Australian constitutional law

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of command" test for the validity of the exercise of the corporations power. Accordingly, the judgment suggests that, henceforth, it may be a sufficient basis of validity that Federal legislation be specifically addressed to constitutional corporations ("A constitutional corporation must...", "A constitutional corporation must not..."), without any additional requirement that the legislation also address some aspect of the status or activities of corporations which is specific to such entities. If this is correct, then given the preponderant role of corporations in the modern economy, the possibility exists for substantial Federal control of the greater part of the economy, with little if any regard to the traditional constitutional "heads of power".

2254:. A former chairman of a Commonwealth Parliamentary Committee on Migration claimed to have been defamed by a newspaper which had published a letter accusing him of bias, in his official capacity, towards people of his own ethnic background. By trial, it was conceded that the accusation was false. However the Court accepted a "constitutional defence" which was said (by three Justices) to operate when otherwise defamatory statements concerning the fitness of a public official to hold office were published without knowledge of, or recklessness as to, their falsity, and when publication was reasonable in the circumstances. 1733:. Prima facie, it does not cover intrastate aviation. However, a purely intrastate aviation industry is no longer economically feasible and separate systems of state regulation pose safety concerns. As a result, the High Court held that all aviation has an interstate character, placing it within Commonwealth legislative power. In 1937 a referendum was submitted to the people giving the Commonwealth power over aviation, and that the referendum was rejected by the people. The rejection of a power by the people has never persuaded the Court that the Commonwealth should not exercise the power. 2234:

is constitutionally entrenched". That being so, freedom of public discussion of political and economic matters is essential to allow the people to make their political judgments so as to exercise their right to vote effectively. Furthermore, since "public affairs and political discussion are indivisible", it is impossible to limit this necessary freedom to purely Federal issues: it applies also to issues which might be the preserve of the State or local levels of government. Therefore, there is implied in the Constitution a guarantee of freedom of communication on

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new legislation applies to all employees of a "constitutional corporation." A constitutional corporation is a corporation within the meaning of section 51(xx) of the Constitution. The legislation also applies to employees of the Commonwealth and its agencies, and some others. The expected coverage of this law is approximately 85% of the Australian workforce. That proportion is likely to increase as employers who operate as sole traders or in partnerships incorporate to take advantage of the new legislation's relatively "employer-friendly" provisions.

1299:) and exclusive (section 52) powers are stated to be "subject to this Constitution". As a result, the Commonwealth's law-making power is subject to the limitations and guarantees in the Constitution (both express and implied). For example, section 99 forbids the Commonwealth from giving preference to any State or part of a State "by any law or regulation of trade, commerce, or revenue". And as discussed below, an implied guarantee of freedom of political communication has been held to limit the Commonwealth's power to regulate political discourse. 237: 2007:, trial by jury, "just terms" compensation, free trade between the states, and protection against discrimination based on the state an individual lives in. (A referendum proposal to amend the Constitution to clarify these rights and to make them good also against the States was defeated in 1988.) As will be seen, guaranteed access to the High Court can itself amount to an important right. And the guarantee of free trade and commerce was for a time interpreted as something like an individual right. 1601:, regarding inconsistency between Commonwealth and State laws, was broadly interpreted. Commonwealth law prevails not only where inconsistent obligations are imposed, but where Commonwealth legislation evinces an intention to "cover the field" by being the whole law on a particular subject. The Commonwealth can "manufacture" inconsistency by expressly stating that its legislation is intended to cover the field. However, an issue that was raised, without being conclusively resolved, in the 1686:, the Commonwealth government decided to take over the collection of income taxes and return some proceeds to the States as grants. The Commonwealth passed legislation to levy income tax at a nationwide rate similar to the previous combination of Commonwealth tax and the various state taxes. Separate legislation then granted section 96 monetary grants to states if the State did not levy income taxes. In practice, it would be difficult for States to continue taxing. 2204:

terms of the Constitution, or on its structure. Since the 1990s the High Court has discovered rights which are said to be implied by the very structure and textual form of the Constitution. Chief amongst these is an implied right to freedom of communication on political matters. In addition, some protections of civil liberties have been the result of the High Court's zealous attempts to safeguard the independence of, and confidence in, the Federal judiciary.

77: 2286:(NSW) permitting the exclusion of women from ordination as priests infringes the right of women to "rise to positions from which they may take part in political speech as religious leaders." Any such constitutional protection would depend on a court finding that the anti-discrimination laws, first, effectively burdened political speech (as relevant to the Commonwealth Parliament) and, secondly, disproportionately burdened such speech. 2282:. But it remains to be seen whether a suitable expansion of the notion of "political communication" may not lead, in time, to a similar result. In the migration-bias case, some of the Justices, while being careful to quarantine "commercial speech without political content", seemed to imply that the scope of "political speech" may nevertheless be very broad indeed. Mitchell Landrigan goes as far as arguing that the exception to the 242: 1667:, inevitably authority over these taxes was vested exclusively in the Commonwealth Parliament (section 90). It was acknowledged that this would create a situation where the Commonwealth would raise much more money than it could spend, whereas the States, being still responsible for most areas of law and of social infrastructure, would need to spend much more money than they could raise (the problem now known as " 1579:(after changes in the composition of the Court) swept away this doctrine. The court now insisted on adhering only to interpreting a statute "expounded according to the intent of the Parliament that made it; and that intention has to be found by an examination of the language used in the statute as a whole". There was to be no reading in of implications by reference to the presumed intentions of the framers. 1572:" doctrine and "implied inter-governmental immunities" were used to preserve state power. Reserved state powers holds that the Constitution should be read in a restrictive way so as to preserve as much autonomy as possible for the States. Implied intergovernmental immunities holds that Commonwealth and States are immune to each other's laws and cannot mutually regulate each other's governmental apparatus. 2472: 890: 1671:"). Although the framers were able to agree on a formula for distribution of the Commonwealth's surplus to the States in the first few years after Federation, they could not agree on a long-term formula. Accordingly, section 96 of the Constitution provides that the Commonwealth Parliament "may grant financial assistance to any State on such terms and conditions as it thinks fit". 1164:, which mandate the Governor General to act on ministerial advice, except in exceptional circumstances. Because the conventions are not written in The Constitution, the limits of the Governor General's powers are unclear. Convention does, however, allow The Governor General to exercise some powers without ministerial advice in exceptional circumstances. These powers are known as 2400:, including that their removal and subsequent detention without due process was in contravention of the Constitution. Dawson J, and McHugh J, held that the Constitution contained no general guarantee of due process of law. Toohey, Gaudron and Gummow JJ held that the removal of Indigenous children was not the exercise of judicial power, hence no question of due process arose. 2460:

free to legislate as they please with respect to their own courts. A requirement to order the "preventive detention" of someone who has not been charged with any criminal offence was found "incompatible" with the exercise of Federal judicial power. In this rather circuitous manner, the High Court has found a limited constitutional guarantee of due process.

2191:, which was notable also for the Court's willingness to use the transcripts of the Convention debates as an aid to interpretation, the Court unanimously decided that what the section prohibited, in relation to interstate trade and commerce, were only "discriminatory burdens of a protectionist kind". That is, the section did no more than guarantee " 1675:

grants" it has in fact become paramount in the field of tertiary education. Although any state has the option to refuse a grant, the consequences of doing so make this unattractive. Similarly, the Commonwealth has become dominant in the field of public hospitals, and a major player in the field of roads and other major infrastructure.

2345:, and limited the Federal government's legislative power to limit that franchise. The court held that removing right to vote for serious misconduct was acceptable and that the previous legislation was valid, however imprisonment failed as a method of identifying serious criminal misconduct such that the 2006 amendments were invalid. 2443:

The individual was a prisoner (under state law) whose sentence was about to expire but who was alleged to have made threats against the safety of various persons, to be carried out when released. The State Parliament enacted a law, applying only to him, which authorised the Supreme Court of New South

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The High Court subsequently held that closing the electoral roles 7 days after the issuing of writs was not a burden on the constitutional mandate that members of Parliament be directly chosen by the people. The right to vote does not involve a corresponding right not to vote. The High Court rejected

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legislation against all the challenges that had been made to it in an action brought by each of the States and mainland Territories, as well as certain trade unions. The single majority judgment, while it did not expressly adopt, waved aside all the objections that had been argued against the "object

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Another example concerns intellectual property. Although the Constitution gave the Commonwealth Parliament power over "copyrights, patents of inventions and designs, and trade marks", the enormous growth of electronic media content has given this power a much wider scope than could possibly have been

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The Constitution required direct election of members to both Houses of Parliament from the beginning (sections 7 and 24). This was a novelty at the time, since the national upper houses with which the framers were best acquainted were chosen by other means: indirect election by the State legislatures

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polity, with enumerated limited specific powers conferred on the Federal Parliament. The State Parliaments are not assigned specific enumerated powers; rather the powers of their predecessor colonial Parliaments are continued except insofar as they are expressly withdrawn or vested exclusively in the

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Wales to make "preventive detention orders" for periods up to six months, with the possibility of renewal. The orders were to be made if the Court was satisfied, "on the balance of probabilities", that the person to whom the Act applied was "more likely than not to commit a serious act of violence".

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which involved the alleged defamation of a former Prime Minister of New Zealand a unanimous Court did state the operative principle. It rejected the "constitutional defence" of the migration-bias case just discussed, and instead expanded the scope of "qualified privilege", requiring the defendant to

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In both cases, the majority of the High Court reasoned that, since the Constitution required direct election of members of the Federal Parliament, and since moreover the Ministers of State were required to be or swiftly become members of that Parliament, the result was that "representative democracy

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Although it would appear that there is an open-ended potential for the Commonwealth to encroach on areas of traditional State competence through the external affairs power, to date it has been used with some discretion, if only because the use of the power in this way inevitably excites considerable

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The Constitution gives the Commonwealth Parliament power over "external affairs". Originally this power had little content, because Australia's foreign relations were managed by the United Kingdom. As Australia gained independence and international personality, so did the significance of this power.

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duty," which states cannot levy. The High Court has long stated the definition in terms such as "an inland tax on a step in production, manufacture, sale or distribution of goods". However, it does not include a mere fee for a licence to carry on a particular business or profession. Accordingly, the

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One result of this has been that the Commonwealth has been able to make grants to the States on terms so specific as to amount to the virtual takeover of particular fields of competence. For instance, although the Constitution gives the Commonwealth no express power over education, by means of "tied

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The constitution also provides some opportunities for Federal-State co-operation: any State can "refer" a "matter" to the Commonwealth Parliament, and the Commonwealth Parliament can exercise, "at the request or with the concurrence of the Parliaments of all the States directly concerned", any power

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The Act was found invalid, however, on the ground that since the Supreme Court of New South Wales had been invested with federal jurisdiction, it must not be required to perform a function "incompatible" with the exercise of the judicial power of the Commonwealth. To that extent, the States are not

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In separate cases in 1915, and 1918, the High Court held that "judicial power" (essentially, the power of interpretation of the law and enforcement of decisions) could not be invested in anything other than a Chapter III court, and specifically, in anything other than a body whose members have life

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of a person's proprietary rights by the Commonwealth (or a prohibition on effectively exercising them) is insufficient to amount to an acquisition. And "just terms" has been taken to mean something less than "just compensation"; in particular, it does not necessarily require payment to the owner of

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status. However, since the Parliament is not constitutionally able to limit or abolish access to the High Court for the purpose of applying for one of these "constitutional writs", such applications have become a major means of challenging migration decisions. In 2014–15 94% of the applications for

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legislation, which, relying primarily on the corporations power, seeks to create a uniform national industrial relations system to the exclusion of both the States' and the Commonwealth's own industrial relations systems. Previous systems were based on the 'conciliation and arbitration' power. The

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The corporations power allows the Commonwealth to legislate on "foreign corporations, and trading or financial corporations formed within the limits of the Commonwealth". Although the width of the expression "trading or financial corporations" has never been authoritatively settled, it appears that

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aspect under the external affairs power. The High Court has held that the power covers the regulation of conduct that takes place outside Australia, suggesting that mere externality to Australia could enliven the power. In particular, Commonwealth legislation of 1998 that retroactively criminalised

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Australia's relations with other countries fall directly under the subject of external affairs. It includes relations with other British Dominions and further extends to relations with international organisations. The pursuit and advancement of friendliness with foreign governments is another vital

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In 1999, the Commonwealth Parliament passed legislation introducing a new broad-based Federal indirect tax, the Goods and Services Tax; the revenue from this tax was to go entirely to the States and Territories in exchange for abolishing a range of other indirect taxes. By this stage, the financial

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The judicial power of the Commonwealth is vested, in Chapter III of the Constitution, in the High Court and such other courts as the Parliament creates or invests with Federal jurisdiction. In Australian constitutional jargon, such courts are called "Chapter III courts". The members of Chapter III

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period, rather than on the value of goods currently being sold. Although these seem similar to excise duties, a series of High Court precedents had effectively "quarantined" such fees from disallowance in the areas of liquor retailing, tobacco retailing, and petrol distribution. In 1997, by a bare

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in passing the law is irrelevant. An example is environmental legislation. The Constitution does not provide the Commonwealth Parliament with any power to control the environment or its use. Nonetheless, a very broad-ranging environmental protection Act could be passed relying on a combination of

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The Commonwealth can only legislate with respect to an enumerated head of power, This does not mean that the law must be solely, or even predominantly, directed at that head of power. As long as it can be "fairly characterized" as a law with respect to an enumerated power, it is irrelevant that it

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of the House of Representatives, are not mentioned. Nonetheless, these have been fundamental features of Australian constitutional practice from the start. More recently, the principle of responsible government was reinforced by the High Court of Australia which upheld orders for a Minister of the

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In addition, a constitutional requirement that "trade, commerce, and intercourse among the States ... shall be absolutely free" (section 92) was, for a time, interpreted as a guarantee of some degree of freedom from economic regulation by either Commonwealth or State Parliaments. The reference to

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in 1803. Although completely foreign to both British and Australian colonial experience, the framers of the Australian Constitution clearly intended that the practice would take hold in Australia, and even expressly adverted to it in the Constitutional text (in section 76). This power of judicial

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taken reasonable steps to verify the accuracy of the published material, and also, in most circumstances, to have given the defamed person an opportunity to respond. On the other hand, the Court made it clear that the qualified privilege may extend to discussion concerning the United Nations and

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Implied rights are the political and civil freedoms that necessarily underlie the actual words of the constitution but are not themselves expressly stated directly in the constitution. The High Court has held that no implication can be drawn from the Constitution which is not based on the actual

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so as to be devoid of any real meaning. For example, in 1904 it was found that discrimination in favour of people who are "residents of and domiciled in Western Australia" was permissible, as the Constitution only prohibited discrimination on the basis of a person's state of residence, not their

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The Constitution states that the Commonwealth "shall not make any law for establishing any religion, or for imposing any religious observance, or for prohibiting the free exercise of any religion, and no religious test shall be required as a qualification for any office or public trust under the

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capacity as judges rather than as members of a Chapter III court. But this raised the question of which such functions were compatible with the simultaneous holding of Federal judicial office. The answers offered by the Court have been controversial and involved some very fine distinctions: for

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if they were serving sentences of three years or more. 2006 legislation sought to disenfranchise all prisoners, regardless of the length of their sentence. The validity of the disenfranchisement was challenged by Vickie Roach who was serving a four-year gaol term for negligently causing serious

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gave the Commonwealth power to provide a wide range of social services. This included unemployment and sickness benefits, maternity allowances, child endowment, and medical and dental services. Apart from defence, social services is the largest area of Commonwealth expenditure. Along with the

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and section 52. Section 52 powers are 'exclusive' to the Commonwealth (although some section 51 powers are in practice necessarily exclusive, such as the power with respect to borrowing money on the public credit of the Commonwealth in paragraph (iv), and the power to legislate with respect to

2224:, concerned a Federal provision criminalising the "bringing into disrepute" of members of an industrial relations tribunal, and a prosecution under that provision of a person who had published a newspaper article repeatedly describing such members as "corrupt" and "compliant". The second case, 1943:

The Constitution contains no comprehensive set of human rights guarantees. Factors sometimes cited for this include faith in the common law's protection of rights and a belief that a powerful Senate would effectively resist overzealous governments. The Constitution does contain protection for

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These arrangements, however, are only hinted at in the text of the Constitution. There is a requirement (section 64) that the "Queen's Ministers of State", who are nominally appointed by the Governor-General, be or swiftly become members of either House of Parliament. The existence of the

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The Court stressed that this freedom is not absolute, but the result in both cases was that the relevant Federal legislation was struck down. In the latter case, some strong dissents to the effect that limiting expenditure on political advertising in the electronic media might actually

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majority, the High Court decided that this area of doctrinal quarantine was incoherent with the rest of the law relating to excise duties and removed it. The immediate result was the loss of some $ 5 billion (Australian) in the annual revenues of the States and Territories.

1907:(section 76), and the exceptions to, and conditions on, its power to hear appeals (section 73). However, the Constitution grants the Court some original jurisdiction directly, without the possibility of Parliamentary limitation (section 75). This includes matters in which "a 2195:" (in the conventional sense) among the States. But in relation to "intercourse" (i.e. personal movement between States), the Court suggested that the scope of the guarantee would be much wider, and may even, in relation to some forms of such intercourse, be truly absolute. 2177:

The constitutional requirement that "trade, commerce, and intercourse amongst the States ... shall be absolutely free" (section 92) was for a considerable time interpreted as a guarantee of some degree of freedom from government regulation. A notable example of this line of

2134:, the modern approach to interpretation was developed. The court held that the purpose of the section was national unity, and consequentially, residence should be given a broader meaning. In addition, the court overruled a case in which the historical approach was used. 1148:, along with the Senate and the House of Representatives (section 1). Today, the King of Australia has replaced the King of the United Kingdom within Australia's parliament, but they happen to be the same person. The Monarch is represented in Australia by an appointed 2162:

prescribed jury trial, the Court has been willing to impose some content on that notion. In particular, it has insisted that conviction by a jury for a Federal offence must be by the unanimous agreement of the jurors – a majority verdict will not suffice.

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The use of the term "acquisition" has been interpreted so as to require that the Commonwealth (or some other party for a Commonwealth purpose) actually acquire possessory or proprietary rights over the property in question, or at least some benefit: the mere

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In reaching its conclusion, each of the seven Justices issued a separate opinion. Combining this with the fact that there is little case law referencing section 117, there remains significant debate over the nature and extent of the right contained within

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Representation in the House of Representatives is based on population and ‘original states’ have equal numbers in the Senate. The two houses are equal in power except for certain restrictions in financial matters. For example, the Senate may not amend a

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The Australian Constitution provides the Governor-General with a number of powers, including; the power to dissolve Parliament (Sections 5, 57), the power to refuse assent to bills presented to her (section 58) and the power to dismiss the government

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separation in the Constitution. However, the same consideration does not militate against a separation of the judicial power from the other two, and in fact the High Court has come to insist on this with some force. It has also held that the

1637:'. Particularly in the last two decades, many Acts of very wide-ranging effect have been passed on just these bases, in fields as diverse as environment protection, privacy, and anti-discrimination, fields in which the Commonwealth has no 2451:

Parliament passed such an Act, it would be found invalid, as it was in effect a legislative judgment and so violated of the constitutional separation of the judicial power. However, the High Court found that the separation of powers was

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While there is no significant separation of the legislative and executive powers (the "political branches"), the High Court has developed an increasingly stringent doctrine of the separation of the judicial power from the other two.

1310:, but is in some respects broader: for instance, it includes "astronomical and meteorological observations", marriage and divorce, and interstate industrial relations. The interpretation of similar heads of power – for instance the 2146:

The constitutional guarantee that a trial on indictment for a federal offence must be by jury (section 80) has been rendered virtually worthless because the High Court has decided that it is applicable only to a trial that proceeds

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Both these cases concerned the validity of Federal legislation. But two years later, the Court extended the implied guarantee into the area of private law, by holding that it also applied to limit the statutory and common law of

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By this decision, the system of industrial arbitration that had been in place for 30 years, and which involved judges of the Conciliation and Arbitration Court acting in both a judicial and an administrative capacity, was

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gives the Commonwealth Parliament power over "postal, telegraphic, telephonic, and other like services". With little controversy, this power now covers radio, television, satellite, cable, and optic fibre technologies.

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The Constitution is silent as to many aspects of the democratic process, leaving these details to be provided by Parliament. The Constitution does however require in sections 7 and 24 that the members of Parliament be

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The use of the referendum in initially adopting the Constitution, and its requirement for constitutional amendment, has been cited by justices of the High Court to argue that the Constitution is fundamentally based on

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All but the last of these have been read down by the High Court, at least relative to the content of the corresponding United States guarantees. On the other hand, since the 1990s the High Court has been developing a

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implies that a body exercising that power must do so in a manner that is consistent with traditional notions of what constitutes judicial process. The result may be a limited constitutional guarantee of due process.

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demonstrates, it may defer or refuse to pass such a Bill altogether; Bills to impose taxation or appropriate revenue may not originate in the Senate; and the Senate may not amend a Bill so as to increase taxation.

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Probably the most obvious development in Australian constitutional law has been the steady growth in the power of the federal government relative to the states. Several factors could account for this, including:

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is dealt with in Chapter III, and is vested in the Federal High Court and "in such other federal courts as the Parliament creates, and in such other courts as it invests with federal jurisdiction" (section 71).

2081:, combined with the fact that the Australian provision is expressed as a positive grant of power coupled with a limitation, have been read so as to weaken the Australian guarantee relative to the American one. 1830:, the High Court has upheld Commonwealth legislation forbidding the Tasmanian government from proceeding with a dam that would have submerged an area of Tasmanian government-owned land that had been declared a 4868: 2386:

courts may not be removed except by the Governor-General on an address from both Houses of Parliament on the ground of proved misbehaviour or incapacity; they otherwise hold office until the age of 70.

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of the British Parliament, which is its technical legal foundation). This doctrine has achieved greater prominence since the cessation, in 1986, of all authority of that Parliament over Australia: see

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by way of indictment, and it is completely in Parliament's discretion to decide which offences are triable on indictment and which are not. This narrow view is confirmed in the majority judgement of

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judicial power. To some extent the rigour of the separation of powers doctrine was softened by the Court's subsequent acceptance that judges could, constitutionally, be assigned functions in their

2230:, concerned a Federal attempt to ban political advertising on radio and television during election periods and to strictly control it at other times, via a system of "free time" entitlements. 1288:

can be legislated on by both state and Commonwealth parliaments. However, in the event of inconsistency or an intention by the Commonwealth to cover the field the Commonwealth law prevails (

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the long established universal adult suffrage may now be recognized as a fact and as a result it is doubtful whether ... anything less than this could be described as a choice by the people.

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in the 1890s and approved by the voters in each of the Australian colonies. The British government did, however, insist on one change to the text, to allow a greater range of appeals to the

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This case, however, and a series of following cases, failed to produce a clear statement of the operative principle which commanded the support of a majority of the Court. But in 1997 in

4586: 3814: 2155:. Powerful dissents to the effect that the section must be given some substantive meaning (the trial of offences of some specific degree of gravity must be by jury) have not prevailed. 5674: 2032:

has had in that country. The High Court, in rejecting a challenge to Federal funding of church schools, seemed to take the view that nothing less than an explicit establishment of a

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The constitutional guarantee of freedom of political communication is, prima facie, far more restricted than the generalised guarantee of freedom of speech and of the press in the

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the taxation part of the scheme was held to be valid based on the taxation power, and the grants held to be valid on the basis of the words 'terms and conditions' of section 96.

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was whether the Commonwealth can "clear the field" by stating an intention that State laws are not to apply even if the Commonwealth does not enact other laws in their place.

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It was assumed by the framers, in line with British and local colonial tradition, that the executive government would consist of Ministers who were members of Parliament and "

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As corporations have come to dominate the economy, the practical scope the corporations power has increased. For example, in 2005 the Commonwealth Parliament enacted the

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The prohibition on establishing any religion has had nothing like the impact that the corresponding ban on making a law "respecting an establishment of religion" in the

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was not broad enough to cover incorporation itself. This decision threatened the validity of Australian companies incorporated under commonwealth law. The states used

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States had for a long time levied, with the compliance of the High Court, "business franchise fees" on retailers of products, particularly liquor and tobacco products.

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Additionally, amendments "altering the limits" of a State or diminishing its proportional representation in Parliament require the approval of electors in that State.

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Even before the Engineer's case, a line of judicial reasoning asserted that Commonwealth powers should be interpreted broadly rather than narrowly wherever possible.

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More recently, the external affairs power has been used to remove the States' power to criminalise male homosexual activity. This followed an adverse report by the

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in constitutional amendment was not followed, so that constitutional alterations, although they must be approved by the people, can only be initiated by Parliament.

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However, the Queen is an element of the Parliament as well as being head of the executive; and the Ministers of State who "advise" the Governor-General are actually

1140:" is not used in the Constitution, it was intended that the Commonwealth (like the colonies) would continue to recognise the British Sovereign. "The Queen" (meaning 6473: 6433: 2537: 2058: 1789: 1630: 1532: 1175:

when no party, or coalition of parties has a majority of seats in The House of Representatives and the power to dismiss a Prime Minister, who has been subject to a

453: 443: 1152:. The executive power is vested in the Governor-General "as the Queen's representative" (section 61), as is the command-in-chief of the armed forces (section 68). 6428: 6418: 2779:"The Americanness of the Australian Constitution: The Influence of American Constitutional Jurisprudence on Australian Constitutional Jurisprudence: 1988 to 1994" 2595: 6423: 6395: 6280: 5740: 5020: 4917: 2740: 2533: 2432: 1866: 1773: 1761: 1650: 1626: 1622: 1536: 1522: 435: 2841: 2655: 6390: 6380: 6375: 6370: 6365: 6355: 6350: 6345: 6340: 6335: 6320: 6300: 6270: 6265: 6260: 6255: 5735: 5582: 5521: 3204: 2529: 2116: 2109: 2016: 1730: 1722: 1618: 1311: 1233: 1221: 1209:

The role of the Monarch is today even more circumscribed and amounts only to appointing (and, in theory, dismissing) a Governor-General on the advice of the

1161: 322: 2275:, the High Court further endorsed the view that a qualified freedom of political communication exists and provided an updated and more detailed legal test. 6405: 6245: 6240: 6230: 6210: 6200: 6185: 6155: 6150: 6145: 6140: 6135: 6130: 6125: 6120: 6115: 6110: 6105: 6100: 6095: 6090: 6085: 6080: 6075: 6070: 6065: 6060: 6055: 6050: 6045: 6040: 6035: 6030: 6025: 6020: 6015: 6010: 6005: 6000: 5995: 5990: 5985: 5980: 5975: 5970: 5965: 5960: 5955: 5950: 5945: 5940: 5935: 5930: 5925: 5920: 5915: 5910: 5905: 5900: 5895: 5890: 5885: 5880: 5875: 5870: 5865: 5860: 5855: 5850: 5845: 5840: 5835: 5830: 5825: 5820: 5815: 5810: 5805: 5730: 5720: 5710: 5567: 5464: 5423: 5418: 5387: 5167: 4357: 2495: 2259: 2172: 2025:

In determining what is considered a religion, the High Court has adopted a broad approach; demonstrating an unwillingness to create a limiting definition.

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The text of the Constitution was not presented to the British Parliament for formal enactment until it had been approved by the electors of the colonies.

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gave the Commonwealth power over Aboriginal affairs, which has had a significant effect particularly in the pastoral and central regions of Australia.

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in this area means that Australia cannot be said, strictly, to operate entirely under a written constitution, but has to some extent a system like the

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consists mostly of that body of doctrine which interprets the Commonwealth Constitution. The Constitution itself is embodied in clause 9 of the

6568: 5536: 4339: 4015: 1194:

on this ground in 1932). However, it remains controversial whether they include the power to dismiss a Prime Minister who, while retaining the

950: 561: 4570: 774: 5664: 5659: 5438: 5347: 4842: 4832:

Judges' appointment, tenure, and remuneration. Judicial office was originally for life; the age limit was introduced by a referendum in 1977.

3457: 3310: 2638: 2605: 1602: 1019: 931: 187: 5679: 2422:

compatible, while a power to make recommendations concerning the protection of land which might be of heritage significance to Aboriginals

1104:

to strike down legislation deemed incompatible with the Constitution was first asserted by the Supreme Court itself in the seminal case of

282: 2436:(1996) concerned a criminal law passed by the New South Parliament and directed at a single named individual (somewhat in the manner of a 764: 6493: 3787: 6543: 6528: 6488: 6463: 5654: 5392: 5171: 4619: 2490: 1499: 1384: 1214: 579: 258: 30: 6483: 6453: 2359:

holding that both above the line and below the line voting were constitutionally valid methods for the people to choose their Senators.

6478: 6468: 6458: 5531: 4626: 4343: 3689: 3347: 3263: 2933: 2929: 2905: 2901: 2352:, where the High Court held that amendments restricting the enrolment of voters once an election has been called were also invalid. * 2213: 1144:, defined to include "Her Majesty's heirs and successors in the sovereignty of the United Kingdom"), was one of the three elements of 1101: 658: 169: 6438: 5326: 6443: 5516: 4720: 2500: 2378: 2095: 1396: 756: 593: 1100:

to declare legislation unconstitutional and therefore invalid – has its origin in American experience, where the right of the

6385: 6360: 6330: 6325: 6315: 6310: 6305: 6295: 6290: 6285: 6275: 6250: 6235: 6225: 6220: 6215: 6205: 6195: 6190: 6180: 6175: 6170: 6165: 6160: 5340: 4340:"The State of Play in the Constitutionally Implied Freedom of Political Discussion and Bans on Electoral Canvassing in Australia" 2977: 2577: 2427: 1995:

on the separation of powers and through its findings of rights implied by the text and structure of the constitutional document.

1015: 743: 520: 515: 510: 505: 500: 495: 1991:

in the Constitution are scant, and have mostly been read down, some protections have been created by the High Court through its

1033:

The Constitution created a framework of government some of whose main features, and sources of inspiration, were the following:

992:, the highest court in the Australian judicial system. Several major doctrines of Australian constitutional law have developed. 5085: 4253: 3938: 3130: 3045: 2755: 2220: 1682:. Once the advantages of income tax were recognised, both the Commonwealth and the States levied income taxes. However, during 836: 821: 551: 333: 301: 2372:, government means that there can be no meaningful separation of the legislative and executive powers, despite their distinct 779: 4694: 4103: 3398: 3372: 2334: 1823: 1729:

A greater struggle occurred over Commonwealth legislation in the field of aviation. Commonwealth regulation is based on the

1690: 1225: 681: 643: 566: 5239: 2218:

Two cases decided in 1992 established a new implied right to freedom of communication on political matters. The first case,

1505:

There have been 44 proposals for constitutional amendment put to the people since Federation. Of these, only 8 have passed.

794: 789: 5506: 5433: 4192: 2349: 1980:"intercourse", on the other hand, has always been understood as guaranteeing a right to movement across State boundaries. 1149: 856: 831: 624: 528: 195: 121: 3706: 1228:. However, it would be a mistake to exaggerate the importance of this aspect of Australia's constitutional arrangements: 3285: 2426:

compatible. The most striking application (and extension) of this "incompatibility" doctrine, however, has involved the

1091: 638: 1926:

In recent years, the Parliament has all but eliminated the possibility of appeal against many decisions in the area of

1548:

the willingness of Australian governments, including supporters of States' rights, to exercise their powers to the full

1528:

the development of new areas of competence which did not exist at Federation, and which have fallen to the Commonwealth

1276:, which has been described as "an allocation of exclusive powers to both levels of government, not concurrent powers." 1239:

more completely written constitutional systems also develop binding conventions: for instance, popular election to the

1122:

A brief overview of the other listed features will provide a background for the doctrinal developments examined below.

5623: 4544: 3608: 3582: 2310: 1375: 1210: 1172: 1097: 936: 152: 4734: 2688: 2065:

contains a prohibition: "nor shall private property be taken ... without just compensation". The differences between

1366:", that is, answerable, to it, and that the continued existence of the government would depend on it maintaining the 5684: 5073: 4276: 3535: 3108: 1815: 1750: 1413:

is dealt with in Chapter II, and is vested in the Governor-General as the Queen's representative (section 61). The

1303: 1244: 866: 720: 408: 364: 2305:". In 1975 two judges of the High Court suggested that these requirements may amount to a right to vote, holding " 1186:

may also include the power to dismiss a Prime Minister who is engaging in persistent illegal action (Governor Sir

5618: 5363: 2322: 2182:

was the High Court's disallowance of a Commonwealth Act which had the aim of nationalising the banking industry.

2057:

The Constitution gives the Commonwealth power "with respect to ... the acquisition of property on just terms" in

1834:

under the World Heritage Convention to which Australia is a party. Land use is otherwise a State responsibility.

1027: 1007: 1001: 985: 826: 86: 5562: 5546: 5292: 5261: 5248: 5233: 5203: 5181: 5137: 5124: 5115: 5109: 5060: 5029: 4979: 4953: 4703: 4553: 4523: 4448: 4439: 4418: 4405: 4366: 4335: 4321: 4301: 4262: 4221: 4201: 4176: 4156: 4134: 4112: 4090: 4065: 4045: 4025: 3986: 3966: 3852: 3801: 3774: 3754: 3734: 3651: 3617: 3592: 3566: 3544: 3517: 3487: 3467: 3444: 3430: 3408: 3382: 3356: 3342: 3320: 3294: 3272: 3258: 3236: 3214: 3184: 3162: 3139: 3117: 3091: 3087: 3073: 3033: 2764: 2750: 2510: 2369: 2271: 1463: 1363: 1344: 1236:

is confined almost entirely to the relations between the Queen/Governor-General and the Ministers of State; and

1213:, as well as performing (by invitation) certain ceremonial functions when personally present in Australia. See 1046: 916: 735: 543: 236: 2878: 2827: 1582:

As a result, the constitution is no longer read in a way which attempts to preserve the power of the states.

5526: 5490: 5454: 5377: 4957: 4921: 4901: 4897: 4452: 3914: 3713: 3507: 3003: 2986: 2505: 2485: 2269:

other countries, even where there is no direct nexus with the exercise of political choice in Australia. In

2123: 1827: 1721:

The development of various technologies during the twentieth century also added to the power of the centre.

1495: 1262: 1176: 1145: 1112: 989: 871: 851: 846: 356: 228: 218: 34: 1704:

These "franchise fees" were mostly calculated according to the value of the retailer's sales in a specific

5689: 5511: 5485: 4893: 1842: 1838: 1307: 1273: 1240: 921: 901: 876: 861: 816: 606: 479: 461: 346: 314: 5428: 4970: 4943: 4600: 4566: 2392: 2314: 2295: 1904: 1569: 1563: 1191: 1131: 1111:

review of legislation for conformity with the Constitution has been exercised almost exclusively by the

807: 389: 142: 105: 62: 4829: 4789: 2597:

The constitution of a federal commonwealth : the making and meaning of the Australian constitution

2003:

As mentioned, there are five rights which the Constitution guarantees against the Commonwealth –

1347:, which requires that the Bill to amend the Constitution be approved by a majority of electors overall 4503: 4499: 2701: 1814:, even if the subject matter of the treaty is otherwise not within Commonwealth power. In the case of 1284:

matters referred to the Commonwealth by a State in paragraph (xxxvii)). By contrast, the subjects in

5413: 5077: 3421: 3249: 2982: 1831: 1766: 1439: 1402: 1379: 1367: 1195: 1053: 588: 205: 1903:

To a very large extent, the Constitution leaves it to Parliament to determine both the High Court's

29:

For the story of how Australia evolved from a set of British colonies to an independent nation, see

3175: 2342: 2004: 1963:

an ambiguously worded prohibition on discrimination against residents of other States (section 117)

1951: 1491: 1482:

Constitutional referendums were based on the Swiss practice. However, the Swiss use of the popular

725: 2319:...in Australia, there may be a basic right to vote implied in the text of the constitution itself 5633: 5274: 5089: 4482: 4002: 3879: 2798: 1916: 1483: 1157: 1106: 399: 394: 42: 3946: 3928: 3887: 3873: 2456:

a feature of the New South Wales constitution, so the State Act was not invalid on that ground.

1960:"just terms" for the compulsory "acquisition" of property by the Commonwealth (section 51(xxxi)) 1633:

and so on. The law can be supported by those powers although Parliament intended it to be an '

1531:

the growing importance of legislative areas that were always Commonwealth powers (for example,

1302:

The list of powers assigned to the Federal Parliament is quite similar to that assigned by the

5715: 5459: 5397: 5220: 5194: 5146: 5081: 4755: 4578: 4466: 3942: 3883: 3863: 3861: 3041: 2849: 2790: 2689:

American and Australian Constitutions: Continuing Adventures in Comparative Constitutional Law

2663: 2634: 2611: 2601: 2437: 2397: 2356: 2251: 1634: 1518:

doctrines of constitutional interpretation which favour a broad reading of Commonwealth powers

1406: 926: 911: 250: 198: 4804:

High Court Justice Sir Owen Dixon described the power of the Australian Parliament to invest

4630: 4392: 4272: 4236:"Political Discussion as a Defence to Defamation: Lange v Australian Broadcasting Commission" 2036:

as the official religion of the Commonwealth would come within the terms of the prohibition.

17: 5155: 4813: 4527: 4519: 4474: 4081: 3929:"The (Limited) Significance of the Individual in Section 117 State Residence Discrimination" 3557: 3290: 3069: 2815: 2477: 2368:

As mentioned above, the fact that the Constitution prescribes a system of "responsible", or

2187: 1908: 1668: 1447: 1062: 981: 894: 556: 466: 160: 5257: 5229: 5199: 5177: 5133: 5120: 5105: 5056: 5025: 4996: 4975: 4949: 4873: 4847: 4773: 4739: 4699: 4444: 4427: 4414: 4383: 4362: 4317: 4297: 4258: 4235: 4217: 4197: 4172: 4152: 4108: 4086: 4061: 4041: 3982: 3962: 3902: 3848: 3819: 3770: 3750: 3730: 3613: 3588: 3562: 3540: 3513: 3483: 3440: 3426: 3404: 3378: 3352: 3338: 3316: 3254: 3232: 3210: 3158: 3135: 3113: 3029: 2956: 2937: 2909: 2760: 1818:, the High Court found that the Commonwealth had the power to implement the United Nations 1689:

This arrangement was twice challenged by the States in the High Court and twice upheld. In

76: 5244: 4549: 4401: 4130: 4021: 3797: 3647: 3463: 3268: 3180: 2746: 1927: 1807:

in Europe by Australian citizens was held a valid exercise of the external affairs power.

1663:

being still a newer notion). Since one of the main reasons for Federation was to create a

1410: 1315: 1078: 906: 446: 379: 367: 5000: 4877: 4851: 3906: 3823: 2960: 1655:

At the time of Federation, the colonies' main source of revenue consisted of customs and

3083: 1479:. A double majority – a majority of electors and of a majority of states – is required. 4531: 2573: 2086: 2033: 1451: 1332: 1272:

Federal Parliament by the Constitution. The framers rejected an alternative model, the

1217:

for further details on the development of the monarch's role in relation to Australia.

1199: 1183: 1141: 419: 241: 177: 3630: 2902:"Research Note 24 1997–98 – Powers of the Head of State of Australia and South Africa" 2341:" conferred a limited "right to vote". In principle, these words guaranteed qualified 6562: 5541: 5316:

Greg Craven, "Conversations with the Constitution" (1st ed, UNSW Press, Sydney, 2004)

4652: 4486: 3685: 3667: 3024: 2951: 2179: 1992: 1969: 1664: 1322:

which, at the time of Federation, could be exercised only by the British Parliament.

1137: 384: 374: 1885:

On 14 November 2006, the High Court by a 5-to-2 majority upheld the validity of the

1872:

it covers at least all commercial enterprises carried out under the corporate form.

4900:

children who had been systematically removed from their families by the Australian

2043:

religion by prohibiting the Commonwealth from "imposing any religious observance".

1988: 1984: 1804: 1683: 325: 1948:

right to vote in Commonwealth elections if one can vote in State ones (section 41)

1849:, to which Australia is a party. Rather than challenge the resulting Commonwealth 1409:

is dealt with in Chapter I, and is vested in the Federal Parliament (section 1).

1877: 1745:

The Commonwealth power has been extended by four constitutional amendments. An

1471:

On the same principle, any amendment to the Constitution requires approval at a

1187: 293: 113: 4655:

Electoral and Referendum Amendment (Electoral Integrity and Other Measures) Act

4478: 2119:

provides protection against discrimination on the basis of state of residence.

1450:), or a combination of appointment for life and hereditary succession (British 1351:

a majority of electors in a majority of States (that is, four out of the six).

988:. Legal cases regarding Australian constitutional law are often handled by the 2467: 2403:

The converse of the separation of powers is the decision of the High Court in

2327: 2192: 1920: 1810:

The power has also been held to extend to the implementation of international

1800: 1679: 1660: 1472: 1414: 1268: 1069: 1040: 700: 304: 272: 129: 4582: 2853: 2794: 2667: 2615: 1115:, and almost invariably with a full bench of all its members, such as in the 5332: 4816:

expedient", essentially an economy measure in a country of small population.

4717:"Prisoners and the Right to Vote: Roach v AEC and Commonwealth of Australia" 841: 261: 1075:

only very limited guarantees of personal rights (rejection of the US model)

1065:

as a representative of a monarch (existing colonial models, notably Canada)

4467:"Voices in the Political Wilderness: Women in the Sydney Anglican Diocese" 1160:(section 64)., however, the practical use of such powers is restricted by 3767:

Church of the New Faith v Commissioner of Pay-roll Tax (Scientology case)

1912: 1811: 1713:

dependence of the States on the Commonwealth had become almost complete.

95: 4993:

Victorian Stevedoring & General Contracting Company Pty Ltd v Dignan

2802: 2778: 2418:

instance, it has held that a power to authorise telephone interceptions

1853:

of 1994, the Tasmanian Parliament repealed the legislation in question.

1609:

could also be categorised as a law regarding some other subject matter.

1119:. Influence from American jurisprudence has occurred in specific cases. 37:. For a briefer outline of the basic structure of the Constitution, see 4676: 2930:"Research Note 25 1997–98 – The Reserve Powers of the Governor-General" 1931: 1954:, and prohibition of religious tests for Federal offices (section 116) 1780:

to refer the power over incorporation to the Commonwealth Parliament.

5168:

Wilson v Minister for Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander Affairs

2716:"The Other Metropolis: The Australian Founders' Knowledge of America" 2309:" In 1983 the High Court took a limited view of the right to vote in 1049:, or "responsible", government (British and existing colonial models) 4982:

1 per Toohey J at p. 84, Gaudron J at p. 110 and Gummow J at p. 162.

3643:

R v Federal Court of Australia; Ex parte WA National Football League

2842:"Analysis | Comparing Australian and American federal jurisprudence" 2702:

A Comparison of the Constitutions of Australia and the United States

2656:"Analysis | Comparing Australian and American federal jurisprudence" 1521:

the "fiscal imbalance" between the Commonwealth and the States (see

4769:

Day v Australian Electoral Officer for the State of South Australia

1820:

Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination

1696:

States are also at the mercy of the High Court's definition of an "

1026:

in London. It came into force on 1 January 1901, at which time the

5297:

Australian Constitutional Law and Theory: Commentary and Materials

2409:

in 1956, that Chapter III courts cannot be invested with anything

2633:(6 ed.). Leichhardt, NSW: Federation Press. pp. 77–88. 2631:

Blackshield and Williams Australian Constitutional Law and Theory

1753:

allowed the Commonwealth to take over and manage state debts. An

1206:

when the Governor-General acted against the advice of Ministers.

3870:"Section 117 of the Constitution: The Unfinished Rehabilitation" 3334:

Actors and Announcers Equity Association v Fontana Films Pty Ltd

5336: 4620:"Inside outcasts: prisoners and the right to vote in Australia" 1957:

trial by jury in Federal cases tried on indictment (section 80)

1198:

of the House of Representatives, is not able to get the annual

4869:

Waterside Workers' Federation of Australia v J W Alexander Ltd

1697: 1656: 1171:

The reserve powers allow The Governor General to commission a

1037:

constitutional monarchy (British and existing colonial models)

751: 1059:

direct election to both Houses of Parliament (then a novelty)

4058:

North Eastern Dairy Co Ltd v Dairy Industry Authority of NSW

3205:

Amalgamated Society of Engineers v Adelaide Steamship Co Ltd

2090:

the value of the property when it was compulsorily acquired

1267:

The Constitution sets up the Commonwealth of Australia as a

75: 5383:

Chapter I of the Constitution of Australia: The Legislature

1136:

Australia is a constitutional monarchy. Although the term "

5419:

Chapter II of the Constitution of Australia: The Executive

5152:

Gypsy Jokers Motorcycle Club INC v Commissioner of Police

3228:

Jumbunna Coal Mine NL v Victorian Coal Miners' Association

2816:

COMPARATIVE LAW IN AUSTRALIAN CONSTITUTIONAL JURISPRUDENCE

2430:, a court that may be invested with Federal jurisdiction. 2396:(1997) the High Court considered claims by members of the 33:, and for a discussion of Australia's federal system, see 5304:

The Annotated Constitution of the Australian Commonwealth

5053:

Brandy v Human Rights & Equal Opportunity Commission

3153:

Attorney-General for NSW v Brewery Employees Union of NSW

1018:

in 1900 after its text had been negotiated in Australian

2039:

Section 116 also protects the right of a person to have

4424:

Gibbs v Christies Beach Sports & Social Club (No 1)

2629:

Williams, George; Brennan, Sean; Lynch, Andrew (2014).

41:. For an overview of constitutional law generally, see 4516:

Attorney-General (Cth); Ex rel McKinlay v Commonwealth

3064:

R v Kirby; Ex parte Boilermakers' Society of Australia

2900:

Ireland, Ian & Magarey, Kirsty (23 January 1998).

2828:

UNITED STATES INFLUENCE ON THE AUSTRALIAN LEGAL SYSTEM

2326:

injury in a car accident and her legal team comprised

1378:

and Cabinet, and the requirement for them to have the

1096:

The process of judicial review – the ability of

984:

relating to the interpretation and application of the

5639:

Australian Constitution (Public Record Copy) Act 1990

3815:

Adelaide Co of Jehovah's Witnesses Inc v Commonwealth

2553: – inconsistency between state and federal laws 1731:

interstate and international trade and commerce power

1558:

Reserved State powers doctrine and the Engineers case

5460:

Chapter III of the constitution of Australia: Courts

4293:

Australian Capital Television Pty Ltd v Commonwealth

2227:

Australian Capital Television Pty Ltd v Commonwealth

2122:

Historically, section 117 had been read down by the

1847:

International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights

1318:

in the US – has in some cases been different.

6404: 5749: 5698: 5675:

2017–18 Australian parliamentary eligibility crisis

5647: 5611: 5555: 5499: 5478: 5447: 5406: 5370: 3788:

Attorney-General (Vic); Ex Rel Black v Commonwealth

2967:

at p. 606 per Grifith CJ, Barton & O'Connor JJ.

1935:constitutional writs involved immigration matters. 1923:is sought against an officer of the Commonwealth". 4719:. Human Rights Law Resource Centre. Archived from 4672:"Prisoner goes to High Court to win right to vote" 5329:from the Australian Attorney-General's Department 4752:Holmdahl v Australian Electoral Commission (No 2) 4269:Suntory (Aust) Pty Ltd v Commissioner of Taxation 2280:First Amendment to the United States Constitution 2063:Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution 2053:Section 51(xxxi) of the Constitution of Australia 2030:First Amendment to the United States Constitution 5299:(3rd ed., Federation Press, Annandale NSW, 2002) 5002: 4879: 4853: 3908: 3825: 3670:Workplace Relations Amendment (Work Choices) Act 2962: 3707:"High Court of Australia Annual Report 2014-15" 3577: 3575: 3058: 3056: 3054: 2578:"The Privy Council – an Australian Perspective" 1976:in the text and structure of the Constitution. 1790:Section 51(xxix) of the Australian Constitution 1343:Again, federalism is evident in the process of 1279:The bulk of enumerated powers are contained in 1072:for amendment of the Constitution (Swiss model) 4938: 4936: 4934: 3674:. Commonwealth of Australia. 12 December 2006. 3305: 3303: 2317:, writing extrajudicially in 2000, said that " 1597:, this approach was reinforced. For example, 5348: 5021:Kable v Director of Public Prosecutions (NSW) 4918:Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission 3603: 3601: 2985: at par. 32, 2 SCR 3 (31 May 2007), 2741:Australian Communist Party v The Commonwealth 2600:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 2428:Supreme Court of the State of New South Wales 2348:The 2006 legislation was again considered in 1867:Section 51(xx) of the Australian Constitution 1678:The Commonwealth has also come to monopolise 1651:Constitutional basis of taxation in Australia 1523:Constitutional basis of taxation in Australia 1202:passed by the Senate, as happened during the 958: 436:Federal Circuit and Family Court of Australia 8: 5076:have been appointed as the President of the 4800: 4798: 3840: 3838: 3836: 3199: 3197: 3195: 3193: 2117:Section 117 of the Constitution of Australia 2110:Section 117 of the Constitution of Australia 2017:Section 116 of the Constitution of Australia 1723:Section 51(v) of the Australian Constitution 1433:Direct election to both Houses of Parliament 5465:Section 75 of the Constitution of Australia 5424:Section 61 of the Constitution of Australia 5388:Section 51 of the Constitution of Australia 4843:New South Wales v Commonwealth (Wheat Case) 4358:Lange v Australian Broadcasting Corporation 4314:Theophanous v Herald & Weekly Times Ltd 3530: 3528: 3526: 3080:Attorney-General (Commonwealth) v The Queen 2496:Separation of church and state in Australia 2260:Lange v Australian Broadcasting Corporation 2173:Section 92 of the Constitution of Australia 2103:Protection against residency discrimination 1930:, especially in regard to applications for 1586:Broad interpretation of Commonwealth powers 6464:(xviii) Copyrights, patents and trademarks 5753: 5532:Implied freedom of political communication 5355: 5341: 5333: 4647: 4645: 4643: 2923: 2921: 2919: 2551:Section 109 of the Australian Constitution 2246:representative democracy did not prevail. 1446:in 1913), executive appointment for life ( 1012:Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 965: 951: 49: 39:Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 4607:. Commonwealth of Australia. 16 May 2005. 4126:Castlemaine Tooheys Ltd v South Australia 3690:"The Role of the Courts in Migration Law" 3662: 3660: 3393: 3391: 3367: 3365: 3131:White v Director of Military Prosecutions 2516:Section 51 of the Australian Constitution 5629:Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942 5306:(LexisNexis Butterworths, Sydney, 2002) 5015: 5013: 4689: 4687: 3436:Matthews v Chicory Marketing Board (Vic) 2877:. australianpolitics.com. Archived from 2783:Australasian Journal of American Studies 1944:several specific rights. These include: 1337:Australian constitutional crisis of 1975 1204:Australian constitutional crisis of 1975 1002:Constitution of Australia § History 4659:. Commonwealth of Australia. July 2007. 4506:Commonwealth of Australia Constitution. 4187: 4185: 4148:Betfair Pty Limited v Western Australia 4076: 4074: 3502: 3500: 3498: 3496: 2565: 2433:Kable v Director of Public Prosecutions 1458:Referendum for constitutional amendment 1425:to be or become members of Parliament. 691:Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade 85: 61: 55:This article is part of a series on the 6429:(v) Post and telegraph (communication) 5240:Kirk v Industrial Relations Commission 4287: 4285: 2337:that the requirement that members be " 1769:scheme of universal health insurance. 1765:grants power, it is the basis for the 1241:Electoral College of the United States 5690:Separatist movements within Australia 5537:Implied immunity of instrumentalities 5313:(4th ed., Butterworths, Sydney, 1997) 2321:". Prior to 2006 prisoners were only 2142:Trial by jury for indictable offences 1401:The Constitution features a distinct 1383:government to table documents in the 1247:, has probably become a binding norm. 1190:of New South Wales dismissed Premier 7: 5741:VIII: Alteration of the Constitution 5680:List of proposed states of Australia 2875:"Key Terms: Constitutional Monarchy" 2158:On the other hand, where Parliament 6524:(xxxv) Conciliation and arbitration 5655:Constitutional history of Australia 5311:The High Court and the Constitution 5072:As of June 2017 judges of the 4589:from the original on 26 April 2013. 4169:Sportsbet Pty Ltd v New South Wales 3747:Street v Queensland Bar Association 3000:"House of Representatives Practice" 2691:, 30 J. Marshall L. Rev. 627 (1997) 2491:Constitutional history of Australia 2132:Street v Queensland Bar Association 1500:Constitutional history of Australia 1215:Constitutional history of Australia 1086:The Constitution and the High Court 31:constitutional history of Australia 4627:Parliamentary Library of Australia 4344:Parliamentary Library of Australia 3348:Fairfax v Commissioner of Taxation 3286:Wenn v Attorney-General (Victoria) 3264:Clyde Engineering Co Ltd v Cowburn 2934:Parliamentary Library of Australia 2928:Downing, Susan (23 January 1998). 2906:Parliamentary Library of Australia 2214:Freedom of political communication 2208:Freedom of political communication 2185:In 1988 following the decision in 1619:interstate and international trade 1102:Supreme Court of the United States 25: 6419:(i) Interstate trade and commerce 4575:(2001) 21 Australian Bar Review 1 2840:Aroney, Nicholas; Kincaid, John. 2654:Aroney, Nicholas; Kincaid, John. 2501:Separation of powers in Australia 1983:Although express protections for 1851:Human Rights (Sexual Conduct) Act 1397:Separation of powers in Australia 1370:in the House of Representatives. 1179:in the House of Representatives. 4670:Kenneth Nguyen (25 April 2007). 3609:Richardson v Forestry Commission 3098: (on appeal from Australia). 2978:Canadian Western Bank v. Alberta 2470: 2379:separation of the judicial power 2167:Freedom from economic regulation 2108:This section is an excerpt from 888: 744:Australia and the United Nations 240: 235: 6469:(xix) Naturalization and aliens 5086:Administrative Appeals Tribunal 4904:and State government agencies: 4735:Murphy v Electoral Commissioner 4618:Jerome Davidson (24 May 2004). 4254:Nationwide News Pty Ltd v Wills 4018:(the Bank Nationalisation Case) 3939:Melbourne University Law Review 3933:Melbourne University Law Review 3631:Toonen v Australia (1994) UNHCR 3401:("the Second Uniform Tax case") 2756:Pape v Commissioner of Taxation 2518: – federal heads of power 2333:In 2007 the High Court held in 2221:Nationwide News Pty Ltd v Wills 1477:section 128 of the Constitution 6519:(xxxi) Acquisition of property 5302:John Quick and Robert Garran, 4695:Roach v Electoral Commissioner 4104:Bath v Alston Holdings Pty Ltd 3375:("the First Uniform Tax case") 3373:South Australia v Commonwealth 2714:Evans, Harry (December 2009). 2335:Roach v Electoral Commissioner 1841:on Tasmanian provisions. The 1226:British unwritten constitution 1: 6569:Australian constitutional law 5507:Australian Constitutional Law 5327:Full text of the Constitution 5275:Community Protection Act 1994 4567:The Hon Justice Michael Kirby 4193:Rowe v Electoral Commissioner 2704:, 4 Buff. L. Rev. 155 (1955). 2574:The Honourable Murray Gleeson 2350:Rowe v Electoral Commissioner 2339:directly chosen by the people 2330:, QC and Michael Pearce, SC. 2303:directly chosen by the people 2022:Commonwealth" (section 116). 1603:Workplace Relations Challenge 1243:, though not mandated by the 978:Australian constitutional law 18:Australian Constitutional Law 5711:II: The Executive Government 5254:Attorney-General v Emmerson 4465:Landrigan, Mitchell (2009). 4003:[2000] HCATrans 687 2284:Anti-Discrimination Act 1977 1772:The High Court decided that 1553:Centralising interpretations 1542:constitutional amendment or 1475:, by the process set out in 1092:Judicial review in Australia 932:Australian Capital Territory 594:Premiers and chief ministers 589:Governors and administrators 5624:Statute of Westminster 1931 5603:Retirement of judges (1977) 4545:R v Pearson; Ex parte Sipka 4214:McGinty v Western Australia 3868:Matheison, Michael (1999). 3686:Chief Justice Robert French 3583:Polyukhovich v Commonwealth 2720:Papers on Parliament No. 52 2311:R v Pearson; Ex parte Sipka 1691:the Second Uniform Tax case 1387:after he refused to do so. 1098:The High Court of Australia 544:Referendums and plebiscites 6585: 5685:Republicanism in Australia 5665:Constitutional Conventions 5522:Constitutional conventions 4792:Judicial power and Courts. 4756:[2012] SASCFC 110 4603:Commonwealth Electoral Act 4479:10.1177/1037969X0903400307 4277:Federal Court (Full Court) 4016:Bank of NSW v Commonwealth 3899:Davies v Western Australia 3830:) at p. 123 per Latham CJ. 3536:Koowarta v Bjelke-Petersen 3109:Re Wakim; Ex parte McNally 2830:, THE HON ROBERT FRENCH AC 2583:. High Court of Australia. 2447:It is clear that, had the 2357:2016 Senate voting changes 2293: 2211: 2170: 2130:In the 1989 landmark case 2107: 2050: 2014: 1864: 1845:was established under the 1816:Koowarta v Bjelke-Petersen 1787: 1784:The external affairs power 1648: 1561: 1461: 1394: 1304:United States Constitution 1260: 1245:United States Constitution 1222:constitutional conventions 1129: 1089: 1020:Constitutional Conventions 1014:, which was passed by the 1006:Constitutional law in the 999: 599:Parliaments and assemblies 462:State and territory courts 409:Federal Court of Australia 28: 5756: 5619:Constitution of Australia 5542:Reserve power (sovereign) 5439:Federal Executive Council 5364:Constitution of Australia 5221:[2012] NSWCA 243 5147:[2012] NSWCA 266 5116:Wainohu v New South Wales 4571:"Upholding The Franchise" 4451:17 (7 October 2015), 4393:[2011] SASCFC 84 3913: (23 December 1904), 3510:(the Tasmanian Dams Case) 3042:[1999] NSWCA 176 2594:Aroney, Nicholas (2009). 2047:"Just terms" compensation 1824:Racial Discrimination Act 1737:envisaged at Federation. 1669:vertical fiscal imbalance 1234:constitutional convention 1162:constitutional convention 1028:Commonwealth of Australia 1008:Commonwealth of Australia 986:Constitution of Australia 188:Federal Executive Council 6494:(xxiiiA) Social security 5393:House of Representatives 5156:[2008] WASC 166 4946:(Stolen Generation case) 4440:McCloy v New South Wales 3927:Simpson, Amelia (2008). 2777:KEYZER, PATRICK (2000). 2530:Trade and Commerce Power 2511:Referendums in Australia 2272:McCloy v New South Wales 1899:Access to the High Court 1762:amendment passed in 1946 1755:amendment passed in 1967 1464:Referendums in Australia 1358:Parliamentary government 1345:constitutional amendment 1326:Parliamentary structures 1312:Trade and Commerce Power 529:Federal electoral system 283:House of Representatives 6509:(xxix) External affairs 5593:Casual vacancies (1977) 5568:Senate elections (1906) 5084:, and President of the 4520:[1975] HCA 653 4471:Alternative Law Journal 4428:[2000] SADC 28 4384:[2000] SADC 35 4273:[2009] FCAFC 80 3508:Commonwealth v Tasmania 3399:Victoria v Commonwealth 3291:[1948] HCA 134 3070:[1956] HCA 110 3044:, (1999) 46 NSWLR 563, 3004:Parliament of Australia 2763:, (2009) 238 2506:Federalism in Australia 2486:Australian Constitution 2313:. The High Court Judge 1857:political controversy. 1717:New areas of competence 1612:Likewise, Parliament's 1509:Growth of federal power 1385:NSW Legislative Council 1263:Federalism in Australia 1126:Constitutional monarchy 1113:High Court of Australia 990:High Court of Australia 612:State electoral systems 357:High Court of Australia 35:Federalism in Australia 6406:Enumerated legislative 5583:Social services (1946) 5578:2nd State debts (1928) 5573:1st State debts (1910) 5512:Responsible government 5486:Inter-State Commission 5258:[2014] HCA 13 5230:[1983] HCA 12 5200:[2004] HCA 37 5134:[1985] HCA 16 5121:[2011] HCA 24 5106:[1995] HCA 26 5057:[1995] HCA 10 5026:[1996] HCA 24 4997:[1931] HCA 34 4920:. 1997. Archived from 4898:Torres Strait Islander 4874:[1918] HCA 56 4848:[1915] HCA 17 4774:[2016] HCA 20 4740:[2016] HCA 36 4700:[2007] HCA 43 4415:[2013] HCA 58 4363:[1997] HCA 25 4318:[1994] HCA 46 4298:[1992] HCA 45 4259:[1992] HCA 46 4218:[1996] HCA 48 4198:[2010] HCA 46 4173:[2012] HCA 18 4153:[2008] HCA 11 4109:[1988] HCA 27 4087:[1988] HCA 18 4062:[1975] HCA 45 4042:[1950] HCA 18 3983:[1915] HCA 13 3963:[1993] HCA 44 3903:[1904] HCA 46 3849:[1985] HCA 72 3771:[1983] HCA 40 3751:[1989] HCA 53 3731:[1973] HCA 32 3614:[1988] HCA 10 3589:[1991] HCA 32 3563:[2007] HCA 33 3541:[1982] HCA 27 3514:[1983] HCA 21 3484:[1949] HCA 46 3441:[1938] HCA 38 3427:[1997] HCA 34 3405:[1957] HCA 54 3379:[1942] HCA 14 3353:[1965] HCA 64 3339:[1982] HCA 23 3317:[2006] HCA 52 3255:[1930] HCA 12 3233:[1908] HCA 95 3211:[1920] HCA 54 3159:[1908] HCA 94 3136:[2007] HCA 29 3114:[1999] HCA 27 3066:("Boilermakers' case") 3030:[1998] HCA 71 2761:[2009] HCA 23 2743:(Communist party case) 2538:External Affairs Power 2099:addresses this issue. 1861:The corporations power 1843:Human Rights Committee 1839:Human Rights Committee 1774:the corporations power 1544:referral by the States 1335:Bill, although as the 709:Diplomatic missions of 581:States and territories 80: 6514:(xxx) Pacific islands 5721:IV: Finance and Trade 5547:Reserved State powers 5291:Tony Blackshield and 5245:[2010] HCA 1 5178:[1996] HCA 18 5172:Hindmarsh Island case 4976:[1997] HCA 27 4971:Kruger v Commonwealth 4950:[1997] HCA 27 4944:Kruger v Commonwealth 4550:[1983] HCA 6 4445:[2015] HCA 34 4402:[2013] HCA 4 4131:[1990] HCA 1 4022:[1948] HCA 7 3845:Kingswell v The Queen 3820:[1943] HCA 12 3798:[1981] HCA 2 3648:[1979] HCA 6 3585:(War Crimes Act Case) 3464:[1990] HCA 2 3269:[1926] HCA 6 3181:[1904] HCA 1 3084:[1957] UKPC 4 2957:[1904] HCA 57 2747:[1951] HCA 5 2393:Kruger v Commonwealth 2296:Suffrage in Australia 2153:Kingswell v the Queen 1972:of rights said to be 1905:original jurisdiction 1570:reserved State powers 1564:Reserved State powers 1444:Seventeenth Amendment 1314:in Australia and the 1177:vote of no confidence 1132:Monarchy in Australia 1043:(United States model) 229:Australian Parliament 170:Deputy Prime Minister 79: 5612:Constitutional texts 5517:Separation of powers 5217:Kable v State of NSW 5078:Fair Work Commission 4927:on 29 December 2005. 4812:jurisdiction as an " 4389:Adelaide v Corneloup 4240:High Court Review 13 3999:Brownlee v The Queen 3460:(Incorporation case) 3422:Ha v New South Wales 3048:(NSW, Australia) 2364:Right to due process 2093:The Australian film 1894:Protection of rights 1778:'the referral power' 1537:trading corporations 1494:(rather than on the 1440:United States Senate 1403:separation of powers 1391:Separation of powers 1117:Communist Party case 1054:separation of powers 895:Australia portal 6504:(xxvii) Immigration 6408:powers (Section 51) 5716:III: The Judicature 3959:Cheatle v The Queen 3876:on 25 October 2000. 2355:a challenge to the 2343:universal franchise 2238:political matters. 2127:state of domicile. 2061:. By contrast, the 2011:Freedom of religion 1952:freedom of religion 1832:World Heritage Area 1828:Tasmanian Dams Case 1822:in the form of the 1568:Prior to 1920 the " 1492:popular sovereignty 980:is the area of the 534:Electoral divisions 6539:(xxxviii) Imperial 6529:(xxxvi) Transition 5736:VII: Miscellaneous 5634:Australia Act 1986 5598:Referendums (1977) 5588:Aboriginals (1967) 5563:Referendum process 5479:Other institutions 5470:Boilermakers' Case 5143:KS v Veitch (No 2) 4914:Bringing Them Home 4601:"Section 93(8)(b) 3880:Federal Law Review 3458:NSW v Commonwealth 3313:(WorkChoices case) 3311:NSW v Commonwealth 3155:(Union Label Case) 2687:James A. Thomson, 2534:Corporations Power 2406:Boilermakers' Case 1257:Division of powers 1220:The importance of 1107:Marbury v. Madison 1016:British Parliament 937:Northern Territory 552:Voter registration 81: 43:constitutional law 6556: 6555: 6552: 6551: 6534:(xxxvii) Referral 6474:(xx) Corporations 5706:I: The Parliament 5371:Legislative power 5195:Al-Kateb v Godwin 4907:"Community Guide" 4398:Monis v The Queen 4234:Burns, R (1997). 4038:McCarter v Brodie 3688:(25 March 2011). 2818:, NICHOLAS ARONEY 2640:978-1-86287-918-8 2607:978-1-139-12968-8 2438:Bill of attainder 2398:Stolen Generation 2005:religious freedom 1939:No Bill of Rights 1826:. In the case of 1803:committed during 1751:amendment in 1928 1747:amendment in 1910 1635:environmental law 1407:Legislative power 1295:Both concurrent ( 1068:requirement of a 1052:distinct textual 1030:came into being. 975: 974: 917:Western Australia 731:Visa requirements 683:Foreign relations 669:Political parties 567:Political funding 562:Political parties 199:Albanese ministry 66: 16:(Redirected from 6576: 6544:(xxxix) Incident 6489:(xxiii) Pensions 5754: 5434:Governor-General 5357: 5350: 5343: 5334: 5279: 5271: 5265: 5226:Fencott v Muller 5213: 5207: 5191: 5185: 5164: 5158: 5099: 5093: 5070: 5064: 5049: 5043: 5039: 5033: 5017: 5008: 5004: 4989: 4983: 4967: 4961: 4940: 4929: 4928: 4926: 4911: 4891: 4885: 4881: 4865: 4859: 4855: 4839: 4833: 4823: 4817: 4802: 4793: 4783: 4777: 4765: 4759: 4749: 4743: 4731: 4725: 4724: 4723:on 6 March 2008. 4713: 4707: 4691: 4682: 4681: 4667: 4661: 4660: 4649: 4638: 4637: 4635: 4629:. 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Archived from 2897: 2891: 2890: 2888: 2886: 2881:on 8 August 2010 2871: 2865: 2864: 2862: 2860: 2837: 2831: 2825: 2819: 2813: 2807: 2806: 2774: 2768: 2737: 2731: 2730: 2728: 2726: 2711: 2705: 2698: 2692: 2685: 2679: 2678: 2676: 2674: 2651: 2645: 2644: 2626: 2620: 2619: 2591: 2585: 2584: 2582: 2576:(18 June 2008). 2570: 2480: 2478:Australia portal 2475: 2474: 2473: 2188:Cole v Whitfield 2059:Section 51(xxxi) 1645:Fiscal imbalance 1533:external affairs 1448:Senate of Canada 1232:the reliance on 1150:Governor-General 1063:Governor-General 982:law of Australia 967: 960: 953: 893: 892: 891: 857:Multiculturalism 832:Environmentalism 810: 698:Foreign Minister 684: 627: 626:Local government 582: 557:Leadership spill 489:Recent elections 482: 467:Law of Australia 349: 244: 239: 221: 161:Anthony Albanese 145: 122:Governor-General 98: 69: 64: 56: 50: 21: 6584: 6583: 6579: 6578: 6577: 6575: 6574: 6573: 6559: 6558: 6557: 6548: 6459:(xiv) Insurance 6439:(ix) Quarantine 6407: 6400: 5745: 5694: 5643: 5607: 5551: 5495: 5474: 5443: 5407:Executive power 5402: 5366: 5361: 5323: 5293:George Williams 5288: 5283: 5282: 5272: 5268: 5252: 5237: 5224: 5214: 5210: 5192: 5188: 5165: 5161: 5150: 5141: 5128: 5113: 5102:Grollo v Palmer 5100: 5096: 5071: 5067: 5050: 5046: 5040: 5036: 5018: 5011: 4990: 4986: 4968: 4964: 4941: 4932: 4924: 4909: 4905: 4892: 4888: 4866: 4862: 4840: 4836: 4824: 4820: 4803: 4796: 4784: 4780: 4766: 4762: 4750: 4746: 4732: 4728: 4715: 4714: 4710: 4692: 4685: 4669: 4668: 4664: 4651: 4650: 4641: 4636:on 6 July 2004. 4633: 4622: 4617: 4616: 4612: 4599: 4598: 4594: 4565: 4564: 4560: 4542: 4538: 4514: 4510: 4498: 4494: 4464: 4463: 4459: 4437: 4433: 4422: 4409: 4396: 4387: 4377: 4373: 4355: 4351: 4334: 4332: 4328: 4312: 4308: 4290: 4283: 4266: 4251: 4247: 4233: 4232: 4228: 4212: 4208: 4190: 4183: 4167: 4163: 4145: 4141: 4123: 4119: 4101: 4097: 4079: 4072: 4056: 4052: 4036: 4032: 4013: 4009: 3997: 3993: 3977: 3973: 3957: 3953: 3926: 3925: 3921: 3897: 3893: 3867: 3866: 3859: 3843: 3834: 3812: 3808: 3785: 3781: 3765: 3761: 3745: 3741: 3725: 3721: 3709: 3705: 3704: 3700: 3692: 3684: 3683: 3679: 3666: 3665: 3658: 3640: 3636: 3628: 3624: 3606: 3599: 3580: 3573: 3555: 3551: 3533: 3524: 3505: 3494: 3478: 3474: 3455: 3451: 3419: 3415: 3396: 3389: 3370: 3363: 3345:169; See also: 3331: 3327: 3308: 3301: 3283: 3279: 3250:Ex parte McLean 3247: 3243: 3225: 3221: 3202: 3191: 3173: 3169: 3150: 3146: 3128: 3124: 3106: 3102: 3090:288; (1957) 95 3077: 3061: 3052: 3046:Court of Appeal 3038:Egan v Chadwick 3022: 3018: 3008: 3006: 2998: 2997: 2993: 2975: 2971: 2949: 2945: 2927: 2926: 2917: 2899: 2898: 2894: 2884: 2882: 2873: 2872: 2868: 2858: 2856: 2846:Washington Post 2839: 2838: 2834: 2826: 2822: 2814: 2810: 2776: 2775: 2771: 2738: 2734: 2724: 2722: 2713: 2712: 2708: 2699: 2695: 2686: 2682: 2672: 2670: 2660:Washington Post 2653: 2652: 2648: 2641: 2628: 2627: 2623: 2608: 2593: 2592: 2588: 2580: 2572: 2571: 2567: 2562: 2476: 2471: 2469: 2466: 2366: 2323:disenfranchised 2298: 2292: 2216: 2210: 2201: 2175: 2169: 2144: 2139: 2138: 2113: 2105: 2055: 2049: 2019: 2013: 2001: 1941: 1901: 1896: 1869: 1863: 1792: 1786: 1743: 1719: 1653: 1647: 1631:foreign affairs 1617:powers such as 1588: 1577:Engineer's case 1566: 1560: 1555: 1511: 1466: 1460: 1435: 1411:Executive power 1399: 1393: 1360: 1328: 1316:Commerce Clause 1265: 1259: 1254: 1134: 1128: 1094: 1088: 1079:judicial review 1004: 998: 971: 942: 941: 922:South Australia 902:New South Wales 889: 887: 882: 881: 812: 808: 800: 799: 761: 748: 740: 721:Nationality law 717: 705: 686: 682: 674: 673: 629: 625: 617: 616: 603: 584: 580: 572: 571: 548: 525: 484: 480: 472: 471: 458: 447:Will Alstergren 431: 404: 368:Stephen Gageler 351: 347: 339: 338: 334:Shadow Ministry 310: 278: 246: 223: 219: 211: 210: 183: 147: 143: 135: 134: 100: 96: 67: 63: 54: 46: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6582: 6580: 6572: 6571: 6561: 6560: 6554: 6553: 6550: 6549: 6547: 6546: 6541: 6536: 6531: 6526: 6521: 6516: 6511: 6506: 6501: 6496: 6491: 6486: 6484:(xxii) Divorce 6481: 6479:(xxi) Marriage 6476: 6471: 6466: 6461: 6456: 6454:(xiii) Banking 6451: 6449:(xii) Currency 6446: 6441: 6436: 6431: 6426: 6421: 6416: 6412: 6410: 6402: 6401: 6399: 6398: 6393: 6388: 6383: 6378: 6373: 6368: 6363: 6358: 6353: 6348: 6343: 6338: 6333: 6328: 6323: 6318: 6313: 6308: 6303: 6298: 6293: 6288: 6283: 6278: 6273: 6268: 6263: 6258: 6253: 6248: 6243: 6238: 6233: 6228: 6223: 6218: 6213: 6208: 6203: 6198: 6193: 6188: 6183: 6178: 6173: 6168: 6163: 6158: 6153: 6148: 6143: 6138: 6133: 6128: 6123: 6118: 6113: 6108: 6103: 6098: 6093: 6088: 6083: 6078: 6073: 6068: 6063: 6058: 6053: 6048: 6043: 6038: 6033: 6028: 6023: 6018: 6013: 6008: 6003: 5998: 5993: 5988: 5983: 5978: 5973: 5968: 5963: 5958: 5953: 5948: 5943: 5938: 5933: 5928: 5923: 5918: 5913: 5908: 5903: 5898: 5893: 5888: 5883: 5878: 5873: 5868: 5863: 5858: 5853: 5848: 5843: 5838: 5833: 5828: 5823: 5818: 5813: 5808: 5803: 5798: 5793: 5788: 5783: 5778: 5773: 5768: 5763: 5757: 5751: 5747: 5746: 5744: 5743: 5738: 5733: 5731:VI: New States 5728: 5723: 5718: 5713: 5708: 5702: 5700: 5696: 5695: 5693: 5692: 5687: 5682: 5677: 5672: 5662: 5657: 5651: 5649: 5645: 5644: 5642: 5641: 5636: 5631: 5626: 5621: 5615: 5613: 5609: 5608: 5606: 5605: 5600: 5595: 5590: 5585: 5580: 5575: 5570: 5565: 5559: 5557: 5553: 5552: 5550: 5549: 5544: 5539: 5534: 5529: 5524: 5519: 5514: 5509: 5503: 5501: 5497: 5496: 5494: 5493: 5488: 5482: 5480: 5476: 5475: 5473: 5472: 5467: 5462: 5457: 5451: 5449: 5448:Judicial power 5445: 5444: 5442: 5441: 5436: 5431: 5426: 5421: 5416: 5410: 5408: 5404: 5403: 5401: 5400: 5395: 5390: 5385: 5380: 5374: 5372: 5368: 5367: 5362: 5360: 5359: 5352: 5345: 5337: 5331: 5330: 5322: 5321:External links 5319: 5318: 5317: 5314: 5309:Leslie Zines, 5307: 5300: 5287: 5284: 5281: 5280: 5266: 5208: 5186: 5159: 5130:Hilton v Wells 5094: 5065: 5044: 5034: 5009: 4984: 4962: 4930: 4886: 4860: 4834: 4818: 4794: 4778: 4760: 4744: 4726: 4708: 4683: 4662: 4639: 4610: 4592: 4558: 4536: 4508: 4492: 4457: 4431: 4380:Bass v Roberts 4371: 4349: 4326: 4306: 4281: 4245: 4226: 4206: 4181: 4161: 4139: 4117: 4095: 4070: 4050: 4030: 4007: 3991: 3979:R v Bernasconi 3971: 3951: 3919: 3891: 3857: 3832: 3806: 3779: 3759: 3739: 3719: 3698: 3677: 3656: 3634: 3622: 3597: 3571: 3549: 3522: 3492: 3472: 3449: 3433:465; see also 3413: 3387: 3361: 3325: 3299: 3277: 3261:472; see also 3241: 3219: 3189: 3167: 3144: 3122: 3100: 3050: 3016: 2991: 2969: 2943: 2915: 2892: 2866: 2832: 2820: 2808: 2769: 2732: 2706: 2700:Zelman Cowan, 2693: 2680: 2646: 2639: 2621: 2606: 2586: 2564: 2563: 2561: 2558: 2557: 2556: 2555: 2554: 2545: 2544: 2543: 2542: 2541: 2540: 2522: 2521: 2520: 2519: 2508: 2503: 2498: 2493: 2488: 2482: 2481: 2465: 2462: 2365: 2362: 2294:Main article: 2291: 2288: 2212:Main article: 2209: 2206: 2200: 2199:Implied rights 2197: 2171:Main article: 2168: 2165: 2143: 2140: 2114: 2106: 2104: 2101: 2087:extinguishment 2073:, and between 2051:Main article: 2048: 2045: 2015:Main article: 2012: 2009: 2000: 1999:Express rights 1997: 1965: 1964: 1961: 1958: 1955: 1949: 1940: 1937: 1900: 1897: 1895: 1892: 1865:Main article: 1862: 1859: 1788:Main article: 1785: 1782: 1742: 1739: 1718: 1715: 1646: 1643: 1587: 1584: 1562:Main article: 1559: 1556: 1554: 1551: 1550: 1549: 1546: 1540: 1529: 1526: 1519: 1510: 1507: 1462:Main article: 1459: 1456: 1452:House of Lords 1434: 1431: 1395:Main article: 1392: 1389: 1376:Prime Minister 1359: 1356: 1327: 1324: 1261:Main article: 1258: 1255: 1253: 1250: 1249: 1248: 1237: 1211:Prime Minister 1184:reserve powers 1173:Prime Minister 1166:reserve powers 1142:Queen Victoria 1130:Main article: 1127: 1124: 1090:Main article: 1087: 1084: 1083: 1082: 1076: 1073: 1066: 1060: 1057: 1050: 1044: 1038: 997: 994: 973: 972: 970: 969: 962: 955: 947: 944: 943: 940: 939: 934: 929: 924: 919: 914: 909: 904: 898: 897: 884: 883: 880: 879: 874: 869: 864: 859: 854: 849: 844: 839: 834: 829: 824: 819: 813: 806: 805: 802: 801: 798: 797: 792: 787: 785:European Union 782: 777: 772: 770:United Kingdom 767: 760: 759: 754: 747: 746: 739: 738: 733: 728: 723: 716: 715: 704: 703: 694: 693: 687: 680: 679: 676: 675: 672: 671: 666: 661: 656: 651: 646: 641: 636: 630: 623: 622: 619: 618: 615: 614: 609: 602: 601: 596: 591: 585: 578: 577: 574: 573: 570: 569: 564: 559: 554: 547: 546: 541: 536: 531: 524: 523: 518: 513: 508: 503: 498: 492: 491: 485: 478: 477: 474: 473: 470: 469: 464: 457: 456: 454:List of Judges 450: 449: 440: 439: 430: 429: 427:List of Judges 423: 422: 420:Debra Mortimer 413: 412: 403: 402: 397: 392: 387: 382: 377: 371: 370: 361: 360: 352: 345: 344: 341: 340: 337: 336: 330: 329: 319: 318: 309: 308: 298: 297: 287: 286: 277: 276: 266: 265: 255: 254: 233: 232: 224: 217: 216: 213: 212: 209: 208: 202: 201: 192: 191: 182: 181: 178:Richard Marles 174: 173: 165: 164: 157: 156: 153:Prime Minister 148: 141: 140: 137: 136: 133: 132: 126: 125: 117: 116: 110: 109: 101: 94: 93: 90: 89: 83: 82: 72: 71: 59: 58: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6581: 6570: 6567: 6566: 6564: 6545: 6542: 6540: 6537: 6535: 6532: 6530: 6527: 6525: 6522: 6520: 6517: 6515: 6512: 6510: 6507: 6505: 6502: 6500: 6497: 6495: 6492: 6490: 6487: 6485: 6482: 6480: 6477: 6475: 6472: 6470: 6467: 6465: 6462: 6460: 6457: 6455: 6452: 6450: 6447: 6445: 6444:(x) Fisheries 6442: 6440: 6437: 6435: 6432: 6430: 6427: 6425: 6424:(ii) Taxation 6422: 6420: 6417: 6414: 6413: 6411: 6409: 6403: 6397: 6394: 6392: 6389: 6387: 6384: 6382: 6379: 6377: 6374: 6372: 6369: 6367: 6364: 6362: 6359: 6357: 6354: 6352: 6349: 6347: 6344: 6342: 6339: 6337: 6334: 6332: 6329: 6327: 6324: 6322: 6319: 6317: 6314: 6312: 6309: 6307: 6304: 6302: 6299: 6297: 6294: 6292: 6289: 6287: 6284: 6282: 6279: 6277: 6274: 6272: 6269: 6267: 6264: 6262: 6259: 6257: 6254: 6252: 6249: 6247: 6244: 6242: 6239: 6237: 6234: 6232: 6229: 6227: 6224: 6222: 6219: 6217: 6214: 6212: 6209: 6207: 6204: 6202: 6199: 6197: 6194: 6192: 6189: 6187: 6184: 6182: 6179: 6177: 6174: 6172: 6169: 6167: 6164: 6162: 6159: 6157: 6154: 6152: 6149: 6147: 6144: 6142: 6139: 6137: 6134: 6132: 6129: 6127: 6124: 6122: 6119: 6117: 6114: 6112: 6109: 6107: 6104: 6102: 6099: 6097: 6094: 6092: 6089: 6087: 6084: 6082: 6079: 6077: 6074: 6072: 6069: 6067: 6064: 6062: 6059: 6057: 6054: 6052: 6049: 6047: 6044: 6042: 6039: 6037: 6034: 6032: 6029: 6027: 6024: 6022: 6019: 6017: 6014: 6012: 6009: 6007: 6004: 6002: 5999: 5997: 5994: 5992: 5989: 5987: 5984: 5982: 5979: 5977: 5974: 5972: 5969: 5967: 5964: 5962: 5959: 5957: 5954: 5952: 5949: 5947: 5944: 5942: 5939: 5937: 5934: 5932: 5929: 5927: 5924: 5922: 5919: 5917: 5914: 5912: 5909: 5907: 5904: 5902: 5899: 5897: 5894: 5892: 5889: 5887: 5884: 5882: 5879: 5877: 5874: 5872: 5869: 5867: 5864: 5862: 5859: 5857: 5854: 5852: 5849: 5847: 5844: 5842: 5839: 5837: 5834: 5832: 5829: 5827: 5824: 5822: 5819: 5817: 5814: 5812: 5809: 5807: 5804: 5802: 5799: 5797: 5794: 5792: 5789: 5787: 5784: 5782: 5779: 5777: 5774: 5772: 5769: 5767: 5764: 5762: 5759: 5758: 5755: 5752: 5748: 5742: 5739: 5737: 5734: 5732: 5729: 5727: 5726:V: The States 5724: 5722: 5719: 5717: 5714: 5712: 5709: 5707: 5704: 5703: 5701: 5697: 5691: 5688: 5686: 5683: 5681: 5678: 5676: 5673: 5670: 5666: 5663: 5661: 5660:The Dismissal 5658: 5656: 5653: 5652: 5650: 5646: 5640: 5637: 5635: 5632: 5630: 5627: 5625: 5622: 5620: 5617: 5616: 5614: 5610: 5604: 5601: 5599: 5596: 5594: 5591: 5589: 5586: 5584: 5581: 5579: 5576: 5574: 5571: 5569: 5566: 5564: 5561: 5560: 5558: 5554: 5548: 5545: 5543: 5540: 5538: 5535: 5533: 5530: 5528: 5525: 5523: 5520: 5518: 5515: 5513: 5510: 5508: 5505: 5504: 5502: 5498: 5492: 5491:Privy Council 5489: 5487: 5484: 5483: 5481: 5477: 5471: 5468: 5466: 5463: 5461: 5458: 5456: 5453: 5452: 5450: 5446: 5440: 5437: 5435: 5432: 5430: 5427: 5425: 5422: 5420: 5417: 5415: 5412: 5411: 5409: 5405: 5399: 5396: 5394: 5391: 5389: 5386: 5384: 5381: 5379: 5376: 5375: 5373: 5369: 5365: 5358: 5353: 5351: 5346: 5344: 5339: 5338: 5335: 5328: 5325: 5324: 5320: 5315: 5312: 5308: 5305: 5301: 5298: 5294: 5290: 5289: 5285: 5277: 5276: 5270: 5267: 5263: 5260:, (2010) 253 5259: 5255: 5250: 5247:, (2010) 239 5246: 5242: 5241: 5235: 5232:, (1983) 152 5231: 5227: 5222: 5218: 5212: 5209: 5205: 5202:, (2004) 219 5201: 5197: 5196: 5190: 5187: 5183: 5180:, (1996) 189 5179: 5175: 5173: 5169: 5163: 5160: 5157: 5153: 5148: 5144: 5139: 5136:, (1985) 157 5135: 5131: 5126: 5123:, (2011) 243 5122: 5118: 5117: 5111: 5108:, (1995) 184 5107: 5103: 5098: 5095: 5091: 5087: 5083: 5079: 5075: 5074:Federal Court 5069: 5066: 5062: 5059:, (1995) 183 5058: 5054: 5048: 5045: 5038: 5035: 5031: 5028:, (1996) 189 5027: 5023: 5022: 5016: 5014: 5010: 5006: 4998: 4994: 4988: 4985: 4981: 4978:, (1997) 190 4977: 4973: 4972: 4966: 4963: 4959: 4955: 4952:, (1997) 190 4951: 4947: 4945: 4939: 4937: 4935: 4931: 4923: 4919: 4915: 4908: 4903: 4899: 4895: 4890: 4887: 4883: 4875: 4871: 4870: 4864: 4861: 4857: 4849: 4845: 4844: 4838: 4835: 4831: 4827: 4822: 4819: 4815: 4814:autochthonous 4811: 4807: 4801: 4799: 4795: 4791: 4787: 4782: 4779: 4775: 4771: 4770: 4764: 4761: 4757: 4753: 4748: 4745: 4741: 4737: 4736: 4730: 4727: 4722: 4718: 4712: 4709: 4705: 4702:, (2007) 233 4701: 4697: 4696: 4690: 4688: 4684: 4679: 4678: 4673: 4666: 4663: 4658: 4656: 4648: 4646: 4644: 4640: 4632: 4628: 4621: 4614: 4611: 4606: 4604: 4596: 4593: 4588: 4584: 4580: 4576: 4572: 4568: 4562: 4559: 4555: 4552:, (1983) 152 4551: 4547: 4546: 4540: 4537: 4533: 4529: 4525: 4522:, (1975) 135 4521: 4517: 4512: 4509: 4505: 4501: 4496: 4493: 4488: 4484: 4480: 4476: 4472: 4468: 4461: 4458: 4454: 4450: 4447:, (2015) 257 4446: 4442: 4441: 4435: 4432: 4429: 4425: 4420: 4417:, (2013) 252 4416: 4412: 4407: 4404:, (2013) 249 4403: 4399: 4394: 4390: 4385: 4381: 4375: 4372: 4368: 4365:, (1997) 189 4364: 4360: 4359: 4353: 4350: 4345: 4341: 4337: 4330: 4327: 4323: 4320:, (1994) 182 4319: 4315: 4310: 4307: 4303: 4300:, (1992) 177 4299: 4295: 4294: 4288: 4286: 4282: 4278: 4274: 4270: 4264: 4261:, (1992) 177 4260: 4256: 4255: 4249: 4246: 4241: 4237: 4230: 4227: 4223: 4220:, (1996) 186 4219: 4215: 4210: 4207: 4203: 4200:, (2010) 243 4199: 4195: 4194: 4188: 4186: 4182: 4178: 4175:, (2012) 249 4174: 4170: 4165: 4162: 4158: 4155:, (2008) 234 4154: 4150: 4149: 4143: 4140: 4136: 4133:, (1990) 169 4132: 4128: 4127: 4121: 4118: 4114: 4111:, (1988) 165 4110: 4106: 4105: 4099: 4096: 4092: 4089:, (1988) 165 4088: 4084: 4083: 4077: 4075: 4071: 4067: 4063: 4059: 4054: 4051: 4047: 4043: 4039: 4034: 4031: 4027: 4023: 4019: 4017: 4011: 4008: 4004: 4000: 3995: 3992: 3988: 3984: 3980: 3975: 3972: 3968: 3965:, (1993) 177 3964: 3960: 3955: 3952: 3948: 3944: 3940: 3937:(2008) 32(2) 3934: 3930: 3923: 3920: 3916: 3912: 3904: 3900: 3895: 3892: 3889: 3885: 3881: 3878:(1999) 27(3) 3875: 3871: 3864: 3862: 3858: 3854: 3851:, (1985) 159 3850: 3846: 3841: 3839: 3837: 3833: 3829: 3821: 3817: 3816: 3810: 3807: 3803: 3800:, (1981) 146 3799: 3795: 3791: 3789: 3783: 3780: 3776: 3773:, (1983) 154 3772: 3768: 3763: 3760: 3756: 3753:, (1989) 168 3752: 3748: 3743: 3740: 3736: 3733:, (1973) 128 3732: 3728: 3727:Henry v Boehm 3723: 3720: 3716:. p. 19. 3715: 3708: 3702: 3699: 3695:. High Court. 3691: 3687: 3681: 3678: 3673: 3671: 3663: 3661: 3657: 3653: 3650:, (1979) 143 3649: 3645: 3644: 3638: 3635: 3632: 3626: 3623: 3619: 3616:, (1988) 164 3615: 3611: 3610: 3604: 3602: 3598: 3594: 3591:, (1991) 172 3590: 3586: 3584: 3578: 3576: 3572: 3568: 3565:, (2007) 233 3564: 3560: 3559: 3553: 3550: 3546: 3543:, (1983) 153 3542: 3538: 3537: 3531: 3529: 3527: 3523: 3519: 3516:, (1983) 158 3515: 3511: 3509: 3503: 3501: 3499: 3497: 3493: 3489: 3485: 3481: 3476: 3473: 3469: 3466:, (1990) 169 3465: 3461: 3459: 3453: 3450: 3446: 3442: 3438: 3437: 3432: 3429:, (1997) 189 3428: 3424: 3423: 3417: 3414: 3410: 3406: 3402: 3400: 3394: 3392: 3388: 3384: 3380: 3376: 3374: 3368: 3366: 3362: 3358: 3355:, (1965) 114 3354: 3350: 3349: 3344: 3341:, (1982) 150 3340: 3336: 3335: 3329: 3326: 3322: 3319:, (2006) 229 3318: 3314: 3312: 3306: 3304: 3300: 3296: 3292: 3288: 3287: 3281: 3278: 3274: 3270: 3266: 3265: 3260: 3256: 3252: 3251: 3245: 3242: 3238: 3234: 3230: 3229: 3223: 3220: 3216: 3212: 3208: 3206: 3200: 3198: 3196: 3194: 3190: 3186: 3182: 3178: 3177: 3171: 3168: 3164: 3160: 3156: 3154: 3148: 3145: 3141: 3138:, (2007) 231 3137: 3133: 3132: 3126: 3123: 3119: 3116:, (1999) 198 3115: 3111: 3110: 3104: 3101: 3097: 3096:Privy Council 3093: 3089: 3085: 3081: 3075: 3071: 3067: 3065: 3059: 3057: 3055: 3051: 3047: 3043: 3039: 3035: 3031: 3027: 3026: 3025:Egan v Willis 3020: 3017: 3005: 3001: 2995: 2992: 2988: 2987:Supreme Court 2984: 2980: 2979: 2973: 2970: 2966: 2958: 2954: 2953: 2952:Deakin v Webb 2947: 2944: 2939: 2935: 2931: 2924: 2922: 2920: 2916: 2911: 2907: 2903: 2896: 2893: 2880: 2876: 2870: 2867: 2855: 2851: 2847: 2843: 2836: 2833: 2829: 2824: 2821: 2817: 2812: 2809: 2804: 2800: 2796: 2792: 2788: 2784: 2780: 2773: 2770: 2766: 2762: 2758: 2757: 2752: 2748: 2744: 2742: 2736: 2733: 2721: 2717: 2710: 2707: 2703: 2697: 2694: 2690: 2684: 2681: 2669: 2665: 2661: 2657: 2650: 2647: 2642: 2636: 2632: 2625: 2622: 2617: 2613: 2609: 2603: 2599: 2598: 2590: 2587: 2579: 2575: 2569: 2566: 2559: 2552: 2549: 2548: 2547: 2546: 2539: 2535: 2531: 2528: 2527: 2526: 2525: 2524: 2523: 2517: 2514: 2513: 2512: 2509: 2507: 2504: 2502: 2499: 2497: 2494: 2492: 2489: 2487: 2484: 2483: 2479: 2468: 2463: 2461: 2457: 2455: 2450: 2445: 2441: 2439: 2435: 2434: 2429: 2425: 2421: 2416: 2412: 2408: 2407: 2401: 2399: 2395: 2394: 2387: 2383: 2380: 2375: 2371: 2370:parliamentary 2363: 2361: 2360: 2358: 2351: 2346: 2344: 2340: 2336: 2331: 2329: 2324: 2320: 2316: 2315:Michael Kirby 2312: 2308: 2304: 2297: 2290:Right to vote 2289: 2287: 2285: 2281: 2276: 2274: 2273: 2267: 2262: 2261: 2255: 2253: 2247: 2245: 2239: 2237: 2231: 2229: 2228: 2223: 2222: 2215: 2207: 2205: 2198: 2196: 2194: 2190: 2189: 2183: 2181: 2180:jurisprudence 2174: 2166: 2164: 2161: 2156: 2154: 2150: 2141: 2135: 2133: 2128: 2125: 2120: 2118: 2111: 2102: 2100: 2098: 2097: 2091: 2088: 2082: 2080: 2076: 2072: 2068: 2064: 2060: 2054: 2046: 2044: 2042: 2037: 2035: 2031: 2026: 2023: 2018: 2010: 2008: 2006: 1998: 1996: 1994: 1993:jurisprudence 1990: 1986: 1981: 1977: 1975: 1971: 1970:jurisprudence 1962: 1959: 1956: 1953: 1950: 1947: 1946: 1945: 1938: 1936: 1933: 1929: 1924: 1922: 1918: 1914: 1910: 1906: 1898: 1893: 1891: 1888: 1883: 1880: 1879: 1873: 1868: 1860: 1858: 1854: 1852: 1848: 1844: 1840: 1835: 1833: 1829: 1825: 1821: 1817: 1813: 1808: 1806: 1802: 1796: 1791: 1783: 1781: 1779: 1775: 1770: 1768: 1763: 1758: 1756: 1752: 1748: 1740: 1738: 1734: 1732: 1727: 1724: 1716: 1714: 1710: 1707: 1702: 1699: 1694: 1692: 1687: 1685: 1681: 1676: 1672: 1670: 1666: 1665:common market 1662: 1658: 1652: 1644: 1642: 1640: 1636: 1632: 1628: 1624: 1620: 1615: 1610: 1606: 1604: 1600: 1596: 1591: 1585: 1583: 1580: 1578: 1575:In 1920, the 1573: 1571: 1565: 1557: 1552: 1547: 1545: 1541: 1538: 1534: 1530: 1527: 1524: 1520: 1517: 1516: 1515: 1508: 1506: 1503: 1502:for details. 1501: 1497: 1493: 1487: 1485: 1480: 1478: 1474: 1469: 1465: 1457: 1455: 1453: 1449: 1445: 1441: 1432: 1430: 1426: 1424: 1419: 1416: 1412: 1408: 1404: 1398: 1390: 1388: 1386: 1381: 1377: 1371: 1369: 1365: 1357: 1355: 1352: 1350: 1346: 1341: 1338: 1334: 1325: 1323: 1319: 1317: 1313: 1309: 1305: 1300: 1298: 1293: 1291: 1287: 1282: 1277: 1275: 1270: 1264: 1256: 1251: 1246: 1242: 1238: 1235: 1231: 1230: 1229: 1227: 1223: 1218: 1216: 1212: 1207: 1205: 1201: 1197: 1193: 1189: 1185: 1180: 1178: 1174: 1169: 1167: 1163: 1159: 1153: 1151: 1147: 1143: 1139: 1138:Head of State 1133: 1125: 1123: 1120: 1118: 1114: 1109: 1108: 1103: 1099: 1093: 1085: 1080: 1077: 1074: 1071: 1067: 1064: 1061: 1058: 1055: 1051: 1048: 1047:parliamentary 1045: 1042: 1039: 1036: 1035: 1034: 1031: 1029: 1025: 1024:Privy Council 1021: 1017: 1013: 1009: 1003: 995: 993: 991: 987: 983: 979: 968: 963: 961: 956: 954: 949: 948: 946: 945: 938: 935: 933: 930: 928: 925: 923: 920: 918: 915: 913: 910: 908: 905: 903: 900: 899: 896: 886: 885: 878: 875: 873: 870: 868: 867:Republicanism 865: 863: 860: 858: 855: 853: 850: 848: 845: 843: 840: 838: 835: 833: 830: 828: 825: 823: 820: 818: 815: 814: 811: 804: 803: 796: 793: 791: 788: 786: 783: 781: 778: 776: 775:United States 773: 771: 768: 766: 763: 762: 758: 755: 753: 750: 749: 745: 742: 741: 737: 734: 732: 729: 727: 724: 722: 719: 718: 714: 710: 707: 706: 702: 699: 696: 695: 692: 689: 688: 685: 678: 677: 670: 667: 665: 662: 660: 657: 655: 652: 650: 647: 645: 642: 640: 637: 635: 632: 631: 628: 621: 620: 613: 610: 608: 605: 604: 600: 597: 595: 592: 590: 587: 586: 583: 576: 575: 568: 565: 563: 560: 558: 555: 553: 550: 549: 545: 542: 540: 537: 535: 532: 530: 527: 526: 522: 519: 517: 514: 512: 509: 507: 504: 502: 499: 497: 494: 493: 490: 487: 486: 483: 476: 475: 468: 465: 463: 460: 459: 455: 452: 451: 448: 445: 444:Chief Justice 442: 441: 438: 437: 433: 432: 428: 425: 424: 421: 418: 417:Chief Justice 415: 414: 411: 410: 406: 405: 401: 398: 396: 393: 391: 388: 386: 383: 381: 378: 376: 373: 372: 369: 366: 365:Chief Justice 363: 362: 359: 358: 354: 353: 350: 343: 342: 335: 332: 331: 327: 324: 321: 320: 317: 316: 312: 311: 306: 303: 300: 299: 295: 292: 289: 288: 285: 284: 280: 279: 274: 271: 268: 267: 263: 260: 257: 256: 253: 252: 248: 247: 245: 243: 238: 231: 230: 226: 225: 222: 215: 214: 207: 204: 203: 200: 197: 194: 193: 190: 189: 185: 184: 179: 176: 175: 172: 171: 167: 166: 162: 159: 158: 155: 154: 150: 149: 146: 139: 138: 131: 128: 127: 124: 123: 119: 118: 115: 112: 111: 108: 107: 103: 102: 99: 92: 91: 88: 84: 78: 74: 73: 70: 60: 57: 52: 51: 48: 44: 40: 36: 32: 27: 19: 6434:(vi) Defence 5648:Other topics 5310: 5303: 5296: 5286:Bibliography 5273: 5269: 5253: 5238: 5225: 5216: 5211: 5193: 5189: 5166: 5162: 5151: 5142: 5129: 5114: 5101: 5097: 5068: 5052: 5047: 5037: 5019: 4992: 4987: 4969: 4965: 4960:(Australia). 4942: 4922:the original 4913: 4889: 4867: 4863: 4841: 4837: 4826:Constitution 4825: 4821: 4809: 4808:courts with 4805: 4786:Constitution 4785: 4781: 4767: 4763: 4751: 4747: 4733: 4729: 4721:the original 4711: 4693: 4680:. p. 3. 4675: 4665: 4654: 4631:the original 4613: 4602: 4595: 4574: 4561: 4543: 4539: 4515: 4511: 4495: 4470: 4460: 4438: 4434: 4423: 4410: 4397: 4388: 4379: 4374: 4356: 4352: 4329: 4313: 4309: 4291: 4268: 4252: 4248: 4239: 4229: 4213: 4209: 4191: 4168: 4164: 4146: 4142: 4124: 4120: 4102: 4098: 4080: 4064:, (1975) 134 4057: 4053: 4044:, (1950) 80 4037: 4033: 4024:, (1948) 76 4014: 4010: 3998: 3994: 3985:, (1915) 19 3978: 3974: 3958: 3954: 3932: 3922: 3898: 3894: 3874:the original 3844: 3813: 3809: 3793: 3786: 3782: 3766: 3762: 3746: 3742: 3726: 3722: 3701: 3680: 3669: 3641: 3637: 3625: 3607: 3581: 3556: 3552: 3534: 3506: 3486:, (1949) 79 3479: 3475: 3456: 3452: 3443:, (1938) 60 3434: 3420: 3416: 3407:, (1957) 99 3397: 3381:, (1942) 65 3371: 3346: 3332: 3328: 3309: 3293:, (1948) 77 3284: 3280: 3271:, (1926) 37 3262: 3257:, (1930) 43 3248: 3244: 3226: 3222: 3213:, (1920) 28 3203: 3174: 3170: 3151: 3147: 3129: 3125: 3107: 3103: 3079: 3072:, (1956) 94 3062: 3037: 3032:, (1998) 95 3023: 3019: 3009:12 September 3007:. Retrieved 2994: 2976: 2972: 2950: 2946: 2938:the original 2910:the original 2895: 2883:. Retrieved 2879:the original 2869: 2857:. Retrieved 2845: 2835: 2823: 2811: 2789:(2): 25–35. 2786: 2782: 2772: 2754: 2753:1. See also 2749:, (1951) 83 2739: 2735: 2723:. Retrieved 2719: 2709: 2696: 2683: 2671:. 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Australian constitutional law

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