have been tested in this facility, including the Apollo, space shuttle, and Orion heat shield materials.
1058:
are on the order of 12 km/s (43,000 km/h; 27,000 mph). Modeling high-speed Mars atmospheric entry—which involves a carbon dioxide, nitrogen and argon atmosphere—is even more complex requiring a 19-species model.
153:
3482:
Ames Research Center, "An Analytical Method for Obtaining the Thermogravimetric Kinetics of Char-forming Ablative Materials from Thermogravimetric Measurements", AIAA/ASME Seventh Structures and Materials Conference, April,
3088:(Report). A thesis submitted to the Graduate Faculty of North Carolina State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science Aerospace Engineering Raleigh, North Carolina 2011, pp.5.
476:. The static stability of a spherical section is assured if the vehicle's center of mass is upstream from the center of curvature (dynamic stability is more problematic). Pure spheres have no lift. However, by flying at an
2366:
2020-027C) weighing roughly 20,000 kilograms ) made an uncontrolled reentry over the Atlantic Ocean, near West African coast. Few pieces of rocket debris reportedly survived reentry and fell over at least two villages in
1075:(NO), single ionized molecular nitrogen etc. These molecules are formed by the shock wave dissociating ambient atmospheric gas followed by recombination within the shock layer into new molecular species. The newly formed
1113:(TPS) heating in the vehicle's afterbody is usually not very high, but the geometry and unsteadiness of the vehicle's wake can significantly influence aerodynamics (pitching moment) and particularly dynamic stability.
1136:
Ablative TPS are required when space crafts reach a relatively low altitude before slowing down. Spacecrafts like the space shuttle are designed to slow down at high altitude so that they can use reuseable TPS. (see:
327:, with a 1,200-kilometer (650-nautical-mile) range, required ceramic composite heat shielding on separable reentry vehicles (it was no longer possible for the entire rocket structure to survive reentry). The first
897:
An equilibrium real-gas model assumes that a gas is chemically reactive, but also assumes all chemical reactions have had time to complete and all components of the gas have the same temperature (this is called
2336:(6,540 kilograms ) and noted that there was a small risk to the public. The decommissioned satellite reentered the atmosphere on September 24, 2011, and some pieces are presumed to have crashed into the South
2205: – The Soyuz propulsion module failed to separate properly; fallback ballistic reentry was executed that subjected the crew to accelerations of about 8 standard gravities (78 m/s). The crew survived.
480:, a spherical section has modest aerodynamic lift thus providing some cross-range capability and widening its entry corridor. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, high-speed computers were not yet available and
207:
Ballistic warheads and expendable vehicles do not require slowing at reentry, and in fact, are made streamlined so as to maintain their speed. Furthermore, slow-speed returns to Earth from near-space such as
1490:
into the heat shield's outer wall and would eventually conduct to the payload. This outcome can be prevented by ejecting the heat shield (with its heat soak) prior to the heat conducting to the inner wall.
856:
gas theory begins to break down at 550 K and is not usable at temperatures greater than 2,000 K (1,730 °C; 3,140 °F). For temperatures greater than 2,000 K, a heat shield designer must use a
5216:
2455:. The satellite was inoperative, having failed to reach its intended orbit when it was launched in 2006. Due to its rapidly deteriorating orbit it was destined for uncontrolled reentry within a month.
5110:"#18SPCS has confirmed the reentry of the CZ-5B R/B (#45601, 2020-027C) at 08:33 PDT on 11 May, over the Atlantic Ocean. The #CZ5B launched China's test crew capsule on 5 May 2020. #spaceflightsafety"
3651:
SpaceX undertook the design and manufacture of the reentry heat shield; it brought speed and efficiency that allowed the heat shield to be designed, developed, and qualified in less than four years.'
1910:
NASA launched an inflatable heat shield experimental spacecraft on 17 August 2009 with the successful first test flight of the Inflatable Re-entry Vehicle Experiment (IRVE). The heat shield had been
4616:
908:
heating of the air molecules within the compression wave. Friction based entropy increases of the molecules within the wave also account for some heating. The distance from the shock wave to the
696:
diagram or picture of AMaRV has ever appeared in the open literature. However, a schematic sketch of an AMaRV-like vehicle along with trajectory plots showing hairpin turns has been published.
2419:
space station was deliberately de-orbited, and broke apart in the fashion expected by the command center during atmospheric reentry. Mir entered the Earth's atmosphere on March 23, 2001, near
1021:
A non-equilibrium real gas model is the most accurate model of a shock layer's gas physics, but is more difficult to solve than an equilibrium model. The simplest non-equilibrium model is the
2540:
1890:
with two stages of inflation. Although the second stage of the shield failed to inflate, the demonstrator survived the orbital reentry and was recovered. The subsequent missions flown on the
3939:
2028:
at maximum altitude (very important for Mars EDL, but detrimental for military RVs). However, there is an upper limit to bluntness imposed by aerodynamic stability considerations based upon
4971:
365:
Over the decades since the 1950s, a rich technical jargon has grown around the engineering of vehicles designed to enter planetary atmospheres. It is recommended that the reader review the
264:) trajectories. Various advanced technologies have been developed to enable atmospheric reentry and flight at extreme velocities. An alternative method of controlled atmospheric entry is
4543:
3308:
4772:
5152:
1934:
major diameter. The forward (convex) face of the cone is covered with a flexible thermal protection system robust enough to withstand the stresses of atmospheric entry (or reentry).
5175:
2269:
Of satellites that reenter, approximately 10–40% of the mass of the object may reach the surface of the Earth. On average, about one catalogued object reentered per day as of 2014.
573:. These defects made the Mk-2 overly susceptible to anti-ballistic missile (ABM) systems. Consequently, an alternative sphere-cone RV to the Mk-2 was developed by General Electric.
2024:
Based upon Allen and Eggers discovery, maximum aeroshell bluntness (maximum drag) yields minimum TPS mass. Maximum bluntness (minimum ballistic coefficient) also yields a minimal
1140:). Thermal protection systems are tested in high enthalpy ground testing or plasma wind tunnels that reproduce the combination of high enthalpy and high stagnation pressure using
3881:
Tran, Huy K., et al., "Silicone impregnated reusable ceramic ablators for Mars follow-on missions," AIAA-1996-1819, Thermophysics Conference, 31st, New Orleans, June 17–20, 1996.
1682:) and titanium shingles. This Shuttle TPS concept was rejected, because it was believed a silica tile-based TPS would involve lower development and manufacturing costs. A nickel
1627:) is normally used instead of metal. RCC was the TPS material on the Space Shuttle's nose cone and wing leading edges, and was also proposed as the leading-edge material for the
323:, stabilization and aerodynamic stress were important issues (many V-2s broke apart during reentry), but heating was not a serious problem. Medium-range missiles like the Soviet
3525:
Composite materials : proceedings of Symposium A4 on Composite Materials of the International Conference on Advanced Materials – ICAM 91, Strasbourg, France, 27–29 May 1991
4244:
1833:
of the feathering mechanism was made during a glideflight after release from the White Knight Two. Premature deployment of the feathering system was responsible for the 2014
3617:
Tran, Huy K, et al., "Qualification of the forebody heat shield of the Stardust's Sample Return Capsule", AIAA, Thermophysics Conference, 32nd, Atlanta, GA; 23–25 June 1997.
2240: – During tri-module separation, a valve seal was opened by the shock, depressurizing the descent module; the crew of three asphyxiated in space minutes before reentry.
2017:
trajectories, the undershoot and overshoot trajectories. The overshoot trajectory is typically defined as the shallowest-allowable entry velocity angle prior to atmospheric
1025:
developed in 1958. The Lighthill-Freeman model initially assumes a gas made up of a single diatomic species susceptible to only one chemical formula and its reverse; e.g., N
3113:
Regan, Frank J. and Anadakrishnan, Satya M., "Dynamics of Atmospheric Re-Entry", AIAA Education Series, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc., New York,
152:
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228:
at about 80 km (50 mi; 43 nmi). Uncontrolled objects reach high velocities while accelerating through space toward the Earth under the influence of Earth's
3709:
2230:
system failed while still in orbit and later parachutes got entangled during the emergency landing sequence (entry, descent, and landing (EDL) failure). Lone cosmonaut
715:(also a biconic) was essentially a scaled-up version of AMaRV. AMaRV and the DC-X also served as the basis for an unsuccessful proposal for what eventually became the
331:, with ranges of 8,000 to 12,000 km (4,300 to 6,500 nmi), were only possible with the development of modern ablative heat shields and blunt-shaped vehicles.
939:
Determining the thermodynamic state of the stagnation point is more difficult under an equilibrium gas model than a perfect gas model. Under a perfect gas model, the
2302:. The reentry was a major media event largely due to the Cosmos 954 incident, but not viewed as much as a potential disaster since it did not carry toxic nuclear or
1104:
The distinction between equilibrium and frozen is important because it is possible for a gas such as air to have significantly different properties (speed-of-sound,
268:
which is suitable for planetary entry where thick atmospheres, strong gravity, or both factors complicate high-velocity hyperbolic entry, such as the atmospheres of
2325:, Argentina. The station had been boosted to a higher orbit in August 1986 in an attempt to keep it up until 1994, but in a scenario similar to Skylab, the planned
2002:
is an issue. The reentry vehicle's design parameters may be assessed through numerical simulation, including simplifications of the vehicle's dynamics, such as the
1697:
2555:
2310:
mission to either extend its life or enable a controlled reentry, but delays in the Shuttle program, plus unexpectedly high solar activity, made this impossible.
3469:
Parker, John and C. Michael Hogan, "Techniques for Wind Tunnel assessment of Ablative Materials", NASA Ames Research Center, Technical Publication, August, 1965.
1427:
Silicone-impregnated reusable ceramic ablator (SIRCA) was also developed at NASA Ames Research Center and was used on the Backshell Interface Plate (BIP) of the
3501:
1663:
of 127 °C (261 °F) (approximately 180 °C (324 °F) warmer than the normally sub-zero, ambient air); the metallurgical implications (loss of
384:
When atmospheric entry is part of a spacecraft landing or recovery, particularly on a planetary body other than Earth, entry is part of a phase referred to as
5207:
4684:
4148:
3893:
3558:
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621:, launched on 28 February 1959). The sphere-cone was later used for space exploration missions to other celestial bodies or for return from open space; e.g.,
1921:
from NASA's Wallops Flight Facility on Wallops Island, Virginia. "Nitrogen inflated the 10-foot-diameter (3.0 m) heat shield, made of several layers of
3268:
1861:
vehicles can more easily be constructed... by employing, for example, a large, light drag device... The larger the device, the smaller is the heating rate.
4580:
343:
4605:
4270:"@OranMaliphant @Erdayastronaut Could do it, but we developed low cost reusable tiles that are much lighter than transpiration cooling & quite robust"
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2254:
panel on a wing leading edge caused by debris impact at launch led to breakup of the orbiter on reentry resulting in the deaths of all seven crew members.
1517:
5279:
1766:
outer-skin design for the reentering spaceship. However, SpaceX abandoned this approach in favor of a modern version of heat shield tiles later in 2019.
994:
2493:
532:, reducing it from 8–9 g for a purely ballistic (slowed only by drag) trajectory to 4–5 g, as well as greatly reducing the peak reentry heat.
4999:
4650:
3918:
2467:
protested the action as a thinly-veiled demonstration of US anti-satellite capabilities. China had previously caused an international incident when it
4843:"3-2-2-1 Settlement of Claim between Canada and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics for Damage Caused by "Cosmos 954" (Released on April 2, 1981)"
2778:
508:
offsetting the vehicle's center of mass from its axis of symmetry, allowing the lift force to be directed left or right by rolling the capsule on its
3633:
1725:
Various advanced reusable spacecraft and hypersonic aircraft designs have been proposed to employ heat shields made from temperature-resistant metal
5047:
2468:
2208:
4968:
3935:
3453:
3434:
3144:
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2853:
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2141: – Failed during EDL. The failure was believed to be the consequence of a software error. The precise cause is unknown for lack of real-time
1554:
1137:
1110:
117:) of a spacecraft capable of being navigated or following a predetermined course. Technologies and procedures allowing the controlled atmospheric
1700:, they were developed for the prototype vehicle Slender Hypervelocity Aerothermodynamic Research Probe (SHARP). These TPS materials are based on
3089:
1224:
capable of generating varying wind velocities. Initial experiments typically mounted a mock-up of the ablative material to be analyzed within a
5310:
3593:
2192: – The parachute failed to deploy due to a G-switch having been installed backwards (a similar error delayed parachute deployment for the
4023:
Shao, Gaofeng; et al. (2019). "Improved oxidation resistance of high emissivity coatings on fibrous ceramic for reusable space systems".
3293:
2892:
2567:
2512:
926:
549:
is the angle between the cone's axis of rotational symmetry and its outer surface, and thus half the angle made by the cone's surface edges.)
5502:
5482:
5434:
5415:
5393:
4776:
4736:
2824:
2348:
2199:). Consequently, the Genesis entry vehicle crashed into the desert floor. The payload was damaged, but most scientific data were recoverable.
1423:
aeroshell, a classic 45° sphere-cone with spherical section afterbody enabling aerodynamic stability from atmospheric entry to surface impact
5144:
4308:"@Erdayastronaut @goathobbit Thin tiles on windward side of ship & nothing on leeward or anywhere on booster looks like lightest option"
3969:
366:
4850:
4173:
2524:
5183:
4465:
4205:
3046:"Hillje, Ernest R., "Entry Aerodynamics at Lunar Return Conditions Obtained from the Flight of Apollo 4 (AS-501)," NASA TN D-5399, (1969)"
2477:
1189:
and expels product gases. The gas produced by pyrolysis is what drives blowing and causes blockage of convective and catalytic heat flux.
1092:
Apollo's success. However, radiative heat flux in carbon dioxide (Mars entry) is still barely understood and will require major research.
627:
probe. Unlike with military RVs, the advantage of the blunt body's lower TPS mass remained with space exploration entry vehicles like the
2333:
4437:
1667:) that would be associated with a higher peak temperature were the most significant factors determining the top speed of the aircraft.
3532:
2612:
2170:
1941:
1864:
Nonlifting vehicles with shuttlecock stability are advantageous also from the viewpoint of minimum control requirements during entry.
1198:
812:
power of velocity. Radiative heating thus predominates early in atmospheric entry, while convection predominates in the later phases.
576:
245:
4315:
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4084:
5521:
provides preliminary mission analysis and simulation capability for atmospheric entry vehicles at various Solar System destinations.
5347:
4931:
4906:
4881:
3118:
1473:
5117:
4241:
3665:"SpaceX Manufactured Heat Shield Material Passes High Temperature Tests Simulating Reentry Heating Conditions of Dragon Spacecraft"
1960:), was launched in November 2022, inflated in orbit, reentered faster than Mach 25, and was successfully recovered on November 10.
2997:
2968:
1550:
surface by convection, but some will heat the spacecraft structure and interior, which may require active cooling after landing.
1371:
A second enhanced version of PICA—called PICA-3—was developed by SpaceX during the mid-2010s. It was first flight tested on the
5025:
4812:
4371:
1937:
In 2012, a HIAD was tested as Inflatable Reentry Vehicle Experiment 3 (IRVE-3) using a sub-orbital sounding rocket, and worked.
1273:
that has been used as the primary TPS material on all of the 70° sphere-cone entry vehicles sent by NASA to Mars other than the
635:
with a half-angle of 70°. Space exploration sphere-cone entry vehicles have landed on the surface or entered the atmospheres of
4492:
2854:"A Study of the Motion and Aerodynamic Heating of Ballistic Missiles Entering the Earth's Atmosphere at High Supersonic Speeds"
2664:
2633:
2410:
NASA decided in the interest of public safety that a controlled crash was preferable to letting the craft come down at random.
2264:
2247:
794:
4947:
388:, or EDL. When the atmospheric entry returns to the same body that the vehicle had launched from, the event is referred to as
5583:
4678:"Pavlosky, James E., St. Leger, Leslie G., "Apollo Experience Report - Thermal Protection Subsystem," NASA TN D-7564, (1974)"
993:
is the usual numerical scheme). The data base for a Gibbs free energy program comes from spectroscopic data used in defining
4111:
3739:
3701:
1814:
effect. Thus SpaceShipOne achieves much more aerodynamic drag on reentry while not experiencing significant thermal loads.
1773:
second stage, announced in October 2023 and not yet flying, uses a regeneratively cooled (by liquid hydrogen) heat shield.
617:
RVs (recovery vehicles) also used a sphere-cone shape and were the first American example of a non-munition entry vehicle (
2406:
2231:
680:
transporting people to Mars due to the lower peak deceleration. Arguably, the most significant biconic ever flown was the
5548:
4001:
2830:
2251:
1620:
2014:
1748:
1543:
683:
481:
180:—caused mostly by compression of the air in front of the object, but also by drag. These forces can cause loss of mass (
5540:
4790:
4000:. International Conference and Exposition on Advanced Ceramics and Composites (Daytona Beach, FL). ARC-E-DAA-TN29151.
3134:
Johnson, Sylvia M.; Squire, Thomas H.; Lawson, John W.; Gusman, Michael; Lau, K-H; Sanjuro, Angel (January 30, 2014).
2967:. Archive of Mechanics., 60, 6, pp. 467–474, Warszawa 2008. Received May 29, 2008; revised version November 13, 2008.
2227:
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might survive reentry to reach the Earth's surface intact. Several governments including those of Russia, China, and
4509:
3493:
3334:
Space Shuttle Hypersonic Aerodynamic and Aerothermodynamic Flight Research and the Comparison to Ground Test Results
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2347:
space station (8,510 kilograms ) reentered over the Pacific Ocean, halfway between Australia and South America. The
5578:
4677:
4141:
3890:
3549:
3045:
2725:
2456:
1194:
1168:
heat shield functions by lifting the hot shock layer gas away from the heat shield's outer wall (creating a cooler
787:
1300:
1006:
990:
707:
was used for controlling the flaps. AMaRV was guided by a fully autonomous navigation system designed for evading
560:
The original American sphere-cone aeroshell was the Mk-2 RV (reentry vehicle), which was developed in 1955 by the
3261:
2597:
1323:
900:
357:
The Allen and Eggers discovery, though initially treated as a military secret, was eventually published in 1958.
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869:
originally estimated, resulting in a narrower lunar return entry corridor. The actual aerodynamic center of the
4222:
2944:
accomplished while stresses on both the spacecraft and the flight crew are maintained within acceptable limits.
2585:
2003:
972:
chemical composition of a gas in equilibrium with fixed pressure and temperature can be determined through the
836:
614:
31:
5269:
1696:
Recently, newer radiatively cooled TPS materials have been developed that could be superior to RCC. Known as
4710:
4642:
3915:
2638:
2394:, the world's first space station, was deliberately de-orbited into the Pacific Ocean in 1971 following the
1902:
1582:
1389:
1332:
1274:
1181:. Ablation occurs at two levels in an ablative TPS: the outer surface of the TPS material chars, melts, and
1088:
1045:, NO, N, and O. The five species model assumes no ionization and ignores trace species like carbon dioxide.
735:
for maneuvering during descent much like a conventional glider. This approach has been used by the American
509:
241:
4991:
2774:
372:
5588:
3637:
2160:
2148:
1664:
1652:
1605:, etc.). Modern designers prefer to avoid this added mass by using ablative and thermal-soak TPS instead.
1507:
1434:
887:
870:
712:
708:
664:
297:
225:
51:
5055:
3548:
Tran, Huy; Michael Tauber; William Henline; Duoc Tran; Alan Cartledge; Frank Hui; Norm Zimmerman (1996).
2322:
3936:"Flightglobal.com NASA's Orion heat shield decision expected this month 2009-10-03, accessed 2011-01-02"
3450:
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3135:
2918:
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2546:
2446:
2288:
2069:
1763:
1714:
1690:
1660:
1401:, heating to polymerize the resin and then removing the solvent under vacuum. The resulting material is
1327:
1182:
668:
622:
566:
504:
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293:
257:
196:
39:
35:
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4405:
2211:: The SpaceX Starship's third integrated test flight was supposed to end with a hard splashdown in the
4732:
5462:
5449:
5113:
4311:
4273:
4042:
3846:
3825:"Carbon ablators with porosity tailored for aerospace thermal protection during atmospheric re-entry"
3769:
3702:"1 visionary + 3 launchers + 1,500 employees = ? : Is SpaceX changing the rocket equation?"
3398:
3355:
3178:
3078:
2187:
2033:
1915:
1834:
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1394:
1246:
1217:
1209:
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shapes have been used for crewed entry vehicles. One example is the winged orbit vehicle that uses a
716:
473:
408:
347:
185:
5302:
3584:
2958:"The wake behind the sphere; analysis of vortices during transition from steadiness to unsteadiness"
2064:
pulse followed by prompt heat shield jettison. A 45° sphere-cone design was used with the DS/2 Mars
894:
had some anxious moments during reentry when there was concern about losing control of the vehicle.
5535:
2618:
2603:
2065:
1442:
1420:
1063:
into an air or carbon dioxide atmosphere typically comes from asymmetric diatomic molecules; e.g.,
704:
659:
177:
98:
5208:"Chinese Rocket Debris May Have Fallen On Several African Villages After An Uncontrolled Re-Entry"
2885:
5562:
5372:
4058:
4032:
3961:
3836:
3414:
3371:
3243:
1701:
1477:
1402:
1376:
1336:
1055:
905:
740:
618:
528:. Even these small amounts of lift allow trajectories that have very significant effects on peak
316:
253:
161:
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of Canada. The satellite was nuclear-powered and left radioactive debris near its impact site.
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5478:
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5411:
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5353:
5343:
4927:
4902:
4877:
3864:
3805:
3787:
3528:
3235:
3194:
3169:
Poddar, Shashi; Sharma, Deewakar (2015). "Blackout mitigation during space vehicle re-entry".
3114:
2820:
2624:
2138:
2025:
1968:
There are four critical parameters considered when designing a vehicle for atmospheric entry:
1613:
1002:
977:
800:
688:
493:
400:
217:
90:
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1079:
molecules initially have a very high vibrational temperature that efficiently transforms the
691:
Corp. and represented a significant leap in RV sophistication. Three AMaRVs were launched by
4434:
4050:
3854:
3795:
3777:
3406:
3363:
3346:
Lighthill, M.J. (January 1957). "Dynamics of a Dissociating Gas. Part I. Equilibrium Flow".
3225:
3186:
3079:
A Tool to Extrapolate Thermal Reentry Atmosphere Parameters Along a Body in Trajectory Space
3012:
2755:
2531:
2284:
1986:
1770:
1705:
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in the 1960s, and then utilized the material for its next-generation beyond low Earth orbit
1141:
909:
764:
692:
580:
561:
489:
439:
404:
351:
339:
237:
128:
1287:, the TPS acted as a charred thermal insulator and never experienced significant ablation.
288:
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4248:
4229:
4076:
3922:
3897:
3743:
3457:
3438:
2326:
1998:. Peak dynamic pressure can also influence the selection of the outermost TPS material if
1918:
1845:
1802:
demonstrated the feasibility of a shape-changing airfoil for reentry with the sub-orbital
1759:
1644:
1585:
1429:
1398:
1352:
1270:
1237:
1068:
1050:
948:
525:
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477:
464:
335:
192:
1994:. For Martian atmospheric entry after long exposure to zero gravity, the upper limit is 4
1674:. Early TPS designs for the Space Shuttle called for a hot-metal TPS based upon a nickel
5453:
4046:
3850:
3800:
3773:
3757:
3402:
3359:
3182:
220:
at an altitude of 100 km (62 miles; 54 nautical miles) above the surface, while at
3143:. 38th Annual Conference on Composites, Materials, and Structures January 27–30, 2014.
3020:
2957:
2459:
expressed concern that the 1,000-pound (450 kg) fuel tank containing highly toxic
1911:
1577:) originally used a radiatively cooled TPS, but was later converted to an ablative TPS.
1454:
1316:
1169:
1084:
891:
632:
521:
467:
in order to establish a lifting entry and control the landing site (artistic rendition)
417:
309:
173:
5471:
A revised version of this classic text has been reissued as an inexpensive paperback:
4533:"Hypersonic Inflatable Aerodynamic Decelerator (HIAD) Technology Development Overview"
3891:
Flight-Test Analysis Of Apollo Heat-Shield Material Using The Pacemaker Vehicle System
2646: – Glide and reentry mechanisms that use aerodynamic lift in the upper atmosphere
1152:
5572:
5403:
4820:
4367:
4062:
3664:
3551:
Ames Research Center Shear Tests of SLA-561V Heat Shield Material for Mars-Pathfinder
3418:
3375:
3247:
2652:
2431:
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module (20,000 kilograms ) attached, reentered and scattered debris over the town of
2307:
2193:
1733:
1526:
1355:
1213:
736:
628:
607:
496:
377:
315:
Practical development of reentry systems began as the range, and reentry velocity of
5021:
4489:
4307:
4269:
2298:
space station (77,100 kilograms ) reentered and spread debris across the Australian
5532:, 1968, NASA Mission Planning and Analysis Division, Project Apollo. video (25:14).
4955:
4711:"A general stagnation-point convective heating equation for arbitrary gas mixtures"
4242:
SpaceX CEO Elon Musk explains Starship's "transpiring" steel heat shield in Q&A
2643:
2375:
2359:
2329:
was cancelled and high solar activity caused it to come down sooner than expected.
2277:
2212:
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273:
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102:
86:
17:
5109:
4773:"Spacecraft Reentry FAQ: How much material from a satellite will survive reentry?"
4395:"An approximate analytical method for studying reentry into planetary atmospheres"
3432:
Entry Aerodynamics at Lunar Return Conditions Obtained from the Fliigh of Apollo 4
3389:
Freeman, N.C. (August 1958). "Non-equilibrium Flow of an Ideal Dissociating Gas".
1569:
4119:
4054:
3859:
3824:
3736:
3557:(Technical report). NASA Ames Research Center. NASA Technical Memorandum 110402.
2819:. The NASA History Series. Vol. sp-4305. United States Government Printing.
2123: – The service module failed to detach for some time, but the crew survived.
3190:
2591:
2368:
2318:
2080:
2018:
1811:
1790:
performs an entry burn to rapidly decelerate from its initial hypersonic speed.
1709:
1535:
1503:
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1122:
1010:
776:
460:
396:
305:
201:
74:
5145:"China's massive Long March 5B's rocket falls out of orbit over Atlantic Ocean"
3782:
3230:
3213:
2816:
Engineer in Charge: A History of the Langley Aeronautical Laboratory, 1917–1958
2438:, was hit at an altitude of approximately 246 kilometers (153 mi) with an
2332:
On September 7, 2011, NASA announced the impending uncontrolled reentry of the
1241:
during final assembly showing the aeroshell, cruise ring and solid rocket motor
5529:
3995:
3410:
3367:
2814:
2344:
2280:
2060:). The Soviet Mars landers were based upon a 60° half-angle aeroshell design.
1999:
1799:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1609:
1232:
1225:
1132:
804:
748:
732:
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324:
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78:
5357:
4459:"Inflatable Re-Entry Technologies: Flight Demonstration and Future Prospects"
4342:
3868:
3791:
3239:
3198:
779:
at high velocities relative to the atmosphere will cause very high levels of
184:) or even complete disintegration of smaller objects, and objects with lower
5543:
on the history of space rescue crafts, including some reentry craft designs.
5274:
4798:
4303:
4265:
3686:
3262:"Ionization And Dissociation Effects On Hypersonic Boundary-Layer Stability"
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The fundamental design objective in atmospheric entry of a spacecraft is to
165:
141:
133:
55:
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3737:
NASA TV broadcast for the Crew Dragon Demo-2 mission departure from the ISS
2178:
1729:
that incorporate a refrigerant or cryogenic fuel circulating through them.
1708:. SHARP TPS have suggested performance improvements allowing for sustained
603:
5238:
1379:, in April 2019, and put into regular service on that spacecraft in 2020.
512:. Other examples of the spherical section geometry in crewed capsules are
5525:
Center for Orbital and Reentry Debris Studies (The Aerospace Corporation)
4223:
Why Elon Musk Turned to Stainless Steel for SpaceX's Starship Mars Rocket
3214:"Multifidelity domain-aware learning for the design of re-entry vehicles"
2688:
2484:
2399:
2395:
2391:
2314:
2237:
2040:
1922:
1787:
1737:
1648:
1640:
1594:
1347:
An improved and easier to produce version called PICA-X was developed by
1279:
1165:
1076:
1064:
981:
768:
699:
AMaRV's attitude was controlled through a split body flap (also called a
584:
265:
181:
3212:
Di Fiore, Francesco; Maggiore, Paolo; Mainini, Laura (October 4, 2021).
2759:
1885:
Such an inflatable shield/aerobrake was designed for the penetrators of
1856:, Chapman described a solution to the problem using a high-drag device:
595:
27:
Passage of an object through the gases of an atmosphere from outer space
5129:
4327:
4289:
2464:
2443:
2435:
2299:
2223:
2126:
1944:, a NASA project with tests in 2014 and 2015 of a 6 m diameter SIAD-R.
1886:
1747:
craft with actively cooled hulls were launched as a part of the German
1466:
989:
iteration until the lowest possible Gibbs free energy is calculated (a
985:
832:
676:
644:
569:
and also trailed a stream of vaporized metal making it very visible to
541:
529:
229:
4969:"Salyut 7, Soviet Station in Space, Falls to Earth After 9-Year Orbit"
3137:
Biologically-Derived Photonic Materials for Thermal Protection Systems
1914:
into a 15-inch-diameter (38 cm) payload shroud and launched on a
556:
Prototype of the Mk-2 Reentry Vehicle (RV), based on blunt body theory
452:
168:, showing the entire reentry process unedited from space to splashdown
5388:. New York: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc.
3756:
Poloni, E.; Grigat, F.; Eberhart, M.; et al. (August 12, 2023).
2452:
2295:
2166:
2057:
2053:
2049:
1957:
1755:
1632:
1602:
1558:
1522:
1348:
921:
wave and leading edge of an entry vehicle is chemically reacting and
599:"Discoverer" type reconnaissance satellite film Recovery Vehicle (RV)
500:
261:
191:
Reentry has been achieved with speeds ranging from 7.8 km/s for
137:
106:
82:
2615: – Ballistic missile with a range of more than 5,500 kilometres
831:
At typical reentry temperatures, the air in the shock layer is both
5270:"Huge Chinese rocket booster falls to Earth over Arabian Peninsula"
4899:
Hollow planets : a feasibility study of possible hollow worlds
4037:
3841:
3016:
2588: – Zone of energetic charged particles around the planet Earth
2129: – The service module failed to detach, but the crew survived.
1762:
spacecraft where a part of the thermal protection system will be a
875:
was upstream from the calculated value due to real-gas effects. On
5524:
5377:
Atmospheric Entry – An Introduction to Its Science and Engineering
2177:
2154:
2079:
1901:
1891:
1726:
1619:
Radiatively cooled TPS can be found on modern entry vehicles, but
1568:
1516:
1497:
1462:
1412:
1299:
1231:
1151:
1009:
along with full documentation and will compile on Linux under the
883:
758:
658:
640:
602:
594:
575:
570:
551:
451:
371:
287:
269:
249:
221:
146:
127:
46:
5176:"Bridenstine Criticizes Uncontrolled Long March 5B Stage Reentry"
4570:"Hypersonic Inflatable Aerodynamic Decelerator (HIAD) Technology"
2867:(NACA-TR-1381). NASA Technical Reports: 1125–1140. Archived from
1204:
Early research on ablation technology in the USA was centered at
472:
spherical section's heat flux can be accurately modeled with the
444:
There are several basic shapes used in designing entry vehicles:
30:"Reentry", "HIAD", and "IRVE" redirect here. For other uses, see
5446:
Molecular Physics of Equilibrium Gases, A Handbook for Engineers
4445:
4232:, Mike Wall, space.com, 23 January 2019, accessed 23 March 2019.
3900:
3479:
3441:, Ernest R. Hillje, NASA, TN: D-5399, accessed 29 December 2018.
2439:
2424:
2420:
1849:
1687:
1670:
A radiatively cooled TPS for an entry vehicle is often called a
1628:
1458:
1205:
783:. Atmospheric entry heating comes principally from two sources:
636:
328:
47:
3916:
NASA.gov NASA Selects Material for Orion Spacecraft Heat Shield
2116:
Not all atmospheric reentries have been completely successful:
2044:
in a carbon dioxide atmosphere). Prior to being abandoned, the
1413:
997:. Among the best equilibrium codes in existence is the program
552:
5518:
4876:. Dordrecht; Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers. p. 269.
2799:
Boris Chertok, "Rockets and People", NASA History Series, 2006
2750:
Gross, F. (1965). "Buoyant Probes into the Venus Atmosphere".
2415:
587:
weapon and ancestor to most of the U.S. missile entry vehicles
4341:
Volosín, Trevor Sesnic; Morales, Juan I. (February 4, 2023).
2998:"Theory of Stagnation Point Heat Transfer in Dissociated Air"
1841:, in which the aircraft disintegrated, killing the co-pilot.
1655:
due to aerodynamic heating. In the case of the Concorde, the
1292:
structure thus enabling construction of a large heat shield.
3903:
Technical Note D-4713, pp. 8, 1968–08, accessed 2010-12-26.
3758:"An open carbon–phenolic ablator for scientific exploration"
2956:
Przadka, W.; Miedzik, J.; Goujon-Durand, S.; Wesfreid, J.E.
2920:
Apollo Experience Report – Mission Planning for Apollo Entry
1736:(NASP) in the mid-80s. The NASP was supposed to have been a
1581:
In some early ballistic missile RVs (e.g., the Mk-2 and the
1358:. The first reentry test of a PICA-X heat shield was on the
488:
Pure spherical entry vehicles were used in the early Soviet
4992:"Huge Defunct Satellite to Plunge to Earth Soon, NASA Says"
703:) along with two yaw flaps mounted on the vehicle's sides.
369:
before continuing with this article on atmospheric reentry.
5336:
Launius, Roger D.; Jenkins, Dennis R. (October 10, 2012).
2627: – area of uncertainty of a spacecraft's landing zone
2052:), on the second of three entry attempts (the others were
751:(Precision Recovery Including Maneuvering Entry) vehicle.
3224:(5). Springer Science and Business Media LLC: 3017–3035.
967:. For a real gas, the isentropic chain is unusable and a
224:
occurs at 250 km (160 mi; 130 nmi) and at
216:
For Earth, atmospheric entry occurs by convention at the
5022:"Final Update: NASA's UARS Re-enters Earth's Atmosphere"
4517:
3592:. 5th OpenFOAM Workshop. Gothenburg, Sweden. p. 1.
3478:
Hogan, C. Michael, Parker, John and Winkler, Ernest, of
1954:
Low-Earth Orbit Flight Test of an Inflatable Decelerator
1740:
powered hypersonic aircraft, but failed in development.
747:
is another entry vehicle geometry and was used with the
4435:
NASA Launches New Technology: An Inflatable Heat Shield
3523:
Di Benedetto, A.T.; Nicolais, L.; Watanabe, R. (1992).
3307:(NACA-TR-1135). NASA Technical Reports: 613–681. 1953.
2648:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
2608:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
2219:
Some reentries have resulted in significant disasters:
1054:
Atmospheric entry interface velocities on a Mars–Earth
334:
In the United States, this technology was pioneered by
4516:. Return and Rescue Space Systems GmbH. Archived from
3451:
Overview of the Mars Sample Return Earth Entry Vehicle
2754:. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics.
2606: – Halt to communication abilities or utilization
1758:
was developing an actively cooled heat shield for its
1326:
in the 1990s and was the primary TPS material for the
5546:
5429:. Malabar, Florida: Robert E. Krieger Publishing Co.
5303:"U.S. has high confidence it hit satellite fuel tank"
3294:"Equations, tables, and charts for compressible flow"
2811:"Chapter 12: Hypersonics and the Transition to Space"
1822:
orient itself in this state to a high drag attitude.
1686:-shingle TPS was again proposed for the unsuccessful
1388:
High Enthalpy Flow Diagnostics Group (HEFDiG) at the
1283:
aeroshell which landed on Mars was 21 W/cm. For
136:
enters the Earth's atmosphere to become visible as a
4643:"NOAA finalizes secondary payload for JPSS-2 launch"
3997:
Thermal Protection Systems: Past, Present and Future
2629:
Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
1304:
OSIRIS-REx Sample Return Capsule at USAF Utah Range.
319:
increased. For early short-range missiles, like the
5425:Vincenti, Walter G.; Kruger Jr, Charles H. (1986).
4791:"NASA - Frequently Asked Questions: Orbital Debris"
1952:A 6-meter (20 ft) inflatable reentry vehicle,
671:
vehicle, and used a biconic shape similar to AMaRV.
5206:
4709:Sutton, Kenneth; Graves, Jr., Randolph A. (1971).
3586:A pyrolysis and ablation toolbox based on OpenFOAM
2340:over a debris field 500 miles (800 km) long.
1717:in 2001 to test SHARP materials on test vehicles.
1612:use high emissivity coatings (HECs) to facilitate
176:, which puts mechanical stress on the object, and
5386:Re-Entry Vehicle Dynamics (AIAA Education Series)
4733:"Whitson describes rough Soyuz entry and landing"
4672:
4670:
4668:
3632:Chambers, Andrew; Dan Rasky (November 14, 2010).
2917:Graves, Claude A.; Harpold, Jon C. (March 1972).
2402:, was de-orbited in a controlled manner as well.
1806:. The wings on this craft rotate upward into the
847:Almost all aeronautical engineers are taught the
790:of hot gas flow past the surface of the body and
667:, shown during its first flight, was a prototype
93:. There are two main types of atmospheric entry:
4490:Inflatable Reentry and Descent Technology (IRDT)
2038:probe in a nitrogen atmosphere) for Mars entry (
1573:The Mercury capsule design (shown here with its
1461:-specified ablative heat shield, a glass-filled
4430:
4428:
4426:
1858:
1185:, while the bulk of the TPS material undergoes
132:Animated illustration of different phases as a
4901:. Austin, Texas: World Wide Pub. p. 326.
4448:Mission News, 2009-08-17, accessed 2011-01-02.
2991:
2989:
2351:had intended to control the reentry, but lost
2283:(3,800 kilograms ) reentered and crashed near
912:on the entry vehicle's leading edge is called
797:between the surface and atmospheric gases; and
565:long in the upper atmosphere due to its lower
540:The sphere-cone is a spherical section with a
3962:"Company Watch – NASA. – Free Online Library"
3627:
3625:
3623:
3583:Lachaud, Jean; N. Mansour, Nagi (June 2010).
3218:Structural and Multidisciplinary Optimization
3129:
3127:
1844:The feathered reentry was first described by
1269:. SLA-561V is a proprietary ablative made by
807:that forms in the front and sides of the body
292:Early reentry-vehicle concepts visualized in
8:
5495:Hypersonic and High Temperature Gas Dynamics
5339:Coming Home: Reentry and Recovery from Space
2996:Fay, J. A.; Riddell, F. R. (February 1958).
2852:Allen, H. Julian; Eggers, A. J. Jr. (1958).
2317:space station (19,820 kilograms ), with the
5108:18 Space Control Squadron (May 11, 2020).
3989:
3987:
3086:NCSU Libraries Technical Reports Repository
3077:Whittington, Kurt Thomas (April 11, 2011).
2965:Polish french cooperation in fluid research
2661: – Space Shuttle heat shielding system
2358:On May 11, 2020, the core stage of Chinese
1636:heavy, and lacks robust impact resistance.
1506:takes a close look at TPS tiles underneath
959:) is assumed to be constant along with the
344:National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics
210:high-altitude parachute jumps from balloons
2683:
2681:
2374:On May 8, 2021, the core stage of Chinese
815:During certain intensity of ionization, a
392:(almost always referring to Earth entry).
172:Objects entering an atmosphere experience
5477:. Mineola, New York: Dover Publications.
4255:, 23 January 2019, accessed 23 March 2019
4036:
3858:
3840:
3799:
3781:
3527:. Amsterdam: North-Holland. p. 111.
3229:
2427:, and fell into the South Pacific Ocean.
2306:fuel. NASA had originally hoped to use a
1852:in 1958. In the section of his report on
1131:, or TPS, is the barrier that protects a
121:of spacecraft are collectively termed as
5519:Aerocapture Mission Analysis Tool (AMAT)
5410:. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
5379:. Old Tappan, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
2777:. The Smithsonian Institution Archives.
2775:"Report Concerning Further Developments"
1732:Such a TPS concept was proposed for the
5553:
5089:from the original on September 13, 2017
4926:. New York: Chelsea House. p. 56.
4853:from the original on September 30, 2019
4106:
4104:
4102:
4077:"Columbia Accident Investigation Board"
3994:Johnson, Sylvia M. (January 25, 2015).
3599:from the original on September 12, 2012
3564:from the original on September 25, 2020
3058:from the original on September 16, 2020
2677:
2659:Space Shuttle thermal protection system
2600: – Small particles between planets
2508:
2473:
2013:, the engineer typically considers two
1894:rocket failed due to launcher failure.
1138:Space Shuttle thermal protection system
1007:CEA can be downloaded from the Internet
5469:. New York and London: Academic Press.
5313:from the original on February 25, 2008
5205:O'Callaghan, Jonathan (May 12, 2020).
5028:from the original on February 25, 2018
4739:from the original on December 19, 2008
4586:from the original on February 24, 2017
4087:from the original on December 25, 2017
4004:from the original on September 5, 2021
3712:from the original on September 7, 2018
3314:from the original on September 4, 2015
2974:from the original on December 21, 2016
2898:from the original on February 20, 2017
2573:Plume remains after reentry of a Soyuz
2430:On February 21, 2008, a disabled U.S.
2169: – Insulation from the starboard
1659:nose was permitted to reach a maximum
1608:Thermal protection systems relying on
1393:solution of resole phenolic resin and
999:Chemical Equilibrium with Applications
687:(AMaRV). Four AMaRVs were made by the
5427:Introduction to Physical Gas Dynamics
4471:from the original on January 29, 2012
4374:from the original on January 12, 2012
4154:from the original on January 26, 2021
4142:"X-33 Heat Shield Development report"
3972:from the original on October 22, 2012
3682:Dragon could visit space station next
3150:from the original on December 1, 2019
2933:from the original on October 25, 2019
2731:from the original on October 13, 2013
2699:from the original on January 12, 2010
2499:Cross section of Gemini 2 heat shield
2349:China Manned Space Engineering Office
1829:On 4 May 2011, the first test on the
1201:) and for reentry-vehicle nose tips.
403:of a spacecraft that is traveling at
7:
4990:David, Leonard (September 7, 2011).
4690:from the original on October 1, 2020
4653:from the original on October 1, 2021
3504:from the original on October 5, 2015
3274:from the original on October 1, 2021
3005:Journal of the Aeronautical Sciences
2259:Uncontrolled and unprotected entries
1156:Ablative heat shield (after use) on
775:Objects entering an atmosphere from
73:) is the movement of an object from
4318:from the original on April 27, 2021
4280:from the original on April 27, 2021
3942:from the original on March 24, 2009
3095:from the original on April 11, 2015
2926:. NASA Technical Note (TN) D-6725.
2549:during atmospheric entry over Earth
2334:Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite
2109:Plane tangential to the entry point
1964:Entry vehicle design considerations
1405:and machined to the desired shape.
1309:Phenolic-impregnated carbon ablator
1296:Phenolic-impregnated carbon ablator
1193:can be measured in real time using
361:Terminology, definitions and jargon
5301:Gray, Andrew (February 21, 2008).
5282:from the original on July 23, 2021
5249:from the original on July 23, 2021
4608:Launch Vehicle Recovery and Reuse
3925:, 2009-04-07, accessed 2011-01-02.
3690:, 2010-12-08, accessed 2010-12-09.
3460:, NASA, accessed 29 December 2018.
2833:from the original on July 14, 2019
2781:from the original on June 26, 2009
2613:Intercontinental ballistic missile
1942:Low-Density Supersonic Decelerator
1199:Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster
308:was described as early as 1920 by
246:intercontinental ballistic missile
204:for the entire reentry procedure.
25:
5541:Encyclopedia Astronautica article
5219:from the original on May 12, 2020
5155:from the original on May 14, 2020
5120:from the original on May 14, 2020
4622:from the original on July 6, 2016
4568:Cheatwood, Neil (June 29, 2016).
4343:"Full Reusability By Stoke Space"
4206:"sharp structure homepage w left"
4174:"SHARP Reentry Vehicle Prototype"
2773:Goddard, Robert H. (March 1920).
2594: – Orbital transfer maneuver
2518:Close up of reentry trail (Soyuz)
2442:missile fired from the U.S. Navy
2182:Genesis entry vehicle after crash
2048:achieved one successful landing (
1220:was ideal, since it had numerous
1172:). The boundary layer comes from
819:with the spacecraft is produced.
459:flying with the blunt end of the
424:) means, or by some combination.
195:to around 12.5 km/s for the
77:into and through the gases of an
5556:
5077:Jones, Morris (March 30, 2016).
5002:from the original on May 6, 2021
3823:Poloni, E.; et al. (2022).
3700:Chaikin, Andrew (January 2012).
2752:Unmanned Spacecraft Meeting 1965
2566:
2554:
2539:
2523:
2511:
2492:
2476:
2469:tested an anti-satellite missile
2313:On February 7, 1991, the Soviet
2097:Perpendicular to the entry point
1472:NASA originally used it for the
1017:Real (non-equilibrium) gas model
852:who design supersonic aircraft.
795:chemical recombination reactions
631:with a half-angle of 45° or the
5143:Clark, Stephen (May 11, 2020).
4499:Factsheet, ESA, September, 2005
3332:Kenneth Iliff and Mary Shafer,
2665:Paper plane launched from space
2634:List of reentering space debris
2265:List of reentering space debris
2009:Starting from the principle of
1743:In 2005 and 2012, two unmanned
1698:Ultra-High Temperature Ceramics
925:in a state of equilibrium. The
5530:Apollo Atmospheric Entry Phase
5497:. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.
5493:Anderson, John D. Jr. (1989).
5408:Dynamics of Atmospheric Flight
5174:Messier, Doug (May 15, 2020).
4641:Foust, Jeff (March 10, 2020).
3177:(24). Elsevier BV: 5899–5902.
2809:Hansen, James R. (June 1987).
2343:On April 1, 2018, the Chinese
1375:spacecraft in 2019 during the
1:
5444:Hansen, C. Frederick (1976).
4922:Elkins-Tanton, Linda (2006).
4393:Chapman, Dean R. (May 1958).
3634:"NASA + SpaceX Work Together"
2407:Compton Gamma Ray Observatory
2232:Vladimir Mikhailovich Komarov
1734:X-30 National Aerospace Plane
1123:Heat shield § Spacecraft
4510:"The Demonstration Missions"
4055:10.1016/j.corsci.2018.11.006
3860:10.1016/j.carbon.2022.03.062
2006:and heat flux correlations.
1872:Inflatable heat shield entry
1749:Sharp Edge Flight Experiment
1377:flight demonstration mission
864:Real (equilibrium) gas model
684:Maneuverable Reentry Vehicle
482:computational fluid dynamics
420:(vehicle characteristics or
304:The concept of the ablative
5079:"Has Tiangong 1 gone rogue"
4924:The Sun, Mercury, and Venus
4872:Hanslmeier, Arnold (2002).
3896:September 25, 2020, at the
3706:Air & Space Smithsonian
3191:10.1016/j.ijleo.2015.09.141
2598:Decelerated micrometeorites
2355:and control in March 2017.
2100:Excess friction 6.9° to 90°
2076:Atmospheric entry accidents
1798:In 2004, aircraft designer
984:of the gas minus its total
448:Sphere or spherical section
386:entry, descent, and landing
119:entry, descent, and landing
5605:
5473:Hayes, Wallace D. (1966).
5268:Wall, Mike (May 9, 2021).
4974:November 18, 2016, at the
4440:December 19, 2010, at the
3921:November 24, 2010, at the
3783:10.1038/s41598-023-40351-x
3391:Journal of Fluid Mechanics
3348:Journal of Fluid Mechanics
3231:10.1007/s00158-021-03037-4
2655: – Type of spacecraft
2621: – Type of spacecraft
2457:U.S. Department of Defense
2262:
2046:Soviet Mars lander program
1906:NASA engineers check IRVE.
1267:super light-weight ablator
1254:Super light-weight ablator
1195:thermogravimetric analysis
1120:
1117:Thermal protection systems
437:
431:
364:
29:
4874:The sun and space weather
4247:January 24, 2019, at the
4228:February 3, 2019, at the
3456:December 1, 2019, at the
3411:10.1017/S0022112058000549
3368:10.1017/S0022112057000713
2398:accident. Its successor,
2294:On July 11, 1979, the US
2276:On January 24, 1978, the
2250: – The failure of a
2103:Repulsion of 5.5° or less
1324:NASA Ames Research Center
1129:thermal protection system
1111:Thermal protection shield
901:thermodynamic equilibrium
849:perfect (ideal) gas model
5475:Hypersonic Inviscid Flow
5384:Regan, Frank J. (1984).
4731:William Harwood (2008).
4402:NACA Technical Note 4276
4368:"How SpaceShipOne Works"
2586:Van Allen radiation belt
2252:reinforced carbon–carbon
2004:planar reentry equations
1877:with a low-mass design.
1764:transpirationally cooled
1621:reinforced carbon–carbon
974:Gibbs free energy method
711:(ABM) interception. The
615:Reconnaissance satellite
236:. Most objects enter at
32:reentry (disambiguation)
4950:Spacecraft Reentry FAQ:
4897:Lamprecht, Jan (1998).
3742:August 2, 2020, at the
3437:April 11, 2019, at the
2719:"ATO: Airship To Orbit"
2689:"Stardust – Cool Facts"
2639:NASA reentry prototypes
1808:feathered configuration
1525:tiles were used on the
1390:University of Stuttgart
1333:Mars Science Laboratory
1315:preform impregnated in
1275:Mars Science Laboratory
1037:, which is based upon N
1023:Lighthill-Freeman model
941:ratio of specific heats
827:Shock layer gas physics
723:Non-axisymmetric shapes
499:and in Soviet Mars and
222:Venus atmospheric entry
97:, such as the entry of
5467:Hypersonic Flow Theory
4542:. NASA. Archived from
4268:(September 24, 2019).
3966:www.thefreelibrary.com
3746:, NASA, 1 August 2020.
3636:. NASA. Archived from
2183:
2113:
1907:
1869:
1590:radiatively cooled TPS
1578:
1544:Starship's upper stage
1530:
1514:
1435:Mars Exploration Rover
1424:
1305:
1242:
1161:
772:
713:McDonnell Douglas DC-X
709:anti-ballistic missile
672:
611:
600:
588:
557:
503:descent vehicles. The
468:
381:
301:
298:high speed wind tunnel
226:Mars atmospheric entry
169:
144:
65:(sometimes listed as V
59:
52:Mars Exploration Rover
5584:Aerospace engineering
4813:"Animation52-desktop"
2693:stardust.jpl.nasa.gov
2561:Space Shuttle reentry
2413:In 2001, the Russian
2405:On June 4, 2000, the
2289:Northwest Territories
2181:
2094:Expulsion lower angle
2083:
2030:shock wave detachment
1981:Peak dynamic pressure
1905:
1715:University of Montana
1691:single-stage-to-orbit
1661:operating temperature
1572:
1520:
1501:
1494:Refractory insulation
1474:Apollo command module
1416:
1351:in 2006–2010 for the
1322:PICA was patented by
1303:
1235:
1155:
1029:= N + N and N + N = N
991:Newton–Raphson method
762:
669:single-stage-to-orbit
662:
610:during final assembly
606:
598:
579:
567:ballistic coefficient
555:
505:Apollo command module
457:Apollo command module
455:
375:
291:
159:
131:
50:
40:irve (disambiguation)
36:hiad (disambiguation)
5463:Probstein, Ronald F.
4520:on December 7, 2016.
4404:: 38. Archived from
4212:on October 16, 2015.
4186:on December 15, 2005
3671:. February 23, 2009.
2874:on October 13, 2015.
2171:solid rocket booster
1786:stage of the SpaceX
1395:polyvinylpyrrolidone
1247:thermal conductivity
1218:Ames Research Center
1210:Ames Research Center
1089:Schrödinger equation
980:is simply the total
927:Fay–Riddell equation
918:chemical equilibrium
914:shock wave stand off
717:Lockheed Martin X-33
474:Fay–Riddell equation
428:Entry vehicle shapes
348:Ames Research Center
186:compressive strength
99:astronomical objects
58:, artistic rendition
5536:Buran's heat shield
5461:Hayes, Wallace D.;
5454:1976mpeg.book.....H
4735:. Spaceflight Now.
4549:on January 26, 2017
4531:Hughes, Stephen J.
4411:on January 27, 2005
4116:www.astronautix.com
4047:2019Corro.146..233S
3851:2022Carbo.195...80P
3774:2023NatSR..1313135P
3403:1958JFM.....4..407F
3360:1957JFM.....2....1L
3183:2015Optik.126.5899P
2760:10.2514/6.1965-1407
2619:Lander (spacecraft)
2604:Ionization blackout
2011:conservative design
1985:Peak heat flux and
1639:Some high-velocity
1623:(RCC) (also called
1504:Andrew S. W. Thomas
995:partition functions
945:isentropic exponent
803:from the energetic
705:Hydraulic actuation
701:split-windward flap
248:reentry vehicles),
178:aerodynamic heating
18:Atmospheric reentry
5050:Tiangong-1 Reentry
4801:on March 11, 2014.
4495:2015-12-31 at the
4347:Everyday Astronaut
3768:(1) 13135: 13135.
3762:Scientific Reports
3301:NACA Annual Report
3026:on January 7, 2005
2861:NACA Annual Report
2184:
2114:
2106:Explosion friction
1908:
1702:zirconium diboride
1693:(SSTO) prototype.
1586:Mercury spacecraft
1579:
1531:
1515:
1425:
1337:Martian atmosphere
1306:
1243:
1162:
1081:vibrational energy
1035:five species model
1005:is not modelled).
773:
673:
612:
601:
589:
558:
469:
382:
317:ballistic missiles
302:
170:
145:
95:uncontrolled entry
60:
5579:Atmospheric entry
5504:978-0-07-001671-2
5484:978-0-486-43281-6
5436:978-0-88275-309-6
5417:978-0-471-24620-6
5395:978-0-915928-78-1
4817:www.aerospace.org
4779:on March 2, 2014.
4370:. June 20, 2004.
4306:(July 24, 2019).
4122:on March 18, 2022
4025:Corrosion Science
3640:on April 16, 2011
3494:"Arc Jet Complex"
2826:978-0-318-23455-7
2625:Landing footprint
2451:off the coast of
2139:Mars Polar Lander
2088:Friction with air
2026:terminal velocity
1978:Peak deceleration
1614:radiative cooling
1555:Space Shuttle TPS
1003:double ionization
978:Gibbs free energy
882:s maiden flight (
843:Perfect gas model
693:Minuteman-1 ICBMs
689:McDonnell Douglas
510:longitudinal axis
238:hypersonic speeds
157:
91:natural satellite
63:Atmospheric entry
16:(Redirected from
5596:
5561:
5560:
5559:
5552:
5508:
5489:reissued in 2004
5488:
5470:
5457:
5440:
5421:
5399:
5380:
5368:
5366:
5364:
5323:
5322:
5320:
5318:
5298:
5292:
5291:
5289:
5287:
5265:
5259:
5258:
5256:
5254:
5235:
5229:
5228:
5226:
5224:
5210:
5202:
5196:
5195:
5193:
5191:
5182:. Archived from
5171:
5165:
5164:
5162:
5160:
5140:
5134:
5133:
5127:
5125:
5105:
5099:
5098:
5096:
5094:
5074:
5068:
5067:
5065:
5063:
5058:on April 4, 2018
5054:. Archived from
5044:
5038:
5037:
5035:
5033:
5018:
5012:
5011:
5009:
5007:
4987:
4981:
4966:
4960:
4959:
4958:on May 13, 2012.
4954:. Archived from
4944:
4938:
4937:
4919:
4913:
4912:
4894:
4888:
4887:
4869:
4863:
4862:
4860:
4858:
4839:
4833:
4832:
4830:
4828:
4823:on March 2, 2014
4819:. Archived from
4809:
4803:
4802:
4797:. Archived from
4787:
4781:
4780:
4775:. Archived from
4769:
4763:
4762:
4755:
4749:
4748:
4746:
4744:
4728:
4722:
4721:
4715:
4706:
4700:
4699:
4697:
4695:
4689:
4682:
4674:
4663:
4662:
4660:
4658:
4638:
4632:
4631:
4629:
4627:
4621:
4614:
4602:
4596:
4595:
4593:
4591:
4585:
4574:
4565:
4559:
4558:
4556:
4554:
4548:
4537:
4528:
4522:
4521:
4506:
4500:
4487:
4481:
4480:
4478:
4476:
4470:
4463:
4455:
4449:
4432:
4421:
4420:
4418:
4416:
4410:
4399:
4390:
4384:
4383:
4381:
4379:
4364:
4358:
4357:
4355:
4353:
4338:
4332:
4331:
4325:
4323:
4300:
4294:
4293:
4287:
4285:
4262:
4256:
4239:
4233:
4220:
4214:
4213:
4208:. Archived from
4202:
4196:
4195:
4193:
4191:
4185:
4179:. Archived from
4178:
4170:
4164:
4163:
4161:
4159:
4153:
4146:
4138:
4132:
4131:
4129:
4127:
4118:. Archived from
4108:
4097:
4096:
4094:
4092:
4081:history.nasa.gov
4073:
4067:
4066:
4040:
4020:
4014:
4013:
4011:
4009:
3991:
3982:
3981:
3979:
3977:
3958:
3952:
3951:
3949:
3947:
3932:
3926:
3913:
3907:
3888:
3882:
3879:
3873:
3872:
3862:
3844:
3820:
3814:
3813:
3803:
3785:
3753:
3747:
3734:
3728:
3727:
3719:
3717:
3697:
3691:
3679:
3673:
3672:
3669:www.spaceref.com
3661:
3655:
3654:
3647:
3645:
3629:
3618:
3615:
3609:
3608:
3606:
3604:
3598:
3591:
3580:
3574:
3573:
3571:
3569:
3563:
3556:
3545:
3539:
3538:
3520:
3514:
3513:
3511:
3509:
3490:
3484:
3476:
3470:
3467:
3461:
3448:
3442:
3429:
3423:
3422:
3386:
3380:
3379:
3343:
3337:
3330:
3324:
3323:
3321:
3319:
3313:
3298:
3290:
3284:
3283:
3281:
3279:
3273:
3266:
3258:
3252:
3251:
3233:
3209:
3203:
3202:
3166:
3160:
3159:
3157:
3155:
3149:
3142:
3131:
3122:
3111:
3105:
3104:
3102:
3100:
3094:
3083:
3074:
3068:
3067:
3065:
3063:
3057:
3050:
3042:
3036:
3035:
3033:
3031:
3025:
3019:. Archived from
3002:
2993:
2984:
2983:
2981:
2979:
2973:
2962:
2953:
2947:
2946:
2940:
2938:
2932:
2925:
2914:
2908:
2907:
2905:
2903:
2897:
2890:
2882:
2876:
2875:
2873:
2858:
2849:
2843:
2842:
2840:
2838:
2806:
2800:
2797:
2791:
2790:
2788:
2786:
2770:
2764:
2763:
2747:
2741:
2740:
2738:
2736:
2730:
2724:. JP Aerospace.
2723:
2715:
2709:
2708:
2706:
2704:
2685:
2649:
2630:
2609:
2570:
2558:
2543:
2527:
2515:
2496:
2480:
2387:Deorbit disposal
2323:Capitán Bermúdez
2285:Great Slave Lake
2228:attitude control
1987:dynamic pressure
1810:that provides a
1781:Propulsive entry
1771:Stoke Space Nova
1706:hafnium diboride
1565:Passively cooled
1142:Induction plasma
1096:Frozen gas model
965:isentropic chain
910:stagnation point
881:
633:Viking aeroshell
562:General Electric
440:Nose cone design
407:as it enters an
405:hypersonic speed
352:drag coefficient
340:A. J. Eggers Jr.
174:atmospheric drag
158:
111:controlled entry
21:
5604:
5603:
5599:
5598:
5597:
5595:
5594:
5593:
5569:
5568:
5567:
5557:
5555:
5547:
5515:
5505:
5492:
5485:
5472:
5460:
5456:. NASA SP-3096.
5443:
5437:
5424:
5418:
5402:
5396:
5383:
5373:Martin, John J.
5371:
5362:
5360:
5350:
5335:
5332:
5330:Further reading
5327:
5326:
5316:
5314:
5300:
5299:
5295:
5285:
5283:
5267:
5266:
5262:
5252:
5250:
5237:
5236:
5232:
5222:
5220:
5204:
5203:
5199:
5189:
5187:
5186:on May 21, 2020
5173:
5172:
5168:
5158:
5156:
5149:Spaceflight Now
5142:
5141:
5137:
5123:
5121:
5107:
5106:
5102:
5092:
5090:
5076:
5075:
5071:
5061:
5059:
5048:"aerospace.org
5046:
5045:
5041:
5031:
5029:
5020:
5019:
5015:
5005:
5003:
4989:
4988:
4984:
4976:Wayback Machine
4967:
4963:
4946:
4945:
4941:
4934:
4921:
4920:
4916:
4909:
4896:
4895:
4891:
4884:
4871:
4870:
4866:
4856:
4854:
4841:
4840:
4836:
4826:
4824:
4811:
4810:
4806:
4789:
4788:
4784:
4771:
4770:
4766:
4757:
4756:
4752:
4742:
4740:
4730:
4729:
4725:
4713:
4708:
4707:
4703:
4693:
4691:
4687:
4680:
4676:
4675:
4666:
4656:
4654:
4640:
4639:
4635:
4625:
4623:
4619:
4612:
4604:
4603:
4599:
4589:
4587:
4583:
4572:
4567:
4566:
4562:
4552:
4550:
4546:
4535:
4530:
4529:
4525:
4508:
4507:
4503:
4497:Wayback Machine
4488:
4484:
4474:
4472:
4468:
4461:
4457:
4456:
4452:
4442:Wayback Machine
4433:
4424:
4414:
4412:
4408:
4397:
4392:
4391:
4387:
4377:
4375:
4366:
4365:
4361:
4351:
4349:
4340:
4339:
4335:
4321:
4319:
4302:
4301:
4297:
4283:
4281:
4264:
4263:
4259:
4249:Wayback Machine
4240:
4236:
4230:Wayback Machine
4221:
4217:
4204:
4203:
4199:
4189:
4187:
4183:
4176:
4172:
4171:
4167:
4157:
4155:
4151:
4144:
4140:
4139:
4135:
4125:
4123:
4112:"Space Shuttle"
4110:
4109:
4100:
4090:
4088:
4075:
4074:
4070:
4022:
4021:
4017:
4007:
4005:
3993:
3992:
3985:
3975:
3973:
3960:
3959:
3955:
3945:
3943:
3934:
3933:
3929:
3923:Wayback Machine
3914:
3910:
3898:Wayback Machine
3889:
3885:
3880:
3876:
3822:
3821:
3817:
3755:
3754:
3750:
3744:Wayback Machine
3735:
3731:
3715:
3713:
3699:
3698:
3694:
3680:
3676:
3663:
3662:
3658:
3643:
3641:
3631:
3630:
3621:
3616:
3612:
3602:
3600:
3596:
3589:
3582:
3581:
3577:
3567:
3565:
3561:
3554:
3547:
3546:
3542:
3535:
3522:
3521:
3517:
3507:
3505:
3492:
3491:
3487:
3477:
3473:
3468:
3464:
3458:Wayback Machine
3449:
3445:
3439:Wayback Machine
3430:
3426:
3397:(04): 407–425.
3388:
3387:
3383:
3345:
3344:
3340:
3331:
3327:
3317:
3315:
3311:
3296:
3292:
3291:
3287:
3277:
3275:
3271:
3264:
3260:
3259:
3255:
3211:
3210:
3206:
3168:
3167:
3163:
3153:
3151:
3147:
3140:
3133:
3132:
3125:
3112:
3108:
3098:
3096:
3092:
3081:
3076:
3075:
3071:
3061:
3059:
3055:
3048:
3044:
3043:
3039:
3029:
3027:
3023:
3000:
2995:
2994:
2987:
2977:
2975:
2971:
2960:
2955:
2954:
2950:
2936:
2934:
2930:
2923:
2916:
2915:
2911:
2901:
2899:
2895:
2888:
2884:
2883:
2879:
2871:
2856:
2851:
2850:
2846:
2836:
2834:
2827:
2808:
2807:
2803:
2798:
2794:
2784:
2782:
2772:
2771:
2767:
2749:
2748:
2744:
2734:
2732:
2728:
2721:
2717:
2716:
2712:
2702:
2700:
2687:
2686:
2679:
2674:
2669:
2647:
2628:
2607:
2581:
2574:
2571:
2562:
2559:
2550:
2544:
2535:
2528:
2519:
2516:
2507:
2500:
2497:
2488:
2481:
2389:
2267:
2261:
2112:
2084:Reentry window
2078:
1966:
1950:
1931:
1919:sounding rocket
1900:
1883:
1874:
1854:Composite Entry
1796:
1794:Feathered entry
1783:
1754:In early 2019,
1723:
1721:Actively cooled
1645:SR-71 Blackbird
1567:
1496:
1487:
1452:
1430:Mars Pathfinder
1411:
1399:ethylene glycol
1385:
1369:
1345:
1335:entry into the
1298:
1271:Lockheed Martin
1256:
1238:Mars Pathfinder
1150:
1125:
1119:
1098:
1069:carbon monoxide
1051:low Earth orbit
1044:
1040:
1032:
1028:
1019:
969:Mollier diagram
949:adiabatic index
879:
866:
845:
829:
757:
739:and the Soviet
725:
657:
538:
478:angle of attack
465:angle of attack
450:
442:
436:
430:
380:reentry profile
370:
367:jargon glossary
363:
336:H. Julian Allen
286:
193:low Earth orbit
147:
72:
68:
43:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5602:
5600:
5592:
5591:
5586:
5581:
5571:
5570:
5566:
5565:
5545:
5544:
5538:
5533:
5527:
5522:
5514:
5513:External links
5511:
5510:
5509:
5503:
5490:
5483:
5458:
5441:
5435:
5422:
5416:
5404:Etkin, Bernard
5400:
5394:
5381:
5369:
5348:
5331:
5328:
5325:
5324:
5293:
5260:
5230:
5197:
5166:
5135:
5100:
5069:
5039:
5013:
4982:
4979:New York Times
4961:
4939:
4932:
4914:
4907:
4889:
4882:
4864:
4834:
4804:
4782:
4764:
4750:
4723:
4701:
4664:
4633:
4597:
4560:
4523:
4501:
4482:
4450:
4422:
4385:
4359:
4333:
4295:
4257:
4253:Teslarati News
4251:, Eric Ralph,
4234:
4215:
4197:
4165:
4133:
4098:
4068:
4015:
3983:
3953:
3927:
3908:
3883:
3874:
3815:
3748:
3729:
3692:
3674:
3656:
3619:
3610:
3575:
3540:
3534:978-0444893567
3533:
3515:
3485:
3471:
3462:
3443:
3424:
3381:
3338:
3325:
3285:
3253:
3204:
3161:
3123:
3106:
3069:
3037:
3017:10.2514/8.7517
2985:
2948:
2909:
2877:
2844:
2825:
2801:
2792:
2765:
2742:
2710:
2676:
2675:
2673:
2670:
2668:
2667:
2662:
2656:
2650:
2641:
2636:
2631:
2622:
2616:
2610:
2601:
2595:
2589:
2582:
2580:
2577:
2576:
2575:
2572:
2565:
2563:
2560:
2553:
2551:
2545:
2538:
2536:
2530:Early reentry
2529:
2522:
2520:
2517:
2510:
2506:
2503:
2502:
2501:
2498:
2491:
2489:
2482:
2475:
2388:
2385:
2260:
2257:
2256:
2255:
2243:Space Shuttle
2241:
2235:
2217:
2216:
2209:Starship IFT-3
2206:
2200:
2176:
2175:
2161:Space Shuttle
2158:
2149:Space Shuttle
2146:
2136:
2130:
2124:
2111:
2110:
2107:
2104:
2101:
2098:
2095:
2092:
2089:
2085:
2077:
2074:
1983:
1982:
1979:
1976:
1973:
1972:Peak heat flux
1965:
1962:
1949:
1946:
1930:
1927:
1899:
1896:
1882:
1879:
1873:
1870:
1795:
1792:
1782:
1779:
1722:
1719:
1643:, such as the
1566:
1563:
1508:Space Shuttle
1495:
1492:
1486:
1483:
1451:
1448:
1410:
1407:
1384:
1381:
1368:
1365:
1344:
1341:
1317:phenolic resin
1297:
1294:
1255:
1252:
1216:, California.
1170:boundary layer
1149:
1146:
1144:or DC plasma.
1121:Main article:
1118:
1115:
1097:
1094:
1085:radiant energy
1042:
1038:
1030:
1026:
1018:
1015:
892:Robert Crippen
886:), astronauts
865:
862:
858:real gas model
844:
841:
828:
825:
817:radio-blackout
809:
808:
798:
756:
753:
724:
721:
656:
653:
537:
534:
463:at a non-zero
449:
446:
432:Main article:
429:
426:
362:
359:
310:Robert Goddard
285:
282:
164:'s reentry on
140:and land as a
70:
66:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5601:
5590:
5589:Flight phases
5587:
5585:
5582:
5580:
5577:
5576:
5574:
5564:
5554:
5550:
5542:
5539:
5537:
5534:
5531:
5528:
5526:
5523:
5520:
5517:
5516:
5512:
5506:
5500:
5496:
5491:
5486:
5480:
5476:
5468:
5464:
5459:
5455:
5451:
5447:
5442:
5438:
5432:
5428:
5423:
5419:
5413:
5409:
5405:
5401:
5397:
5391:
5387:
5382:
5378:
5374:
5370:
5359:
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3119:1-56347-048-9
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3024:(PDF Reprint)
3022:
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2534:trail (Soyuz)
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2372:
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2360:Long March 5B
2356:
2354:
2350:
2346:
2341:
2339:
2338:Pacific Ocean
2335:
2330:
2328:
2327:Buran shuttle
2324:
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2311:
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2308:Space Shuttle
2305:
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2122:
2119:
2118:
2117:
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2099:
2096:
2093:
2091:In air flight
2090:
2087:
2086:
2082:
2075:
2073:
2071:
2070:Pioneer Venus
2067:
2061:
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2016:
2012:
2007:
2005:
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1961:
1959:
1955:
1947:
1945:
1943:
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1935:
1928:
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1920:
1917:
1916:Black Brant 9
1913:
1912:vacuum-packed
1904:
1897:
1895:
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1823:
1821:
1820:automatically
1815:
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1673:
1672:hot-metal TPS
1668:
1666:
1662:
1658:
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1650:
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1642:
1637:
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1630:
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1625:carbon–carbon
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1527:Space Shuttle
1524:
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1356:space capsule
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1219:
1215:
1214:Moffett Field
1211:
1207:
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1192:
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996:
992:
987:
983:
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966:
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954:
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946:
943:(also called
942:
937:
934:
933:
928:
924:
919:
915:
911:
907:
903:
902:
895:
893:
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784:
782:
778:
770:
766:
761:
755:Entry heating
754:
752:
750:
746:
742:
738:
737:Space Shuttle
734:
730:
722:
720:
718:
714:
710:
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697:
694:
690:
686:
685:
678:
670:
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652:
650:
646:
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638:
634:
630:
629:Galileo Probe
626:
625:
620:
616:
609:
608:Galileo Probe
605:
597:
593:
586:
582:
578:
574:
572:
568:
563:
554:
550:
548:
545:impact. (The
543:
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531:
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511:
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502:
498:
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491:
486:
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402:
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391:
387:
379:
378:Space Shuttle
374:
368:
360:
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355:
353:
349:
345:
341:
337:
332:
330:
326:
322:
318:
313:
311:
307:
299:
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290:
283:
281:
279:
278:giant planets
275:
271:
267:
263:
259:
255:
251:
247:
243:
240:due to their
239:
235:
231:
227:
223:
219:
214:
211:
205:
203:
198:
194:
189:
188:can explode.
187:
183:
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163:
143:
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135:
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126:
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116:
112:
108:
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64:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
19:
5494:
5474:
5466:
5445:
5426:
5407:
5385:
5376:
5361:. Retrieved
5338:
5317:February 23,
5315:. Retrieved
5306:
5296:
5284:. Retrieved
5273:
5263:
5251:. Retrieved
5242:
5233:
5221:. Retrieved
5212:
5200:
5188:. Retrieved
5184:the original
5179:
5169:
5157:. Retrieved
5148:
5138:
5128:– via
5122:. Retrieved
5103:
5091:. Retrieved
5082:
5072:
5060:. Retrieved
5056:the original
5049:
5042:
5030:. Retrieved
5016:
5004:. Retrieved
4995:
4985:
4978:
4964:
4956:the original
4949:
4942:
4923:
4917:
4898:
4892:
4873:
4867:
4857:December 28,
4855:. Retrieved
4846:
4837:
4825:. Retrieved
4821:the original
4816:
4807:
4799:the original
4795:www.nasa.gov
4794:
4785:
4777:the original
4767:
4753:
4741:. Retrieved
4726:
4717:
4704:
4692:. Retrieved
4655:. Retrieved
4646:
4636:
4624:. Retrieved
4607:
4600:
4588:. Retrieved
4577:www.nasa.gov
4576:
4563:
4551:. Retrieved
4544:the original
4540:www.nasa.gov
4539:
4526:
4518:the original
4514:www.2r2s.com
4513:
4504:
4485:
4473:. Retrieved
4453:
4413:. Retrieved
4406:the original
4401:
4388:
4376:. Retrieved
4362:
4350:. Retrieved
4346:
4336:
4326:– via
4320:. Retrieved
4298:
4288:– via
4282:. Retrieved
4260:
4252:
4237:
4218:
4210:the original
4200:
4188:. Retrieved
4181:the original
4168:
4156:. Retrieved
4136:
4124:. Retrieved
4120:the original
4115:
4089:. Retrieved
4080:
4071:
4028:
4024:
4018:
4008:September 5,
4006:. Retrieved
3996:
3974:. Retrieved
3965:
3956:
3944:. Retrieved
3930:
3911:
3904:
3886:
3877:
3832:
3828:
3818:
3765:
3761:
3751:
3732:
3722:
3721:
3714:. Retrieved
3705:
3695:
3685:
3677:
3668:
3659:
3650:
3649:
3644:February 16,
3642:. Retrieved
3638:the original
3613:
3601:. Retrieved
3585:
3578:
3566:. Retrieved
3550:
3543:
3524:
3518:
3508:September 5,
3506:. Retrieved
3498:www.nasa.gov
3497:
3488:
3474:
3465:
3446:
3427:
3394:
3390:
3384:
3351:
3347:
3341:
3333:
3328:
3316:. Retrieved
3304:
3300:
3288:
3276:. Retrieved
3256:
3221:
3217:
3207:
3174:
3170:
3164:
3154:December 29,
3152:. Retrieved
3136:
3109:
3097:. Retrieved
3085:
3072:
3060:. Retrieved
3040:
3028:. Retrieved
3021:the original
3011:(2): 73–85.
3008:
3004:
2976:. Retrieved
2964:
2951:
2942:
2935:. Retrieved
2919:
2912:
2900:. Retrieved
2880:
2869:the original
2864:
2860:
2847:
2835:. Retrieved
2815:
2804:
2795:
2783:. Retrieved
2768:
2751:
2745:
2735:December 14,
2733:. Retrieved
2713:
2701:. Retrieved
2692:
2644:Skip reentry
2447:
2429:
2414:
2412:
2404:
2390:
2373:
2357:
2342:
2331:
2312:
2293:
2275:
2271:
2268:
2244:
2226: – The
2218:
2213:Indian Ocean
2203:Soyuz TMA-11
2194:
2188:
2162:
2150:
2115:
2062:
2039:
2034:
2029:
2023:
2010:
2008:
1995:
1991:
1984:
1967:
1953:
1951:
1939:
1936:
1932:
1909:
1884:
1875:
1866:
1863:
1859:
1853:
1846:Dean Chapman
1843:
1836:
1831:SpaceShipTwo
1828:
1824:
1819:
1816:
1807:
1804:SpaceShipOne
1797:
1784:
1775:
1768:
1753:
1745:lifting body
1742:
1731:
1724:
1695:
1671:
1669:
1638:
1624:
1618:
1607:
1589:
1580:
1575:escape tower
1552:
1548:
1540:Dream Chaser
1532:
1521:Rigid black
1509:
1488:
1485:Thermal soak
1471:
1453:
1441:(DS/2) Mars
1439:Deep Space 2
1428:
1426:
1418:Deep Space 2
1386:
1370:
1346:
1321:
1313:carbon fiber
1308:
1307:
1288:
1284:
1278:
1266:
1262:
1258:
1257:
1244:
1236:
1222:wind tunnels
1203:
1178:
1173:
1163:
1128:
1126:
1103:
1099:
1073:nitric oxide
1061:
1047:
1034:
1022:
1020:
998:
973:
968:
964:
961:gas constant
956:
952:
944:
940:
938:
931:
922:
913:
899:
896:
876:
871:
867:
857:
854:
846:
830:
821:
816:
814:
810:
774:
745:lifting body
729:axisymmetric
726:
700:
698:
681:
674:
623:
619:Discoverer-I
613:
590:
559:
546:
539:
487:
470:
443:
394:
389:
385:
383:
356:
333:
314:
303:
294:shadowgraphs
234:gravity well
215:
206:
202:retrorockets
190:
171:
122:
118:
114:
110:
103:space debris
94:
87:dwarf planet
62:
61:
44:
5563:Spaceflight
5239:"CZ-5B R/B"
5083:Space Daily
4948:"aero.org,
4847:www.jaxa.jp
4626:January 10,
4415:February 3,
4352:February 5,
4304:Musk, Elon
4266:Musk, Elon
4031:: 233–246.
3354:(1): 1–32.
2937:October 25,
2592:Aerocapture
2487:heat shield
2483:Closeup of
2369:Ivory Coast
2319:Kosmos 1686
1812:shuttlecock
1583:sub-orbital
1536:Boeing X-37
1373:Crew Dragon
1265:stands for
1212:located at
1011:G77 Fortran
837:dissociated
805:shock layer
536:Sphere-cone
461:heat shield
418:aerodynamic
306:heat shield
252:(e.g., the
242:sub-orbital
218:Kármán line
75:outer space
5573:Categories
5363:August 21,
4038:1902.03943
3976:January 2,
3946:January 2,
3842:2110.04244
3336:, pp. 5–6
2886:"NASA.gov"
2703:January 9,
2672:References
2345:Tiangong-1
2281:Kosmos 954
2263:See also:
2015:worst-case
2000:spallation
1837:Enterprise
1800:Burt Rutan
1751:(SHEFEX).
1684:superalloy
1676:superalloy
1610:emissivity
1502:Astronaut
1311:(PICA), a
1226:hypersonic
1133:spacecraft
1056:trajectory
1013:compiler.
906:isentropic
888:John Young
788:convection
749:X-23 PRIME
733:delta wing
547:half-angle
438:See also:
414:propulsive
409:atmosphere
346:(NACA) at
79:atmosphere
5358:802182873
5275:Space.com
4996:Space.com
4657:March 14,
4647:SpaceNews
4590:March 28,
4553:March 28,
4475:April 22,
4378:April 23,
4126:April 22,
4063:118927116
3869:0008-6223
3835:: 80–91.
3792:2045-2322
3687:msnbc.com
3603:August 9,
3419:122671767
3376:120442951
3248:244179568
3240:1615-147X
3199:0030-4026
3121:, (1993).
2471:in 2007.
2461:hydrazine
2448:Lake Erie
2380:COSPAR ID
2364:COSPAR ID
2353:telemetry
2304:hydrazine
2143:telemetry
2133:Apollo 15
2121:Voskhod 2
1975:Heat load
1940:See also
1929:NASA HIAD
1898:NASA IRVE
1657:aluminium
1653:annealing
1599:beryllium
1360:Dragon C1
1191:Pyrolysis
1187:pyrolysis
1158:Apollo 12
1106:viscosity
801:radiation
792:catalytic
767:trail of
682:Advanced
434:Aeroshell
422:parachute
397:dissipate
258:unbounded
166:Artemis 1
160:Video of
142:meteorite
134:meteoroid
56:aeroshell
5465:(1959).
5448:. NASA.
5406:(1972).
5375:(1966).
5342:. NASA.
5311:Archived
5280:Archived
5247:Archived
5243:N2YO.com
5217:Archived
5153:Archived
5118:Archived
5087:Archived
5062:April 2,
5026:Archived
5000:Archived
4972:Archived
4851:Archived
4827:March 4,
4759:"SpaceX"
4743:July 12,
4737:Archived
4685:Archived
4651:Archived
4617:Archived
4581:Archived
4579:. NASA.
4493:Archived
4466:Archived
4438:Archived
4372:Archived
4316:Archived
4278:Archived
4245:Archived
4226:Archived
4190:April 9,
4149:Archived
4091:July 12,
4085:Archived
4002:Archived
3970:Archived
3940:Archived
3919:Archived
3894:Archived
3810:37573464
3801:10423272
3740:Archived
3710:Archived
3594:Archived
3559:Archived
3502:Archived
3500:. NASA.
3454:Archived
3435:Archived
3318:June 17,
3309:Archived
3269:Archived
3145:Archived
3099:April 5,
3090:Archived
3053:Archived
3030:June 29,
2978:April 3,
2969:Archived
2928:Archived
2902:April 9,
2893:Archived
2837:July 12,
2831:Archived
2785:June 29,
2779:Archived
2726:Archived
2697:Archived
2579:See also
2547:Progress
2485:Gemini 2
2400:Salyut 6
2396:Soyuz 11
2392:Salyut 1
2315:Salyut 7
2245:Columbia
2238:Soyuz 11
2163:Atlantis
2151:Columbia
2072:probes.
2066:impactor
2041:Beagle 2
2019:skip-off
1923:silicone
1788:Falcon 9
1760:Starship
1738:scramjet
1678:(dubbed
1649:Concorde
1641:aircraft
1595:titanium
1553:Typical
1510:Atlantis
1469:system.
1443:impactor
1421:impactor
1328:Stardust
1289:Viking 1
1285:Viking 1
1280:Viking 1
1263:SLA-561V
1183:sublimes
1179:blockage
1166:ablative
1148:Ablative
1077:diatomic
1065:cyanogen
982:enthalpy
877:Columbia
872:Columbia
769:Gemini 2
763:View of
624:Stardust
585:Cold War
497:capsules
376:Typical
276:and the
266:buoyancy
197:Stardust
182:ablation
5450:Bibcode
5307:Reuters
5223:May 13,
5190:May 16,
5159:May 12,
5130:Twitter
5124:May 11,
4694:July 7,
4328:Twitter
4290:Twitter
4158:July 7,
4043:Bibcode
3847:Bibcode
3770:Bibcode
3716:June 3,
3568:July 7,
3399:Bibcode
3356:Bibcode
3278:May 13,
3179:Bibcode
3062:July 7,
2505:Gallery
2465:Belarus
2444:cruiser
2436:USA-193
2300:Outback
2287:in the
2248:STS-107
2224:Soyuz 1
2195:Galileo
2189:Genesis
2127:Soyuz 5
2035:Huygens
1887:Mars 96
1680:René 41
1557:tiles (
1467:novolac
1174:blowing
1160:capsule
986:entropy
932:Galileo
833:ionized
781:heating
771:reentry
677:biconic
655:Biconic
645:Jupiter
542:frustum
530:g-force
526:Mercury
494:Voskhod
390:reentry
342:of the
284:History
262:meteors
260:(e.g.,
250:orbital
244:(e.g.,
230:gravity
115:reentry
107:bolides
5549:Portal
5501:
5481:
5433:
5414:
5392:
5356:
5346:
5286:May 9,
5253:May 9,
5213:Forbes
4930:
4905:
4880:
4322:May 9,
4284:May 9,
4061:
3867:
3829:Carbon
3808:
3798:
3790:
3531:
3417:
3374:
3246:
3238:
3197:
3117:
2823:
2532:plasma
2453:Hawaii
2296:Skylab
2278:Soviet
2167:STS-27
2058:Mars 6
2054:Mars 2
2050:Mars 3
1958:LOFTID
1948:LOFTID
1881:Russia
1756:SpaceX
1727:alloys
1665:temper
1633:Carbon
1603:copper
1559:LI-900
1542:, and
1523:LI-900
1455:AVCOAT
1450:AVCOAT
1383:HARLEM
1367:PICA-3
1353:Dragon
1349:SpaceX
1343:PICA-X
1067:(CN),
765:plasma
743:. The
647:, and
524:, and
522:Gemini
501:Venera
490:Vostok
401:energy
256:), or
138:meteor
109:; and
83:planet
67:impact
54:(MER)
38:, and
5114:Tweet
4714:(PDF)
4688:(PDF)
4681:(PDF)
4620:(PDF)
4613:(PDF)
4584:(PDF)
4573:(PDF)
4547:(PDF)
4536:(PDF)
4469:(PDF)
4462:(PDF)
4409:(PDF)
4398:(PDF)
4312:Tweet
4274:Tweet
4184:(PDF)
4177:(PDF)
4152:(PDF)
4145:(PDF)
4059:S2CID
4033:arXiv
3837:arXiv
3724:Mars.
3597:(PDF)
3590:(PDF)
3562:(PDF)
3555:(PDF)
3415:S2CID
3372:S2CID
3312:(PDF)
3297:(PDF)
3272:(PDF)
3265:(PDF)
3244:S2CID
3171:Optik
3148:(PDF)
3141:(PDF)
3093:(PDF)
3082:(PDF)
3056:(PDF)
3049:(PDF)
3001:(PDF)
2972:(PDF)
2961:(PDF)
2931:(PDF)
2924:(PDF)
2896:(PDF)
2889:(PDF)
2872:(PDF)
2857:(PDF)
2729:(PDF)
2722:(PDF)
2234:died.
2197:Probe
2174:body.
2155:STS-1
1892:Volna
1839:crash
1818:will
1478:Orion
1463:epoxy
1457:is a
1409:SIRCA
1403:cured
1083:into
957:kappa
955:, or
953:gamma
884:STS-1
880:'
777:space
741:Buran
649:Titan
641:Venus
571:radar
514:Soyuz
329:ICBMs
300:tests
274:Titan
270:Venus
254:Soyuz
162:Orion
105:, or
89:, or
81:of a
71:entry
5499:ISBN
5479:ISBN
5431:ISBN
5412:ISBN
5390:ISBN
5365:2014
5354:OCLC
5344:ISBN
5319:2008
5288:2021
5255:2021
5225:2020
5192:2020
5161:2020
5126:2020
5095:2016
5064:2018
5034:2011
5008:2011
4928:ISBN
4903:ISBN
4878:ISBN
4859:2010
4829:2013
4745:2008
4696:2017
4659:2020
4628:2018
4592:2017
4555:2017
4477:2011
4446:NASA
4417:2006
4380:2011
4354:2023
4324:2021
4286:2021
4192:2006
4160:2017
4128:2022
4093:2017
4010:2021
3978:2011
3948:2011
3901:NASA
3865:ISSN
3806:PMID
3788:ISSN
3718:2016
3646:2011
3605:2012
3570:2017
3529:ISBN
3510:2015
3483:1966
3480:NASA
3320:2015
3280:2021
3236:ISSN
3195:ISSN
3156:2018
3115:ISBN
3101:2015
3064:2017
3032:2009
2980:2015
2939:2019
2904:2015
2865:44.2
2839:2017
2821:ISBN
2787:2009
2737:2013
2705:2010
2440:SM-3
2425:Fiji
2421:Nadi
2068:and
2056:and
1850:NACA
1835:VSS
1769:The
1710:Mach
1704:and
1688:X-33
1647:and
1629:X-33
1459:NASA
1433:and
1245:The
1206:NASA
1164:The
890:and
835:and
727:Non-
675:The
665:DC-X
663:The
637:Mars
583:RV,
581:Mk-6
518:Zond
492:and
399:the
338:and
113:(or
69:or V
5116:).
4314:).
4276:).
4051:doi
4029:146
3855:doi
3833:195
3796:PMC
3778:doi
3407:doi
3364:doi
3226:doi
3187:doi
3175:126
3013:doi
2756:doi
2416:Mir
1848:of
1588:),
1397:in
1261:in
1259:SLA
1208:'s
1041:, O
923:not
416:or
325:R-5
321:V-2
296:of
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