309:
energy. The thermodynamic efficiency of the Hadley system, considered as a heat engine, has been relatively constant over the 1979~2010 period, averaging 2.6%. Over the same interval, the power generated by the Hadley regime has risen at an average rate of about 0.54 TW per yr; this reflects an increase in energy input to the system consistent with the observed trend in the tropical
335:, which whip up waves and increase the amount of warm moist air that powers the cyclone. Both a decreasing temperature in the upper troposphere or an increasing temperature of the atmosphere close to the surface will increase the maximum winds observed in hurricanes. When applied to hurricane dynamics it defines a Carnot heat engine cycle and predicts maximum hurricane intensity.
322:
131:
308:
The Hadley
Circulation can be considered as a heat engine. The Hadley circulation is identified with rising of warm and moist air in the equatorial region with the descent of colder air in the subtropics corresponding to a thermally driven direct circulation, with consequent net production of kinetic
171:
1919 publication: "The radiant properties of the earth from the standpoint of atmospheric thermodynamics" (Occasional scientific papers of the
Westwood Astrophysical Observatory). By the late 1970s various textbooks on the subject began to appear. Today, atmospheric thermodynamics is an integral
330:
The thermodynamic behavior of a hurricane can be modelled as a heat engine that operates between the heat reservoir of the sea at a temperature of about 300K (27 °C) and the heat sink of the tropopause at a temperature of about 200K (â72 °C) and in the process converts heat energy into
47:
The atmosphere is an example of a non-equilibrium system. Atmospheric thermodynamics describes the effect of buoyant forces that cause the rise of less dense (warmer) air, the descent of more dense air, and the transformation of water from liquid to vapor (evaporation) and its condensation. Those
83:
of water, homogeneous and in-homogeneous nucleation, effect of dissolved substances on cloud condensation, role of supersaturation on formation of ice crystals and cloud droplets. Considerations of moist air and cloud theories typically involve various temperatures, such as equivalent potential
331:
mechanical energy of winds. Parcels of air traveling close to the sea surface take up heat and water vapor, the warmed air rises and expands and cools as it does so causes condensation and precipitation. The rising air, and condensation, produces circulatory winds that are propelled by the
142:
These sorts of foundations naturally began to be applied towards the development of theoretical models of atmospheric thermodynamics which drew the attention of the best minds. Papers on atmospheric thermodynamics appeared in the 1860s that treated such topics as dry and moist
699:
Zur
Thermodynamik der AtmosphĂ€re. Pts. I, II. Sitz. K. Preuss. Akad. Wissensch. Berlin, pp. 485â522, 1189â1206; Gesammelte Abhandlugen, pp. 91â144. English translation Abbe, C. The mechanics of the earth's atmosphere. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, no 843, 1893,
689:
Hertz, H., 1884, Graphische
Methode zur Bestimmung der adiabatischen Zustandsanderungen feuchter Luft. Meteor Ztschr, vol. 1, pp. 421â431. English translation by Abbe, C. â The mechanics of the earth's atmosphere. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, 843, 1893,
325:
Air is being moistened as it travels toward convective system. Ascending motion in a deep convective core produces air expansion, cooling, and condensation. Upper-level outflow visible as an anvil cloud is eventually descending conserving mass (rysunek â Robert
166:
published a book "Thermodynamik der
AtmosphÀre", Leipzig, J. A. Barth. From here the development of atmospheric thermodynamics as a branch of science began to take root. The term "atmospheric thermodynamics", itself, can be traced to
456:
31:, to describe and explain such phenomena as the properties of moist air, the formation of clouds, atmospheric convection, boundary layer meteorology, and vertical instabilities in the atmosphere. Atmospheric
278:
Tor
Bergeron published paper on "Physics of Clouds and Precipitation" describing precipitation from supercooled (due to condensational growth of ice crystals in presence of water drops)
159:
describing air as it is lifted, expands, cools, and eventually precipitates its water vapor; in 1888 he published voluminous work entitled "On the thermodynamics of the atmosphere".
794:
Dufour, L. et, Van
Mieghem, J. â Thermodynamique de l'AtmosphĂšre, Institut Royal Meteorologique de Belgique, 1975. 278 pp (theoretical approach). First edition of this book â 1947.
119:
developed mathematical models on the dynamics of fluid bodies and vapors related to the combustion and pressure cycles of atmospheric steam engines; one example is the
495:
523:
27:
transformations (and their reverse) that take place in the Earth's atmosphere and manifest as weather or climate. Atmospheric thermodynamics use the laws of
99:
of air motion either as grid resolved or subgrid parameterizations. These equations form a basis for the numerical weather and climate predictions.
382:
88:, turbulence interaction between air particles in clouds, convection, dynamics of tropical cyclones, and large scale dynamics of the atmosphere.
76:, with its ability to change phase from vapor, to liquid, to solid, and back is considered one of the most important trace components of air.
843:
824:
782:
135:
625:
of the mature hurricane has been idealized here as Carnot engine that converts heat energy extracted from the ocean to mechanical energy).
35:
are used as tools in the forecasting of storm development. Atmospheric thermodynamics forms a basis for cloud microphysics and convection
869:
855:
Wilford
Zdunkowski, Thermodynamics of the atmosphere: a course in theoretical meteorology, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2004.
816:
791:
Curry, J.A. and P.J. Webster, 1999, Thermodynamics of
Atmospheres and Oceans. Academic Press, London, 467 pp (textbook for graduates)
806:
348:
354:
344:
120:
39:
used in numerical weather models and is used in many climate considerations, including convective-equilibrium climate models.
601:
108:
250:
Hermann von
Helmholtz and John William von Bezold used the concept of potential temperature, von Bezold used adiabatic
874:
374:
618:
Lorenz, E. N., 1955, Available potential energy and the maintenance of the general circulation, Tellus, 7, 157â167.
591:
370:
550:
498:
36:
712:"Contributions of the Hadley and Ferrel Circulations to the Energetics of the Atmosphere over the Past 32 Years"
28:
91:
The major role of atmospheric thermodynamics is expressed in terms of adiabatic and diabatic forces acting on
581:
571:
546:
310:
214:
72:(during which no energy is transferred as heat). Most of tropospheric gases are treated as ideal gases and
622:
566:
525:
is temperature in degrees Celsius). This shows that when atmospheric temperature increases (e.g., due to
32:
621:
Emanuel, K, 1986, Part I. An air-sea interaction theory for tropical cyclones, J. Atmos. Sci. 43, 585, (
812:
Iribarne, J.V. and Godson, W.L., Atmospheric thermodynamics, Dordrecht, Boston, Reidel (basic textbook).
148:
723:
656:
534:
357:
shows how the water-holding capacity of the atmosphere increases by about 8% per Celsius increase in
96:
134:
Thermodynamic diagram developed in the 19th century is still used to calculate quantities such as
741:
672:
229:
156:
61:
116:
839:
831:
820:
802:
778:
538:
530:
464:
144:
80:
69:
49:
731:
664:
576:
526:
554:
190:
112:
84:
temperature, wet-bulb and virtual temperatures. Connected areas are energy, momentum, and
541:). However, this purely thermodynamic argument is subject of considerable debate because
727:
660:
606:
596:
508:
332:
238:
163:
53:
24:
711:
644:
863:
745:
676:
586:
285:
168:
124:
85:
57:
852:
von Alfred Wegener, Thermodynamik der Atmosphare, Leipzig, J. A. Barth, 1911, 331pp.
645:"Thermodynamic disequilibrium of the atmosphere in the context of global warming"
358:
260:
Richard Asman constructs first aerological sonde (pressure-temperature-humidity)
205:
73:
321:
736:
668:
542:
251:
242:
92:
184:
Charles Le Roy recognized dew point temperature as point of saturation of air
451:{\displaystyle e_{s}(T)=6.1094\exp \left({\frac {17.625T}{T+243.04}}\right)}
362:
223:
Pierre Simon Laplace developed his law of pressure variation with height
193:
made hydrogen balloon flight measuring temperature and pressure in Paris
366:
152:
65:
758:
Emanuel, K. A. Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics, 23, 179â196 (1991)
320:
130:
129:
553:
could be influenced by the intensity of convection, and because
294:
K. Emanuel conceptualizes tropical cyclone as Carnot heat engine
20:
127:
published "Graphical Methods in the Thermodynamics of Fluids."
502:
266:
John Wilhelm von Bezold used concept of equivalent temperature
56:. The tools used include the law of energy conservation, the
284:
Vincent J. Schaeffer and Irving Langmuir performed the first
199:
Concept of variation of temperature with height was suggested
361:. (It does not directly depend on other parameters like the
545:
might cause extensive drying due to increased areas of
232:
publishes paper on convection theory of cyclone energy
511:
467:
385:
107:
In the early 19th century thermodynamicists such as
517:
489:
450:
151:devised first atmospheric thermodynamic diagram (
710:Junling Huang & Michael B. McElroy (2014).
643:Junling Huang & Michael B. McElroy (2015).
60:, specific heat capacities, the assumption of
836:An Introduction to Atmospheric Thermodynamics
797:Emanuel, K.A.(1994): Atmospheric Convection,
8:
817:A First Course in Atmospheric Thermodynamics
155:). Pseudo-adiabatic process was coined by
819:, Sundog Publishing, Madison, Wisconsin,
208:developed his laws of pressures of vapours
735:
510:
472:
466:
421:
390:
384:
773:Bohren, C.F. & B. Albrecht (1998).
635:
809:(thermodynamics of tropical cyclones).
339:Water vapor and global climate change
136:convective available potential energy
7:
369:.) This water-holding capacity, or "
272:Sir Napier Shaw introduced tephigram
217:made balloon ascent to study weather
52:and that motion is modified by the
14:
557:is related to relative humidity.
373:", can be approximated using the
349:August-Roche-Magnus approximation
838:. Cambridge University Press.
602:Non-equilibrium thermodynamics
484:
478:
402:
396:
50:force of the pressure gradient
1:
317:Tropical cyclone Carnot cycle
172:part of weather forecasting.
123:. In 1873, thermodynamicist
48:dynamics are modified by the
777:. Oxford University Press.
551:efficiency of precipitation
375:August-Roche-Magnus formula
355:ClausiusâClapeyron relation
345:ClausiusâClapeyron relation
121:ClausiusâClapeyron equation
891:
870:Atmospheric thermodynamics
775:Atmospheric Thermodynamics
592:Equilibrium thermodynamics
371:equilibrium vapor pressure
342:
241:presents dynamics causing
68:is a constant), and moist
17:Atmospheric thermodynamics
827:(undergraduate textbook).
737:10.1175/jcli-d-13-00538.1
669:10.1007/s00382-015-2553-x
499:saturation vapor pressure
490:{\displaystyle e_{s}(T)}
311:sea surface temperatures
29:classical thermodynamics
799:Oxford University Press
582:Chemical thermodynamics
572:Atmospheric temperature
215:Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac
567:Atmospheric convection
519:
497:is the equilibrium or
491:
452:
327:
139:
33:thermodynamic diagrams
832:Tsonis Anastasios, A.
537:(assuming a constant
533:should also increase
520:
492:
453:
324:
133:
655:(11â12): 3513â3525.
543:convective processes
509:
465:
383:
79:Advanced topics are
62:isentropic processes
728:2014JCli...27.2656H
661:2015ClDy...45.3513H
145:adiabatic processes
97:primitive equations
70:adiabatic processes
875:Gliding technology
716:Journal of Climate
515:
487:
448:
328:
304:Hadley Circulation
230:James Pollard Espy
140:
845:978-0-521-79676-7
825:978-0-9729033-2-5
784:978-0-19-509904-1
539:relative humidity
531:absolute humidity
518:{\displaystyle T}
442:
254:and pseudoadiabat
138:or air stability.
81:phase transitions
37:parameterizations
882:
849:
788:
759:
756:
750:
749:
739:
722:(7): 2656â2666.
707:
701:
697:
691:
687:
681:
680:
649:Climate Dynamics
640:
577:Atmospheric wave
527:greenhouse gases
524:
522:
521:
516:
496:
494:
493:
488:
477:
476:
457:
455:
454:
449:
447:
443:
441:
430:
422:
395:
394:
19:is the study of
890:
889:
885:
884:
883:
881:
880:
879:
860:
859:
858:
846:
830:
785:
772:
768:
766:Further reading
763:
762:
757:
753:
709:
708:
704:
698:
694:
688:
684:
642:
641:
637:
632:
615:
563:
555:cloud formation
507:
506:
468:
463:
462:
431:
423:
417:
386:
381:
380:
351:
343:Main articles:
341:
319:
306:
301:
191:Jacques Charles
178:
117:Ămile Clapeyron
113:Rudolf Clausius
105:
45:
12:
11:
5:
888:
886:
878:
877:
872:
862:
861:
857:
856:
853:
850:
844:
828:
813:
810:
795:
792:
789:
783:
769:
767:
764:
761:
760:
751:
702:
692:
682:
634:
633:
631:
628:
627:
626:
619:
614:
613:Special topics
611:
610:
609:
607:Thermodynamics
604:
599:
597:Fluid dynamics
594:
589:
584:
579:
574:
569:
562:
559:
514:
486:
483:
480:
475:
471:
459:
458:
446:
440:
437:
434:
429:
426:
420:
416:
413:
410:
407:
404:
401:
398:
393:
389:
340:
337:
333:Coriolis force
318:
315:
305:
302:
300:
297:
296:
295:
289:
279:
273:
267:
261:
255:
245:
239:William Ferrel
233:
224:
218:
209:
200:
194:
185:
177:
174:
169:Frank W. Verys
164:Alfred Wegener
149:Heinrich Hertz
104:
101:
54:Coriolis force
44:
41:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
887:
876:
873:
871:
868:
867:
865:
854:
851:
847:
841:
837:
833:
829:
826:
822:
818:
815:Petty, G.W.,
814:
811:
808:
807:0-19-506630-8
804:
800:
796:
793:
790:
786:
780:
776:
771:
770:
765:
755:
752:
747:
743:
738:
733:
729:
725:
721:
717:
713:
706:
703:
696:
693:
686:
683:
678:
674:
670:
666:
662:
658:
654:
650:
646:
639:
636:
629:
624:
620:
617:
616:
612:
608:
605:
603:
600:
598:
595:
593:
590:
588:
587:Cloud physics
585:
583:
580:
578:
575:
573:
570:
568:
565:
564:
560:
558:
556:
552:
548:
544:
540:
536:
535:exponentially
532:
528:
512:
504:
500:
481:
473:
469:
444:
438:
435:
432:
427:
424:
418:
414:
411:
408:
405:
399:
391:
387:
379:
378:
377:
376:
372:
368:
364:
360:
356:
350:
346:
338:
336:
334:
323:
316:
314:
312:
303:
298:
293:
290:
287:
286:cloud seeding
283:
280:
277:
274:
271:
268:
265:
262:
259:
256:
253:
249:
246:
244:
240:
237:
234:
231:
228:
225:
222:
219:
216:
213:
210:
207:
204:
201:
198:
195:
192:
189:
186:
183:
180:
179:
175:
173:
170:
165:
160:
158:
154:
150:
146:
137:
132:
128:
126:
125:Willard Gibbs
122:
118:
114:
110:
102:
100:
98:
94:
89:
87:
86:mass transfer
82:
77:
75:
71:
67:
63:
59:
58:ideal gas law
55:
51:
42:
40:
38:
34:
30:
26:
22:
18:
835:
798:
774:
754:
719:
715:
705:
695:
685:
652:
648:
638:
623:energy cycle
460:
352:
329:
307:
299:Applications
291:
281:
275:
269:
263:
257:
247:
235:
226:
220:
211:
202:
196:
187:
181:
162:In 1911 von
161:
141:
106:
95:included in
90:
78:
46:
16:
15:
359:temperature
206:John Dalton
109:Sadi Carnot
93:air parcels
74:water vapor
864:Categories
630:References
547:subsidence
288:experiment
252:lapse rate
243:westerlies
176:Chronology
157:von Bezold
147:. In 1884
64:(in which
746:131132431
677:131679473
415:
203:1801â1803
834:(2002).
700:212â242.
561:See also
363:pressure
326:Simmon).
43:Overview
724:Bibcode
690:198â211
657:Bibcode
461:(where
367:density
153:emagram
103:History
66:entropy
842:
823:
805:
781:
744:
675:
529:) the
505:, and
439:243.04
425:17.625
409:6.1094
115:, and
742:S2CID
673:S2CID
840:ISBN
821:ISBN
803:ISBN
779:ISBN
353:The
347:and
292:1986
282:1946
276:1933
270:1926
264:1894
258:1893
248:1889
236:1856
227:1841
221:1805
212:1804
197:1784
188:1782
182:1751
25:work
23:-to-
21:heat
732:doi
665:doi
503:hPa
501:in
412:exp
365:or
866::
801:.
740:.
730:.
720:27
718:.
714:.
671:.
663:.
653:45
651:.
647:.
549:,
313:.
111:,
848:.
787:.
748:.
734::
726::
679:.
667::
659::
513:T
485:)
482:T
479:(
474:s
470:e
445:)
436:+
433:T
428:T
419:(
406:=
403:)
400:T
397:(
392:s
388:e
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
