1758:
1347:
1984:, or "dB", where 10 dB represents attenuation by a factor of 10. The units for attenuation coefficient are thus dB/m (or, in general, dB per unit distance). Note that in logarithmic units such as dB, the attenuation is a linear function of distance, rather than exponential. This has the advantage that the result of multiple attenuation layers can be found by simply adding up the dB loss for each individual passage. However, if intensity is desired, the logarithms must be converted back into linear units by using an exponential:
1753:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\mu &=\mu _{\mathrm {a} }+\mu _{\mathrm {s} },\\\mu _{\nu }&=\mu _{\mathrm {a} ,\nu }+\mu _{\mathrm {s} ,\nu },\\\mu _{\lambda }&=\mu _{\mathrm {a} ,\lambda }+\mu _{\mathrm {s} ,\lambda },\\\mu _{\Omega }&=\mu _{\mathrm {a} ,\Omega }+\mu _{\mathrm {s} ,\Omega },\\\mu _{\Omega ,\nu }&=\mu _{\mathrm {a} ,\Omega ,\nu }+\mu _{\mathrm {s} ,\Omega ,\nu },\\\mu _{\Omega ,\lambda }&=\mu _{\mathrm {a} ,\Omega ,\lambda }+\mu _{\mathrm {s} ,\Omega ,\lambda }.\end{aligned}}}
1254:
1020:
2686:
1249:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\mu _{\Omega ,\nu }&=-{\frac {1}{L_{\mathrm {e} ,\Omega ,\nu }}}{\frac {\mathrm {d} L_{\mathrm {e} ,\Omega ,\nu }}{\mathrm {d} z}},\\\mu _{\Omega ,\lambda }&=-{\frac {1}{L_{\mathrm {e} ,\Omega ,\lambda }}}{\frac {\mathrm {d} L_{\mathrm {e} ,\Omega ,\lambda }}{\mathrm {d} z}},\end{aligned}}}
1763:
Just looking at the narrow beam itself, the two processes cannot be distinguished. However, if a detector is set up to measure beam leaving in different directions, or conversely using a non-narrow beam, one can measure how much of the lost radiant flux was scattered, and how much was absorbed.
243:. The attenuation coefficient is dependent upon the type of material and the energy of the radiation. Generally, for electromagnetic radiation, the higher the energy of the incident photons and the less dense the material in question, the lower the corresponding attenuation coefficient will be.
819:
2419:
1939:
1775:
loss of narrow-beam intensity, including scattering as well. "Narrow-beam attenuation coefficient" always unambiguously refers to the latter. The attenuation coefficient is at least as large as the absorption coefficient; they are equal in the idealized case of no scattering.
968:
718:
346:
2282:
2847:
2133:-fold reductions that occur over a unit length of material, this coefficient measures how many 10-fold reductions occur: a decadic coefficient of 1 m means 1 m of material reduces the radiation once by a factor of 10.
1313:. Absorption indicates energy that is lost from the beam, while scattering indicates light that is redirected in a (random) direction, and hence is no longer in the beam, but still present, resulting in diffuse light.
724:
2681:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\mu (z)&=\sum _{i=1}^{N}\mu _{i}(z)=\sum _{i=1}^{N}\sigma _{i}n_{i}(z),\\\mu _{10}(z)&=\sum _{i=1}^{N}\mu _{10,i}(z)=\sum _{i=1}^{N}\varepsilon _{i}c_{i}(z),\end{aligned}}}
481:
1847:
873:
58:. A coefficient value that is large represents a beam becoming 'attenuated' as it passes through a given medium, while a small value represents that the medium had little effect on loss. The (derived)
623:
2381:
2933:(HVL) is the thickness of a layer of material required to reduce the radiant flux of the transmitted radiation to half its incident magnitude. The half-value layer is about 69% (ln 2) of the
2910:
2424:
1352:
1025:
2124:
4058:
Tables of X-Ray Mass
Attenuation Coefficients and Mass Energy-Absorption Coefficients from 1 keV to 20 MeV for Elements Z = 1 to 92 and 48 Additional Substances of Dosimetric Interest
270:
3799:
2161:
2048:
516:
565:
4062:
3866:
2976:
93:
one meter) thickness of material, so that an attenuation coefficient of 1 m means that after passing through 1 metre, the radiation will be reduced by a factor of
3987:
585:
536:
415:
395:
2781:
3749:
1306:
814:{\displaystyle \mu _{\lambda }=-{\frac {1}{\Phi _{\mathrm {e} ,\lambda }}}{\frac {\mathrm {d} \Phi _{\mathrm {e} ,\lambda }}{\mathrm {d} z}},}
4028:
3908:
2937:. Engineers use these equations predict how much shielding thickness is required to attenuate radiation to acceptable or regulatory limits.
423:
1804:. Assuming that dz is so small that there will be no overlap of the cross section areas, the total area available for absorption will be
1934:{\displaystyle {\frac {\mu }{\rho _{m}}},\quad {\frac {\mu _{\mathrm {a} }}{\rho _{m}}},\quad {\frac {\mu _{\mathrm {s} }}{\rho _{m}}},}
963:{\displaystyle \mu _{\Omega }=-{\frac {1}{L_{\mathrm {e} ,\Omega }}}{\frac {\mathrm {d} L_{\mathrm {e} ,\Omega }}{\mathrm {d} z}},}
713:{\displaystyle \mu _{\nu }=-{\frac {1}{\Phi _{\mathrm {e} ,\nu }}}{\frac {\mathrm {d} \Phi _{\mathrm {e} ,\nu }}{\mathrm {d} z}},}
2962:
3928:
1296:
2318:
2969:
2858:
2742:
1767:
In this context, the "absorption coefficient" measures how quickly the beam would lose radiant flux due to the absorption
236:
59:
4098:
3819:
2401:
The (Napierian) attenuation coefficient and the decadic attenuation coefficient of a material sample are related to the
1824:
125:
2147:
rather than just simply "attenuation coefficient". The terms "decadic" and "Napierian" come from the base used for the
2078:
195:
341:{\displaystyle \mu =-{\frac {1}{\Phi _{\mathrm {e} }}}{\frac {\mathrm {d} \Phi _{\mathrm {e} }}{\mathrm {d} z}},}
95:
3754:
2277:{\displaystyle T=e^{-\int _{0}^{\ell }\mu (z)\mathrm {d} z}=10^{-\int _{0}^{\ell }\mu _{10}(z)\mathrm {d} z},}
3804:
2945:
2704:
1987:
489:
4052:
1341:
The attenuation coefficient of a volume is the sum of absorption coefficient and scattering coefficients:
541:
177:
3779:
2152:
3829:
3764:
2761:
2406:
2148:
20:
119:
counts forward-scattered radiation as transmitted rather than attenuated, and is more applicable to
4103:
3759:
2395:
2391:
120:
19:
For "attenuation coefficient" as it applies to electromagnetic theory and telecommunications, see
4108:
3814:
3794:
3774:
3303:, divided by the spectral radiance incident onto that surface. This should not be confused with "
4020:
4057:
4024:
3904:
3839:
2934:
2923:
1977:
1784:
The absorption coefficient may be expressed in terms of a number density of absorbing centers
79:
141:
of a beam is reduced as it passes through a specific material. It is used in the context of:
4076:
4008:
3880:
3834:
2930:
1302:
240:
210:
63:
3809:
163:
89:
distance of the original intensity as the energy of the intensity passes through a unit (
4047:
3253:, divided by the radiance incident onto that surface. This should not be confused with "
4013:
3980:"Thermal insulation — Heat transfer by radiation — Physical quantities and definitions"
3824:
3784:
2941:
2723:
2402:
570:
521:
400:
380:
3924:
235:
A small attenuation coefficient indicates that the material in question is relatively
4092:
3956:
Dukhin, A.S. and Goetz, P.J. "Ultrasound for characterizing colloids", Elsevier, 2002
3844:
3544:
3513:
3477:
3451:
2295:
206:
The attenuation coefficient is called the "extinction coefficient" in the context of
4072:
3947:
ISO 20998-1:2006 "Measurement and characterization of particles by acoustic methods"
3876:
3789:
1954:
1305:) beam passes through a volume, the beam will lose intensity due to two processes:
844:
833:
360:
138:
4084:
Error in template * unknown parameter name (GoldBookRef): "access-date"
3888:
Error in template * unknown parameter name (GoldBookRef): "access-date"
4067:
3871:
3769:
3405:
3374:
3338:
3312:
3262:
3227:
3187:
3157:
75:
71:
2842:{\displaystyle \varepsilon _{i}={\frac {N_{\text{A}}}{\ln {10}}}\,\sigma _{i},}
3304:
3254:
3219:
3218:, divided by that received by that surface. This should not be confused with "
3179:
3178:, divided by that received by that surface. This should not be confused with "
3107:
3072:
3036:
3010:
2772:
by definition of attenuation cross section and molar attenuation coefficient.
1310:
218:
4071:, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006–) "
3875:, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006–) "
38:
characterizes how easily a volume of material can be penetrated by a beam of
4080:
3884:
2155:
for a material sample, in which the two attenuation coefficients take part:
191:
149:
83:
2775:
Attenuation cross section and molar attenuation coefficient are related by
3979:
129:
is the attenuation coefficient normalized by the density of the material.
99:, and for material with a coefficient of 2 m, it will be reduced twice by
1283:
1270:
981:
214:
47:
221:, albeit usually denoted with another symbol (given the standard use of
170:(although actually it is not a section dimensionally speaking), denoted
1981:
1971:
185:
159:
55:
51:
2304:
is the path length of the beam of light through the material sample.
476:{\displaystyle \Phi _{\mathrm {e} }=\Phi _{\mathrm {e0} }e^{-\mu z}}
373:
Note that for an attenuation coefficient which does not vary with
145:
43:
39:
2129:
Just as the usual attenuation coefficient measures the number of
137:
The attenuation coefficient describes the extent to which the
4048:
Absorption
Coefficients α of Building Materials and Finishes
601:
spectral hemispherical attenuation coefficient in wavelength
1338:, are defined the same way as the attenuation coefficient.
597:
spectral hemispherical attenuation coefficient in frequency
3737:
per unit length, divided by that received by that volume.
3687:
per unit length, divided by that received by that volume.
3652:
per unit length, divided by that received by that volume.
3612:
per unit length, divided by that received by that volume.
2944:. Moreover, it is very closely related to the attenuation
1976:
Engineering applications often express attenuation in the
998:
spectral directional attenuation coefficient in wavelength
1819:
Mass attenuation, absorption, and scattering coefficients
994:
spectral directional attenuation coefficient in frequency
4053:
Sound
Absorption Coefficients for Some Common Materials
3800:
Computation of radiowave attenuation in the atmosphere
2376:{\displaystyle T=e^{-\mu \ell }=10^{-\mu _{10}\ell }.}
3899:
Serway, Raymond; Moses, Clement; Moyer, Curt (2005).
2940:
Attenuation coefficient is also inversely related to
2861:
2784:
2422:
2321:
2164:
2081:
1990:
1850:
1800:, the total number of absorbing centers contained is
1350:
1023:
876:
727:
626:
573:
544:
524:
492:
426:
403:
383:
273:
2905:{\displaystyle c_{i}={\frac {n_{i}}{N_{\text{A}}}},}
239:, while a larger value indicates greater degrees of
4012:
2904:
2841:
2680:
2375:
2276:
2118:
2042:
1933:
1752:
1248:
962:
813:
712:
579:
559:
530:
510:
475:
409:
389:
340:
2119:{\displaystyle \mu _{10}={\frac {\mu }{\ln 10}}.}
107:. Other measures may use a different factor than
70:is another term for this quantity, often used in
1780:Expression in terms of density and cross section
3974:
3972:
3970:
3968:
3966:
3964:
3962:
2852:and number density and amount concentration by
1808:and the fraction of radiation absorbed is then
1771:, while "attenuation coefficient" measures the
3618:Spectral hemispherical attenuation coefficient
1961:Napierian and decadic attenuation coefficients
591:Spectral hemispherical attenuation coefficient
3903:. California, USA: Brooks/Cole. p. 529.
2970:
2145:Napierian narrow beam attenuation coefficient
82:of intensity, that is, the value of downward
8:
3925:"2nd Edition of the Glossary of Meteorology"
3693:Spectral directional attenuation coefficient
3582:, divided by that received by that surface.
3539:, divided by that received by that surface.
3508:, divided by that received by that surface.
3472:, divided by that received by that surface.
3446:, divided by that received by that surface.
3400:, divided by that received by that surface.
3369:, divided by that received by that surface.
3333:, divided by that received by that surface.
988:Spectral directional attenuation coefficient
377:, this equation is solved along a line from
2063:decadic narrow beam attenuation coefficient
78:. Most commonly, the quantity measures the
3862:
3860:
2977:
2963:
3152:at the same temperature as that surface.
3102:at the same temperature as that surface.
3067:at the same temperature as that surface.
3031:at the same temperature as that surface.
2891:
2881:
2875:
2866:
2860:
2830:
2825:
2817:
2804:
2798:
2789:
2783:
2656:
2646:
2636:
2625:
2597:
2587:
2576:
2550:
2524:
2514:
2504:
2493:
2471:
2461:
2450:
2423:
2421:
2359:
2351:
2332:
2320:
2261:
2246:
2236:
2231:
2223:
2206:
2188:
2183:
2175:
2163:
2095:
2086:
2080:
2024:
2011:
2001:
1989:
1920:
1909:
1908:
1902:
1890:
1879:
1878:
1872:
1860:
1851:
1849:
1724:
1723:
1697:
1696:
1673:
1643:
1642:
1616:
1615:
1592:
1568:
1567:
1547:
1546:
1529:
1505:
1504:
1484:
1483:
1466:
1442:
1441:
1421:
1420:
1403:
1385:
1384:
1370:
1369:
1351:
1349:
1228:
1207:
1206:
1197:
1194:
1173:
1172:
1163:
1141:
1119:
1098:
1097:
1088:
1085:
1064:
1063:
1054:
1032:
1024:
1022:
946:
931:
930:
921:
918:
903:
902:
893:
881:
875:
797:
782:
781:
772:
769:
754:
753:
744:
732:
726:
696:
681:
680:
671:
668:
653:
652:
643:
631:
625:
572:
550:
549:
543:
523:
498:
497:
491:
461:
447:
446:
432:
431:
425:
402:
382:
324:
315:
314:
305:
302:
293:
292:
283:
272:
2955:
16:Light or sound absorption in a substance
3856:
3750:Absorption (electromagnetic radiation)
1291:Absorption and scattering coefficients
3588:Hemispherical attenuation coefficient
2043:{\displaystyle I=I_{o}10^{-(dB/10)}.}
1812:. The absorption coefficient is thus
511:{\displaystyle \Phi _{\mathrm {e0} }}
7:
3478:Spectral hemispherical transmittance
2312:attenuation, these relations become
1788:and an absorbing cross section area
560:{\displaystyle \Phi _{\mathrm {e} }}
3658:Directional attenuation coefficient
858:directional attenuation coefficient
852:Directional attenuation coefficient
845:spectral radiant flux in wavelength
36:narrow-beam attenuation coefficient
4068:Compendium of Chemical Terminology
4019:. Dover Publications Inc. p.
3872:Compendium of Chemical Terminology
3545:Spectral directional transmittance
3339:Spectral hemispherical reflectance
3188:Spectral hemispherical absorptance
2262:
2207:
1910:
1880:
1732:
1725:
1705:
1698:
1674:
1651:
1644:
1624:
1617:
1593:
1576:
1569:
1555:
1548:
1530:
1506:
1485:
1443:
1422:
1386:
1371:
1229:
1215:
1208:
1198:
1181:
1174:
1142:
1120:
1106:
1099:
1089:
1072:
1065:
1033:
947:
939:
932:
922:
911:
904:
882:
834:spectral radiant flux in frequency
798:
783:
778:
773:
755:
750:
697:
682:
677:
672:
654:
649:
551:
546:
518:is the incoming radiation flux at
499:
494:
448:
443:
433:
428:
325:
316:
311:
306:
294:
289:
117:broad-beam attenuation coefficient
62:of attenuation coefficient is the
14:
3037:Spectral hemispherical emissivity
2141:Napierian attenuation coefficient
3406:Spectral directional reflectance
3263:Spectral directional absorptance
3929:American Meteorological Society
3108:Spectral directional emissivity
3098:, divided by that emitted by a
2059:decadic attenuation coefficient
1901:
1871:
1284:spectral radiance in wavelength
369:is the path length of the beam.
113:decadic attenuation coefficient
3003:
2952:Other radiometric coefficients
2668:
2662:
2615:
2609:
2562:
2556:
2536:
2530:
2483:
2477:
2436:
2430:
2258:
2252:
2203:
2197:
2032:
2015:
1297:Optical extinction coefficient
1271:spectral radiance in frequency
617:respectively, are defined as:
28:linear attenuation coefficient
1:
2743:molar attenuation coefficient
1014:respectively, are defined as
3820:Mass attenuation coefficient
1831:mass attenuation coefficient
1825:Mass attenuation coefficient
126:mass attenuation coefficient
3452:Hemispherical transmittance
2764:of the attenuating species
2745:of the attenuating species
2726:of the attenuating species
2707:of the attenuating species
1839:mass scattering coefficient
1835:mass absorption coefficient
4125:
4009:Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar
1969:
1822:
1294:
217:radiative transfer in the
196:particle size distribution
18:
3514:Directional transmittance
3313:Hemispherical reflectance
3158:Hemispherical absorptance
2994:
2991:
2988:
567:is the radiation flux at
168:macroscopic cross section
3755:Absorption cross section
3011:Hemispherical emissivity
247:Mathematical definitions
4081:10.1351/goldbook.A00037
3885:10.1351/goldbook.A00516
3877:Attenuation coefficient
3805:Cross section (physics)
3375:Directional reflectance
3228:Directional absorptance
3148:, divided by that of a
3063:, divided by that of a
3059:Spectral exitance of a
3027:, divided by that of a
2958:Radiometry coefficients
2768:in the material sample,
2749:in the material sample;
2730:in the material sample;
2711:in the material sample;
2413:attenuating species as
2298:of the material sample;
258:attenuation coefficient
252:Attenuation coefficient
32:attenuation coefficient
4073:Absorption coefficient
3640:Spectral radiant flux
3073:Directional emissivity
3023:Radiant exitance of a
2906:
2843:
2682:
2641:
2592:
2509:
2466:
2377:
2278:
2120:
2044:
1935:
1754:
1329:scattering coefficient
1318:absorption coefficient
1250:
964:
815:
714:
581:
561:
532:
512:
477:
411:
391:
342:
198:, where it is denoted
180:, where it is denoted
178:ultrasound attenuation
152:, where it is denoted
68:Extinction coefficient
2907:
2844:
2683:
2621:
2572:
2489:
2446:
2407:amount concentrations
2398:theory for instance.
2390:attenuation occur in
2378:
2279:
2121:
2045:
1936:
1792:. For a slab of area
1755:
1331:of a volume, denoted
1320:of a volume, denoted
1295:Further information:
1251:
1000:of a volume, denoted
965:
860:of a volume, denoted
816:
715:
603:of a volume, denoted
582:
562:
533:
513:
478:
412:
392:
343:
260:of a volume, denoted
166:, where it is called
3830:Propagation constant
3765:Acoustic attenuation
2859:
2782:
2762:amount concentration
2420:
2319:
2162:
2139:is sometimes called
2079:
2053:Naperian attenuation
1988:
1848:
1348:
1021:
874:
725:
624:
571:
542:
522:
490:
424:
401:
381:
271:
21:Attenuation constant
4099:Physical quantities
3760:Absorption spectrum
3305:spectral absorbance
3220:spectral absorbance
2985:
2703:is the attenuation
2396:radiation shielding
2392:atmospheric science
2241:
2193:
194:for characterizing
156:and measured in cm;
121:radiation shielding
4015:Radiative Transfer
3815:High-energy X-rays
3795:Compton scattering
3775:Attenuation length
3725:Spectral radiance
3574:Spectral radiance
3438:Spectral radiance
3295:Spectral radiance
3140:Spectral radiance
2956:
2902:
2839:
2678:
2676:
2373:
2274:
2227:
2179:
2116:
2040:
1931:
1750:
1748:
1246:
1244:
960:
811:
710:
577:
557:
528:
508:
473:
407:
387:
338:
202:and measured in m.
174:and measured in m;
4030:978-0-486-60590-6
3910:978-0-534-49339-4
3840:Scattering theory
3741:
3740:
2935:penetration depth
2924:Avogadro constant
2897:
2894:
2823:
2807:
2394:applications and
2111:
1978:logarithmic units
1926:
1896:
1866:
1814:μ = n σ
1237:
1192:
1128:
1083:
955:
916:
806:
767:
705:
666:
580:{\displaystyle z}
531:{\displaystyle z}
410:{\displaystyle z}
390:{\displaystyle z}
333:
300:
231:for slant paths);
80:exponential decay
4116:
4085:
4035:
4034:
4018:
4005:
3999:
3998:
3996:
3995:
3976:
3957:
3954:
3948:
3945:
3939:
3938:
3936:
3935:
3921:
3915:
3914:
3896:
3890:
3889:
3864:
3835:Radiation length
3780:Beer–Lambert law
3719:
3707:
3669:
3634:
3627:
3594:
3568:
3556:
3525:
3494:
3487:
3458:
3432:
3420:
3386:
3355:
3348:
3319:
3289:
3277:
3239:
3204:
3197:
3164:
3134:
3122:
3084:
3053:
3046:
3017:
3005:
2986:
2979:
2972:
2965:
2931:half-value layer
2911:
2909:
2908:
2903:
2898:
2896:
2895:
2892:
2886:
2885:
2876:
2871:
2870:
2848:
2846:
2845:
2840:
2835:
2834:
2824:
2822:
2821:
2809:
2808:
2805:
2799:
2794:
2793:
2687:
2685:
2684:
2679:
2677:
2661:
2660:
2651:
2650:
2640:
2635:
2608:
2607:
2591:
2586:
2555:
2554:
2529:
2528:
2519:
2518:
2508:
2503:
2476:
2475:
2465:
2460:
2403:number densities
2382:
2380:
2379:
2374:
2369:
2368:
2364:
2363:
2343:
2342:
2283:
2281:
2280:
2275:
2270:
2269:
2265:
2251:
2250:
2240:
2235:
2215:
2214:
2210:
2192:
2187:
2153:Beer–Lambert law
2125:
2123:
2122:
2117:
2112:
2110:
2096:
2091:
2090:
2072:, is defined as
2049:
2047:
2046:
2041:
2036:
2035:
2028:
2006:
2005:
1940:
1938:
1937:
1932:
1927:
1925:
1924:
1915:
1914:
1913:
1903:
1897:
1895:
1894:
1885:
1884:
1883:
1873:
1867:
1865:
1864:
1852:
1759:
1757:
1756:
1751:
1749:
1742:
1741:
1728:
1715:
1714:
1701:
1684:
1683:
1661:
1660:
1647:
1634:
1633:
1620:
1603:
1602:
1580:
1579:
1572:
1559:
1558:
1551:
1534:
1533:
1517:
1516:
1509:
1496:
1495:
1488:
1471:
1470:
1454:
1453:
1446:
1433:
1432:
1425:
1408:
1407:
1391:
1390:
1389:
1376:
1375:
1374:
1255:
1253:
1252:
1247:
1245:
1238:
1236:
1232:
1226:
1225:
1224:
1211:
1201:
1195:
1193:
1191:
1190:
1177:
1164:
1152:
1151:
1129:
1127:
1123:
1117:
1116:
1115:
1102:
1092:
1086:
1084:
1082:
1081:
1068:
1055:
1043:
1042:
969:
967:
966:
961:
956:
954:
950:
944:
943:
942:
935:
925:
919:
917:
915:
914:
907:
894:
886:
885:
867:, is defined as
820:
818:
817:
812:
807:
805:
801:
795:
794:
793:
786:
776:
770:
768:
766:
765:
758:
745:
737:
736:
719:
717:
716:
711:
706:
704:
700:
694:
693:
692:
685:
675:
669:
667:
665:
664:
657:
644:
636:
635:
586:
584:
583:
578:
566:
564:
563:
558:
556:
555:
554:
537:
535:
534:
529:
517:
515:
514:
509:
507:
506:
505:
482:
480:
479:
474:
472:
471:
456:
455:
454:
438:
437:
436:
416:
414:
413:
408:
396:
394:
393:
388:
347:
345:
344:
339:
334:
332:
328:
322:
321:
320:
319:
309:
303:
301:
299:
298:
297:
284:
264:, is defined as
230:
184:and measured in
164:nuclear reactors
64:reciprocal metre
4124:
4123:
4119:
4118:
4117:
4115:
4114:
4113:
4089:
4088:
4083:
4044:
4039:
4038:
4031:
4007:
4006:
4002:
3993:
3991:
3990:catalogue. 1989
3978:
3977:
3960:
3955:
3951:
3946:
3942:
3933:
3931:
3923:
3922:
3918:
3911:
3898:
3897:
3893:
3887:
3865:
3858:
3853:
3810:Grey atmosphere
3746:
3718:
3709:
3708:
3706:
3697:
3668:
3662:
3633:
3629:
3628:
3626:
3622:
3592:
3567:
3558:
3557:
3555:
3549:
3524:
3518:
3493:
3489:
3488:
3486:
3482:
3456:
3431:
3422:
3421:
3419:
3410:
3385:
3379:
3354:
3350:
3349:
3347:
3343:
3317:
3288:
3279:
3278:
3276:
3267:
3238:
3232:
3203:
3199:
3198:
3196:
3192:
3162:
3133:
3124:
3123:
3121:
3112:
3083:
3077:
3052:
3048:
3047:
3045:
3041:
3015:
2984:
2983:
2954:
2921:
2887:
2877:
2862:
2857:
2856:
2826:
2810:
2800:
2785:
2780:
2779:
2759:
2740:
2721:
2702:
2675:
2674:
2652:
2642:
2593:
2565:
2546:
2543:
2542:
2520:
2510:
2467:
2439:
2418:
2417:
2355:
2347:
2328:
2317:
2316:
2242:
2219:
2171:
2160:
2159:
2100:
2082:
2077:
2076:
2071:
2055:
2007:
1997:
1986:
1985:
1974:
1968:
1963:
1952:
1916:
1904:
1886:
1874:
1856:
1846:
1845:
1841:are defined as
1827:
1821:
1782:
1747:
1746:
1719:
1692:
1685:
1669:
1666:
1665:
1638:
1611:
1604:
1588:
1585:
1584:
1563:
1542:
1535:
1525:
1522:
1521:
1500:
1479:
1472:
1462:
1459:
1458:
1437:
1416:
1409:
1399:
1396:
1395:
1380:
1365:
1358:
1346:
1345:
1337:
1326:
1301:When a narrow (
1299:
1293:
1281:
1268:
1243:
1242:
1227:
1202:
1196:
1168:
1153:
1137:
1134:
1133:
1118:
1093:
1087:
1059:
1044:
1028:
1019:
1018:
1013:
1006:
990:
979:
945:
926:
920:
898:
877:
872:
871:
866:
854:
842:
831:
796:
777:
771:
749:
728:
723:
722:
695:
676:
670:
648:
627:
622:
621:
616:
609:
593:
569:
568:
545:
540:
539:
520:
519:
493:
488:
487:
457:
442:
427:
422:
421:
399:
398:
379:
378:
358:
323:
310:
304:
288:
269:
268:
254:
249:
222:
135:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4122:
4120:
4112:
4111:
4106:
4101:
4091:
4090:
4087:
4086:
4060:
4055:
4050:
4043:
4042:External links
4040:
4037:
4036:
4029:
4000:
3958:
3949:
3940:
3916:
3909:
3901:Modern Physics
3891:
3855:
3854:
3852:
3849:
3848:
3847:
3842:
3837:
3832:
3827:
3825:Mean free path
3822:
3817:
3812:
3807:
3802:
3797:
3792:
3787:
3785:Cargo scanning
3782:
3777:
3772:
3767:
3762:
3757:
3752:
3745:
3742:
3739:
3738:
3723:
3720:
3713:
3701:
3695:
3689:
3688:
3673:
3670:
3666:
3660:
3654:
3653:
3638:
3635:
3631:
3624:
3620:
3614:
3613:
3598:
3595:
3590:
3584:
3583:
3572:
3569:
3562:
3553:
3547:
3541:
3540:
3529:
3526:
3522:
3516:
3510:
3509:
3500:Spectral flux
3498:
3495:
3491:
3484:
3480:
3474:
3473:
3462:
3459:
3454:
3448:
3447:
3436:
3433:
3426:
3414:
3408:
3402:
3401:
3390:
3387:
3383:
3377:
3371:
3370:
3361:Spectral flux
3359:
3356:
3352:
3345:
3341:
3335:
3334:
3323:
3320:
3315:
3309:
3308:
3293:
3290:
3283:
3271:
3265:
3259:
3258:
3243:
3240:
3236:
3230:
3224:
3223:
3210:Spectral flux
3208:
3205:
3201:
3194:
3190:
3184:
3183:
3168:
3165:
3160:
3154:
3153:
3138:
3135:
3128:
3116:
3110:
3104:
3103:
3088:
3085:
3081:
3075:
3069:
3068:
3057:
3054:
3050:
3043:
3039:
3033:
3032:
3021:
3018:
3013:
3007:
3006:
3001:
2997:
2996:
2993:
2990:
2982:
2981:
2974:
2967:
2959:
2957:
2953:
2950:
2942:mean free path
2919:
2913:
2912:
2901:
2890:
2884:
2880:
2874:
2869:
2865:
2850:
2849:
2838:
2833:
2829:
2820:
2816:
2813:
2803:
2797:
2792:
2788:
2770:
2769:
2755:
2750:
2736:
2731:
2724:number density
2717:
2712:
2698:
2689:
2688:
2673:
2670:
2667:
2664:
2659:
2655:
2649:
2645:
2639:
2634:
2631:
2628:
2624:
2620:
2617:
2614:
2611:
2606:
2603:
2600:
2596:
2590:
2585:
2582:
2579:
2575:
2571:
2568:
2566:
2564:
2561:
2558:
2553:
2549:
2545:
2544:
2541:
2538:
2535:
2532:
2527:
2523:
2517:
2513:
2507:
2502:
2499:
2496:
2492:
2488:
2485:
2482:
2479:
2474:
2470:
2464:
2459:
2456:
2453:
2449:
2445:
2442:
2440:
2438:
2435:
2432:
2429:
2426:
2425:
2384:
2383:
2372:
2367:
2362:
2358:
2354:
2350:
2346:
2341:
2338:
2335:
2331:
2327:
2324:
2306:
2305:
2299:
2285:
2284:
2273:
2268:
2264:
2260:
2257:
2254:
2249:
2245:
2239:
2234:
2230:
2226:
2222:
2218:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2202:
2199:
2196:
2191:
2186:
2182:
2178:
2174:
2170:
2167:
2127:
2126:
2115:
2109:
2106:
2103:
2099:
2094:
2089:
2085:
2069:
2054:
2051:
2039:
2034:
2031:
2027:
2023:
2020:
2017:
2014:
2010:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1993:
1970:Main article:
1967:
1964:
1962:
1959:
1948:
1942:
1941:
1930:
1923:
1919:
1912:
1907:
1900:
1893:
1889:
1882:
1877:
1870:
1863:
1859:
1855:
1823:Main article:
1820:
1817:
1796:and thickness
1781:
1778:
1761:
1760:
1745:
1740:
1737:
1734:
1731:
1727:
1722:
1718:
1713:
1710:
1707:
1704:
1700:
1695:
1691:
1688:
1686:
1682:
1679:
1676:
1672:
1668:
1667:
1664:
1659:
1656:
1653:
1650:
1646:
1641:
1637:
1632:
1629:
1626:
1623:
1619:
1614:
1610:
1607:
1605:
1601:
1598:
1595:
1591:
1587:
1586:
1583:
1578:
1575:
1571:
1566:
1562:
1557:
1554:
1550:
1545:
1541:
1538:
1536:
1532:
1528:
1524:
1523:
1520:
1515:
1512:
1508:
1503:
1499:
1494:
1491:
1487:
1482:
1478:
1475:
1473:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1460:
1457:
1452:
1449:
1445:
1440:
1436:
1431:
1428:
1424:
1419:
1415:
1412:
1410:
1406:
1402:
1398:
1397:
1394:
1388:
1383:
1379:
1373:
1368:
1364:
1361:
1359:
1357:
1354:
1353:
1335:
1324:
1292:
1289:
1288:
1287:
1279:
1274:
1266:
1257:
1256:
1241:
1235:
1231:
1223:
1220:
1217:
1214:
1210:
1205:
1200:
1189:
1186:
1183:
1180:
1176:
1171:
1167:
1162:
1159:
1156:
1154:
1150:
1147:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1135:
1132:
1126:
1122:
1114:
1111:
1108:
1105:
1101:
1096:
1091:
1080:
1077:
1074:
1071:
1067:
1062:
1058:
1053:
1050:
1047:
1045:
1041:
1038:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1026:
1011:
1004:
989:
986:
977:
971:
970:
959:
953:
949:
941:
938:
934:
929:
924:
913:
910:
906:
901:
897:
892:
889:
884:
880:
864:
853:
850:
849:
848:
840:
837:
829:
822:
821:
810:
804:
800:
792:
789:
785:
780:
775:
764:
761:
757:
752:
748:
743:
740:
735:
731:
720:
709:
703:
699:
691:
688:
684:
679:
674:
663:
660:
656:
651:
647:
642:
639:
634:
630:
614:
607:
592:
589:
576:
553:
548:
527:
504:
501:
496:
484:
483:
470:
467:
464:
460:
453:
450:
445:
441:
435:
430:
406:
386:
371:
370:
364:
356:
349:
348:
337:
331:
327:
318:
313:
308:
296:
291:
287:
282:
279:
276:
253:
250:
248:
245:
233:
232:
204:
203:
189:
175:
157:
134:
131:
111:, such as the
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4121:
4110:
4107:
4105:
4102:
4100:
4097:
4096:
4094:
4082:
4078:
4074:
4070:
4069:
4064:
4061:
4059:
4056:
4054:
4051:
4049:
4046:
4045:
4041:
4032:
4026:
4022:
4017:
4016:
4010:
4004:
4001:
3989:
3985:
3984:ISO 9288:1989
3981:
3975:
3973:
3971:
3969:
3967:
3965:
3963:
3959:
3953:
3950:
3944:
3941:
3930:
3926:
3920:
3917:
3912:
3906:
3902:
3895:
3892:
3886:
3882:
3878:
3874:
3873:
3868:
3863:
3861:
3857:
3850:
3846:
3845:Transmittance
3843:
3841:
3838:
3836:
3833:
3831:
3828:
3826:
3823:
3821:
3818:
3816:
3813:
3811:
3808:
3806:
3803:
3801:
3798:
3796:
3793:
3791:
3788:
3786:
3783:
3781:
3778:
3776:
3773:
3771:
3768:
3766:
3763:
3761:
3758:
3756:
3753:
3751:
3748:
3747:
3743:
3736:
3732:
3728:
3724:
3721:
3717:
3712:
3705:
3700:
3696:
3694:
3691:
3690:
3686:
3682:
3678:
3674:
3671:
3665:
3661:
3659:
3656:
3655:
3651:
3647:
3643:
3639:
3636:
3621:
3619:
3616:
3615:
3611:
3607:
3603:
3600:Radiant flux
3599:
3596:
3591:
3589:
3586:
3585:
3581:
3577:
3573:
3570:
3566:
3561:
3552:
3548:
3546:
3543:
3542:
3538:
3534:
3530:
3527:
3521:
3517:
3515:
3512:
3511:
3507:
3503:
3499:
3496:
3481:
3479:
3476:
3475:
3471:
3467:
3464:Radiant flux
3463:
3460:
3455:
3453:
3450:
3449:
3445:
3441:
3437:
3434:
3430:
3425:
3418:
3413:
3409:
3407:
3404:
3403:
3399:
3395:
3391:
3388:
3382:
3378:
3376:
3373:
3372:
3368:
3364:
3360:
3357:
3342:
3340:
3337:
3336:
3332:
3328:
3325:Radiant flux
3324:
3321:
3316:
3314:
3311:
3310:
3306:
3302:
3298:
3294:
3291:
3287:
3282:
3275:
3270:
3266:
3264:
3261:
3260:
3256:
3252:
3248:
3244:
3241:
3235:
3231:
3229:
3226:
3225:
3221:
3217:
3213:
3209:
3206:
3191:
3189:
3186:
3185:
3181:
3177:
3173:
3170:Radiant flux
3169:
3166:
3161:
3159:
3156:
3155:
3151:
3147:
3143:
3139:
3136:
3132:
3127:
3120:
3115:
3111:
3109:
3106:
3105:
3101:
3097:
3093:
3089:
3086:
3080:
3076:
3074:
3071:
3070:
3066:
3062:
3058:
3055:
3040:
3038:
3035:
3034:
3030:
3026:
3022:
3019:
3014:
3012:
3009:
3008:
3002:
2999:
2998:
2987:
2980:
2975:
2973:
2968:
2966:
2961:
2960:
2951:
2949:
2947:
2946:cross section
2943:
2938:
2936:
2932:
2927:
2925:
2918:
2899:
2888:
2882:
2878:
2872:
2867:
2863:
2855:
2854:
2853:
2836:
2831:
2827:
2818:
2814:
2811:
2801:
2795:
2790:
2786:
2778:
2777:
2776:
2773:
2767:
2763:
2758:
2754:
2751:
2748:
2744:
2739:
2735:
2732:
2729:
2725:
2720:
2716:
2713:
2710:
2706:
2705:cross section
2701:
2697:
2694:
2693:
2692:
2671:
2665:
2657:
2653:
2647:
2643:
2637:
2632:
2629:
2626:
2622:
2618:
2612:
2604:
2601:
2598:
2594:
2588:
2583:
2580:
2577:
2573:
2569:
2567:
2559:
2551:
2547:
2539:
2533:
2525:
2521:
2515:
2511:
2505:
2500:
2497:
2494:
2490:
2486:
2480:
2472:
2468:
2462:
2457:
2454:
2451:
2447:
2443:
2441:
2433:
2427:
2416:
2415:
2414:
2412:
2408:
2404:
2399:
2397:
2393:
2389:
2370:
2365:
2360:
2356:
2352:
2348:
2344:
2339:
2336:
2333:
2329:
2325:
2322:
2315:
2314:
2313:
2311:
2303:
2300:
2297:
2296:transmittance
2293:
2290:
2289:
2288:
2271:
2266:
2255:
2247:
2243:
2237:
2232:
2228:
2224:
2220:
2216:
2211:
2200:
2194:
2189:
2184:
2180:
2176:
2172:
2168:
2165:
2158:
2157:
2156:
2154:
2150:
2146:
2142:
2138:
2134:
2132:
2113:
2107:
2104:
2101:
2097:
2092:
2087:
2083:
2075:
2074:
2073:
2068:
2064:
2060:
2052:
2050:
2037:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2018:
2012:
2008:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1991:
1983:
1979:
1973:
1965:
1960:
1958:
1956:
1951:
1947:
1928:
1921:
1917:
1905:
1898:
1891:
1887:
1875:
1868:
1861:
1857:
1853:
1844:
1843:
1842:
1840:
1836:
1832:
1826:
1818:
1816:
1815:
1811:
1807:
1806:n A σ dz
1803:
1799:
1795:
1791:
1787:
1779:
1777:
1774:
1770:
1765:
1743:
1738:
1735:
1729:
1720:
1716:
1711:
1708:
1702:
1693:
1689:
1687:
1680:
1677:
1670:
1662:
1657:
1654:
1648:
1639:
1635:
1630:
1627:
1621:
1612:
1608:
1606:
1599:
1596:
1589:
1581:
1573:
1564:
1560:
1552:
1543:
1539:
1537:
1526:
1518:
1513:
1510:
1501:
1497:
1492:
1489:
1480:
1476:
1474:
1467:
1463:
1455:
1450:
1447:
1438:
1434:
1429:
1426:
1417:
1413:
1411:
1404:
1400:
1392:
1381:
1377:
1366:
1362:
1360:
1355:
1344:
1343:
1342:
1339:
1334:
1330:
1323:
1319:
1314:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1298:
1290:
1285:
1278:
1275:
1272:
1265:
1262:
1261:
1260:
1239:
1233:
1221:
1218:
1212:
1203:
1187:
1184:
1178:
1169:
1165:
1160:
1157:
1155:
1148:
1145:
1138:
1130:
1124:
1112:
1109:
1103:
1094:
1078:
1075:
1069:
1060:
1056:
1051:
1048:
1046:
1039:
1036:
1029:
1017:
1016:
1015:
1010:
1003:
999:
995:
987:
985:
983:
976:
957:
951:
936:
927:
908:
899:
895:
890:
887:
878:
870:
869:
868:
863:
859:
851:
846:
838:
835:
827:
826:
825:
808:
802:
790:
787:
762:
759:
746:
741:
738:
733:
729:
721:
707:
701:
689:
686:
661:
658:
645:
640:
637:
632:
628:
620:
619:
618:
613:
606:
602:
598:
590:
588:
574:
525:
502:
468:
465:
462:
458:
451:
439:
420:
419:
418:
404:
384:
376:
368:
365:
362:
354:
353:
352:
335:
329:
285:
280:
277:
274:
267:
266:
265:
263:
259:
251:
246:
244:
242:
238:
229:
225:
220:
216:
212:
209:
208:
207:
201:
197:
193:
190:
187:
183:
179:
176:
173:
169:
165:
161:
158:
155:
151:
147:
144:
143:
142:
140:
132:
130:
128:
127:
122:
118:
114:
110:
106:
102:
98:
97:
92:
88:
86:
81:
77:
73:
69:
65:
61:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
29:
22:
4066:
4014:
4003:
3992:. Retrieved
3983:
3952:
3943:
3932:. Retrieved
3919:
3900:
3894:
3870:
3790:Compton edge
3734:
3730:
3726:
3715:
3710:
3703:
3698:
3692:
3684:
3680:
3676:
3663:
3657:
3649:
3645:
3641:
3617:
3609:
3605:
3601:
3587:
3579:
3575:
3564:
3559:
3550:
3536:
3532:
3519:
3505:
3501:
3469:
3465:
3443:
3439:
3428:
3423:
3416:
3411:
3397:
3393:
3380:
3366:
3362:
3330:
3326:
3300:
3296:
3285:
3280:
3273:
3268:
3250:
3246:
3233:
3215:
3211:
3175:
3171:
3149:
3145:
3141:
3130:
3125:
3118:
3113:
3099:
3095:
3091:
3078:
3064:
3060:
3028:
3024:
2939:
2928:
2916:
2914:
2851:
2774:
2771:
2765:
2756:
2752:
2746:
2737:
2733:
2727:
2718:
2714:
2708:
2699:
2695:
2690:
2410:
2400:
2387:
2385:
2309:
2307:
2301:
2291:
2286:
2144:
2140:
2136:
2135:
2130:
2128:
2066:
2062:
2058:
2056:
1975:
1955:mass density
1949:
1945:
1943:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1828:
1813:
1809:
1805:
1801:
1797:
1793:
1789:
1785:
1783:
1772:
1768:
1766:
1762:
1340:
1332:
1328:
1321:
1317:
1315:
1300:
1276:
1263:
1258:
1008:
1001:
997:
993:
991:
974:
972:
861:
857:
855:
823:
611:
604:
600:
596:
594:
485:
374:
372:
366:
361:radiant flux
350:
261:
257:
255:
234:
227:
223:
205:
199:
181:
171:
167:
153:
139:radiant flux
136:
124:
116:
112:
108:
104:
100:
94:
90:
84:
67:
35:
31:
27:
25:
3770:Attenuation
3576:transmitted
3533:transmitted
3502:transmitted
3466:transmitted
2388:non-uniform
2308:In case of
2149:exponential
1810:n σ dz
237:transparent
115:below. The
76:climatology
72:meteorology
50:, or other
4104:Radiometry
4093:Categories
3994:2015-03-15
3934:2015-11-03
3851:References
3255:absorbance
3180:absorbance
3150:black body
3100:black body
3065:black body
3029:black body
2065:, denoted
1327:, and the
1311:scattering
1307:absorption
1303:collimated
219:atmosphere
150:gamma rays
4109:Acoustics
3731:scattered
3681:scattered
3675:Radiance
3646:scattered
3606:scattered
3531:Radiance
3440:reflected
3394:reflected
3392:Radiance
3363:reflected
3327:reflected
3245:Radiance
3090:Radiance
2992:SI units
2989:Quantity
2828:σ
2815:
2787:ε
2644:ε
2623:∑
2595:μ
2574:∑
2548:μ
2512:σ
2491:∑
2469:μ
2448:∑
2428:μ
2386:Cases of
2366:ℓ
2357:μ
2353:−
2340:ℓ
2337:μ
2334:−
2244:μ
2238:ℓ
2229:∫
2225:−
2195:μ
2190:ℓ
2181:∫
2177:−
2105:
2098:μ
2084:μ
2013:−
1918:ρ
1906:μ
1888:ρ
1876:μ
1858:ρ
1854:μ
1739:λ
1733:Ω
1721:μ
1712:λ
1706:Ω
1694:μ
1681:λ
1675:Ω
1671:μ
1658:ν
1652:Ω
1640:μ
1631:ν
1625:Ω
1613:μ
1600:ν
1594:Ω
1590:μ
1577:Ω
1565:μ
1556:Ω
1544:μ
1531:Ω
1527:μ
1514:λ
1502:μ
1493:λ
1481:μ
1468:λ
1464:μ
1451:ν
1439:μ
1430:ν
1418:μ
1405:ν
1401:μ
1382:μ
1367:μ
1356:μ
1222:λ
1216:Ω
1188:λ
1182:Ω
1161:−
1149:λ
1143:Ω
1139:μ
1113:ν
1107:Ω
1079:ν
1073:Ω
1052:−
1040:ν
1034:Ω
1030:μ
940:Ω
912:Ω
891:−
883:Ω
879:μ
791:λ
779:Φ
763:λ
751:Φ
742:−
734:λ
730:μ
690:ν
678:Φ
662:ν
650:Φ
641:−
633:ν
629:μ
547:Φ
495:Φ
466:μ
463:−
444:Φ
429:Φ
312:Φ
290:Φ
281:−
275:μ
192:acoustics
48:particles
4011:(1960).
3744:See also
3727:absorbed
3677:absorbed
3642:absorbed
3602:absorbed
3297:absorbed
3247:absorbed
3212:absorbed
3172:absorbed
2405:and the
1982:decibels
1966:Decibels
982:radiance
215:infrared
188:⋅cm⋅MHz;
160:neutrons
133:Overview
87:-folding
3580:surface
3537:surface
3506:surface
3470:surface
3444:surface
3398:surface
3367:surface
3331:surface
3301:surface
3251:surface
3216:surface
3176:surface
3146:surface
3142:emitted
3096:surface
3092:emitted
3061:surface
3025:surface
2922:is the
2760:is the
2741:is the
2722:is the
2409:of its
2310:uniform
2294:is the
2151:in the
1972:decibel
1953:is the
1282:is the
1269:is the
980:is the
843:is the
832:is the
538:=0 and
359:is the
241:opacity
60:SI unit
4027:
3907:
3735:volume
3685:volume
3650:volume
3610:volume
2995:Notes
2915:where
2691:where
2287:where
1944:where
1837:, and
1802:n A dz
1790:σ
1259:where
973:where
824:where
486:where
397:=0 to
351:where
226:= cos
146:X-rays
123:. The
56:matter
52:energy
4063:IUPAC
3867:IUPAC
3733:by a
3683:by a
3648:by a
3608:by a
3578:by a
3535:by a
3504:by a
3468:by a
3442:by a
3396:by a
3365:by a
3329:by a
3299:by a
3249:by a
3214:by a
3174:by a
3144:by a
3094:by a
3000:Name
1773:total
1769:alone
1280:e,Ω,λ
1267:e,Ω,ν
211:solar
103:, or
66:(m).
44:sound
40:light
34:, or
4025:ISBN
3905:ISBN
3729:and
3679:and
3644:and
3604:and
3004:Sym.
2929:The
2057:The
1829:The
1316:The
1309:and
1007:and
996:and
992:The
856:The
610:and
599:and
595:The
417:as:
256:The
213:and
162:and
91:e.g.
74:and
26:The
4077:doi
4075:".
4021:355
3988:ISO
3881:doi
3879:".
3554:Ω,ν
3307:".
3257:".
3222:".
3182:".
2143:or
2061:or
1980:of
1012:Ω,λ
1005:Ω,ν
978:e,Ω
841:e,λ
830:e,ν
148:or
54:or
4095::
4065:,
4023:.
3986:.
3982:.
3961:^
3927:.
3869:,
3859:^
3722:m
3714:Ω,
3702:Ω,
3672:m
3637:m
3597:m
3571:—
3563:Ω,
3528:—
3497:—
3461:—
3435:—
3427:Ω,
3415:Ω,
3389:—
3358:—
3322:—
3292:—
3284:Ω,
3272:Ω,
3242:—
3207:—
3167:—
3137:—
3129:Ω,
3117:Ω,
3087:—
3056:—
3020:—
2948:.
2926:.
2819:10
2812:ln
2599:10
2552:10
2361:10
2349:10
2248:10
2221:10
2108:10
2102:ln
2088:10
2070:10
2030:10
2009:10
1957:.
1833:,
1798:dz
984:.
587:.
186:dB
46:,
42:,
30:,
4079::
4033:.
3997:.
3937:.
3913:.
3883::
3716:λ
3711:μ
3704:ν
3699:μ
3667:Ω
3664:μ
3632:λ
3630:μ
3625:ν
3623:μ
3593:μ
3565:λ
3560:T
3551:T
3523:Ω
3520:T
3492:λ
3490:T
3485:ν
3483:T
3457:T
3429:λ
3424:R
3417:ν
3412:R
3384:Ω
3381:R
3353:λ
3351:R
3346:ν
3344:R
3318:R
3286:λ
3281:A
3274:ν
3269:A
3237:Ω
3234:A
3202:λ
3200:A
3195:ν
3193:A
3163:A
3131:λ
3126:ε
3119:ν
3114:ε
3082:Ω
3079:ε
3051:λ
3049:ε
3044:ν
3042:ε
3016:ε
2978:e
2971:t
2964:v
2920:A
2917:N
2900:,
2893:A
2889:N
2883:i
2879:n
2873:=
2868:i
2864:c
2837:,
2832:i
2806:A
2802:N
2796:=
2791:i
2766:i
2757:i
2753:c
2747:i
2738:i
2734:ε
2728:i
2719:i
2715:n
2709:i
2700:i
2696:σ
2672:,
2669:)
2666:z
2663:(
2658:i
2654:c
2648:i
2638:N
2633:1
2630:=
2627:i
2619:=
2616:)
2613:z
2610:(
2605:i
2602:,
2589:N
2584:1
2581:=
2578:i
2570:=
2563:)
2560:z
2557:(
2540:,
2537:)
2534:z
2531:(
2526:i
2522:n
2516:i
2506:N
2501:1
2498:=
2495:i
2487:=
2484:)
2481:z
2478:(
2473:i
2463:N
2458:1
2455:=
2452:i
2444:=
2437:)
2434:z
2431:(
2411:N
2371:.
2345:=
2330:e
2326:=
2323:T
2302:ℓ
2292:T
2272:,
2267:z
2263:d
2259:)
2256:z
2253:(
2233:0
2217:=
2212:z
2208:d
2204:)
2201:z
2198:(
2185:0
2173:e
2169:=
2166:T
2137:μ
2131:e
2114:.
2093:=
2067:μ
2038:.
2033:)
2026:/
2022:B
2019:d
2016:(
2003:o
1999:I
1995:=
1992:I
1950:m
1946:ρ
1929:,
1922:m
1911:s
1899:,
1892:m
1881:a
1869:,
1862:m
1794:A
1786:n
1744:.
1736:,
1730:,
1726:s
1717:+
1709:,
1703:,
1699:a
1690:=
1678:,
1663:,
1655:,
1649:,
1645:s
1636:+
1628:,
1622:,
1618:a
1609:=
1597:,
1582:,
1574:,
1570:s
1561:+
1553:,
1549:a
1540:=
1519:,
1511:,
1507:s
1498:+
1490:,
1486:a
1477:=
1456:,
1448:,
1444:s
1435:+
1427:,
1423:a
1414:=
1393:,
1387:s
1378:+
1372:a
1363:=
1336:s
1333:μ
1325:a
1322:μ
1286:.
1277:L
1273:;
1264:L
1240:,
1234:z
1230:d
1219:,
1213:,
1209:e
1204:L
1199:d
1185:,
1179:,
1175:e
1170:L
1166:1
1158:=
1146:,
1131:,
1125:z
1121:d
1110:,
1104:,
1100:e
1095:L
1090:d
1076:,
1070:,
1066:e
1061:L
1057:1
1049:=
1037:,
1009:μ
1002:μ
975:L
958:,
952:z
948:d
937:,
933:e
928:L
923:d
909:,
905:e
900:L
896:1
888:=
865:Ω
862:μ
847:.
839:Φ
836:;
828:Φ
809:,
803:z
799:d
788:,
784:e
774:d
760:,
756:e
747:1
739:=
708:,
702:z
698:d
687:,
683:e
673:d
659:,
655:e
646:1
638:=
615:λ
612:μ
608:ν
605:μ
575:z
552:e
526:z
503:0
500:e
469:z
459:e
452:0
449:e
440:=
434:e
405:z
385:z
375:z
367:z
363:;
357:e
355:Φ
336:,
330:z
326:d
317:e
307:d
295:e
286:1
278:=
262:μ
228:θ
224:μ
200:α
182:α
172:Σ
154:μ
109:e
105:e
101:e
96:e
85:e
23:.
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