316:) for many thousands of years. There are also homologies between the sub-tropical climates of areas of the two countries. The political climate in other parts of Africa and the more advanced nature of scientific research in South Africa also made it an ideal location. The Plant Protection Research Institute in South Africa funded much of the work at this research base. Further field stations were also maintained in
179:). In addition to dung beetles, predacious beetles of the Histerid family, which are less sensitive to changes in soil moisture, were introduced to Australia as another means of controlling fly populations during periods of relative inactivity by dung beetles. However, these beetles were found to make little difference to the abundance of flies, so their introduction was discontinued in 1971.
592:". Further to this, the success of the Australian Dung Beetle Project is claimed to be the reason why Australians can now enjoy a café culture, as up until the 1950s, bush flies were so problematic that it was illegal for restaurants and cafés to offer outside dining unless a designated area was enclosed by fly-wire. A lesser effect has been had, however, on reducing the populations of
79:, which produce small, hard, dry and fibrous pellets of dung. Cattle were relatively recently introduced to Australia by European settlers in the 1880s and produce large, soft, moist dung pads. Native beetles, with a few exceptions, are not adapted to utilise this type of dung as a food source or breeding ground and so without such
596:. This species of blood sucking fly remains a pest to livestock in Australia although they are present, but not pestilent in South Africa. Suggestions have been made that Australia needs further introduced species of predatory beetle (e.g. histerids) in order to help reduce the numbers of these flies.
631:
commenced in 2017 and runs until 2022. The project has been tasked with the key objective of expanding the range of dung beetles in
Australia and analysing their performance for livestock producers. Funding for the project has been contributed by the Australian Government Department of Agriculture
603:
in 2007 revealed that 23 species of beetle that had been introduced to
Australia during the CSIRO project were still established species, whereas 20 had failed to establish (see table 1). The report recommended that in order to complete the work started by the Australian Dung Beetle Project, further
509:
The
Australian Dung Beetle Project came to an end in 1986 when the Australian Meat Research Committee (AMRC), which then became the Australian Meat and Livestock Research and Development Corporation, withdrew their funding due to a shift in the focus of their work from on-farm production to off-farm
413:
While most of this research was carried out in South Africa, it was recognised that further study in other areas of the world would be useful in selecting dung beetle species for introduction to
Australian climates not matched by those in South Africa. To this end, a further research unit was set up
546:
at sites across
Queensland to trap dung beetles, which were then identified and recorded. Out of the 29 species that were introduced to Queensland during the Australian Dung Beetle Project of 1965–1985, 15 of these were recaptured in 2001–2002. The most abundant and widely distributed of these were
522:
to discuss the future direction of dung beetle activities in
Australia, and this in turn led to the formation of the National Dung Beetle Steering Committee, chaired by Mick Alexander. This committee proposed that a dung beetle project be undertaken in Queensland, which became a reality, thanks to
448:
where experiments were carried out to determine such things as beetle biology, habits, dung-disposing capacity, reproductive cycles and the ability to withstand quarantining procedures. It was necessary to devise and record methods of propagating dung beetles in large numbers, and this information
480:
Beetles that successfully survived and reproduced were despatched by air or road to cooperating farmers or CSIRO staff. They were packed into ventilated crates of damp peat and thousands at a time were simply tipped onto fresh dung pads at the chosen release sites. Most beetles were observed to
195:
Care had to be taken to introduce only those species that would be most compatible with the
Australian climates and soil types, that were not under great threat of predation or of themselves becoming pests, and that effectively dispersed dung pads within an ideal time frame of 48 hours so as to
517:
Landcare Group to give a seminar on the use of dung beetles. This led to
Soilcam leading a two-week survey of the dung beetle fauna in south-eastern Queensland. The following December, groups of interested parties including graziers, scientists, government agencies and community groups met in
476:
On arrival at the
Canberra research unit, beetle eggs were transferred to dung balls and incubated. Adult beetles were then bred in insectaries for two or more generations in sterile conditions to eliminate the possibility of co-breeding parasitic mites or diseases endemic to Africa such as
204:
It was estimated that as many as 160 species of dung beetle would need to be imported into
Australia in order to establish a minifauna of beetles that would be suitably adapted for the different Australian climates and soil types. However, it was also important that no other potential pests
87:
and take months or even years to decompose. Cattle will not feed from the area of rank pasture surrounding the dung pad, and with the large quantity of dung produced (up to 12 pads per animal per day), this reduces the area of land available for cattle grazing by as much as 200,000 hectares
484:
The original review paper by Bornemissza states that by 1975, 23 species of dung beetle, including 3 genetic variants, had been released. By 1984, this number was 43 species, although it was found that 20 of these failed to establish. As well as the original "star" of the program,
449:
forwarded onto the research base in Australia. In addition, extensive studies were carried out in the beetles' native habitat to study their likely distribution patterns in Australia and thus aid in the selection of sites for their introduction. Later research has found that
477:
foot-and-mouth. Some beetle species were rejected at this stage and not subsequently released onto pastureland because difficulty was experienced in rearing those that entered a period of dormancy and some simply did not survive the stringent quarantining procedures.
583:
as candidates for redistribution to other areas of Queensland. These were chosen because, although they were not widely distributed across Queensland, they successfully established in the areas where they were found and had desirably rapid dung-burying capabilities.
88:(2,000 km) per year. Cattle dung is also a primary breeding ground for several pestilent species of fly and parasitic worm. Bornemissza suggested in 1960 that the introduction to Australia of foreign dung beetle species, which had co-evolved alongside
163:). It was found that 96% fewer flies emerged from dung pads in open pastures with a dung beetle fauna in Hawaii compared to controls. It was surmised that the introduction of dung beetles to Australia would also have a reducing effect on the number of
247:
for 3 minutes to sterilise them, then packed into hand-rolled dung balls for incubation. These eggs successfully developed into adult beetles and were among those in the first batches released into the wild on 30 January 1968 in Lansdown, near
443:
of the beetle fauna of an area, as well as the environmental conditions preferred by different species. Secondly, species earmarked as being potential candidates for biological control were then collected and taken back to the research base
236:, where they were kept under quarantine and observed before potential release. Unfortunately, direct importation from Hawaii was found to be unviable since it was discovered that the beetles were infested with potentially harmful pyemotid
334:
Dung beetles for introduction to Australia needed to breed solely in dung and with no other food sources so as to avoid the species' becoming pests in other habitats and to eliminate the possibility that they would avoid cattle dung
534:
survey of the distribution and abundance of dung beetles across Queensland since the original CSIRO project, and to redistribute successful introduced species to other areas where they might be beneficial. This project was entitled
191:, dung beetles were shown to be effective at controlling infective worm populations breeding in dung. The activity of a complex of at least 20 species of coprid in cattle and sheep dung produced an average reduction of 85% of worms.
134:
in plants was over 80% greater in soils where dung beetles were active compared to those where they were not. In addition, tunnelling dung beetles assist root penetration and improve water infiltration to the soil, thereby reducing
1649:
Bornemissza, G. F. (1970), Insectary studies on the control of dung breeding flies by the activity of the dung beetle Onthophagus gazella F. (Coleoptera: Scarabaeinae), Journal of the Australian Entomological Society 9:
287:
This performance however, was not uniformly excellent in all areas of Australia at all times of the season or year and so showed that Australia would need a number of other dung beetle species to fill the gaps in
481:
instantly bury themselves into the dung. From then on, farmers helped to monitor beetle distribution and activity and carried identification cards in their vehicles so that they could monitor beetle activity.
343:
Dung beetles tend to have a preference for a particular type of dung. To avoid the introduced dung beetles out-competing native Australian species of coprid that have a preference for other types of dung, the
434:
were carried out in Pretoria to identify beetles that would be suitable for export to Australia. Firstly, researchers took stocktaking trips to locations around South Africa in order to collect data on the
356:
The criterion was set that dung beetles selected for importation to Australia should be able to bury at least 25 ml of dung per pair per day, on a pro-rata basis depending on beetle size and rate of
256:. This quarantine method was subsequently adopted at the CSIRO research base in Pretoria, South Africa, with the added step of the eggs being transported by air in sealed containers of sterile peat moss.
587:
The Queensland Dung Beetle Project concluded that one outcome of the study was to confirm the "outstanding success" of the original CSIRO project to select and introduce dung beetles into Australia, and
104:
The overall aim of the Australian Dung Beetle Project was to establish a "minifauna", that is, a subsection of the natural dung beetle fauna, of introduced dung beetles on the Australian mainland and in
300:
In order to find a suitable minifauna of beetles for Australia, Bornemissza set up the Australian Dung Beetle Research Unit in Pretoria, South Africa to find species that would complement the work of
1675:
Bornemissza, G. F. (1968), Studies on the histerid beetle Pachylister chinensis in Fiji, and its possible value in the control of buffalo-fly in Australia, Australian Journal of Zoology 16:673-688
563:, which had been released during the original CSIRO project, were not recovered at all in the Queensland Dung Beetle Project, suggesting that they have not become established. Others, for example
304:. South Africa was chosen as a location to study dung beetles for several reasons. Firstly, there are a large number of different species from which to choose from (some 800 species south of the
28:
393:
Beetles adapted to a wide geographical range were preferred as this gave an indication as to how well they would establish across the range of climates found in the large Australian continent.
1782:
The Queensland Dung Beetle Project (2002), Improving sustainable land management systems in Queensland using Beetles: Final report of the 2001-2002 Queensland Dung Beetle Project, page 3
1460:† ACT = Australian Capital Territory, NSW = New South Wales, NT = Northern Territories, QLD = Queensland, SA = South Australia, Tas = Tasmania, Vic = Victoria, WA = Western Australia.
385:, dung beetles selected for export to Australia needed to be compatible with each other. Beetles that had co-evolved and co-existed (usually found on the same dung pads) were preferred.
268:, which was able to remove dung pads in as little as 24 hours, showed the most promise in becoming established in Australia. After the first stocks were released onto pastureland in
243:
However, the mite-infested beetles were not destroyed and were instead used to breed new generations of beetles under sterile conditions. Dung beetle eggs were dipped in 3%
1964:
501:
were shown to have reproduced in their thousands and became abundant enough to allow the transfer of subpopulations of certain colonies to establish in new areas.
365:
Beetles were chosen for export, which were able to breed easily in insectaries and could withstand the strict quarantine procedures imposed by Australian customs.
122:
to assess the rate at which dung beetles returned dung to the soil to aid nutrient recycling. It was found that dung beetles returned over 90% of the faecal
1801:
Davis ALV (1996). "Seasonal dung beetle activity and dung dispersal in selected South African habitats: implications for pasture improvement in Australia".
456:
Samples of beetles that had already been successfully introduced to Australia were also collected for further study. This was important so as to enrich the
373:
Preference was given to dung beetle species that were able to reproduce quickly in order to maintain large stocks of beetles for release onto pastureland.
272:
in 1968, beetle recapture figures showed that the species had spread at the rate of 50–80 km per season, including the colonisation of two islands,
1969:
1929:
1606:
Hughes, R. D. (1975), Assessment of the burial of cattle dung by Australian dung beetles, Journal of the Australian Entomological Society 14: 129-134
453:
specificity matching is one of the most important factors in determining whether or not an introduced species is successful in becoming established.
1837:
1760:
96:, would be beneficial in removing the dung, thus improving cattle grazing and nutrient recycling and reducing the number of flies and worms.
1914:
571:
have been recovered since their original release but were also not found during this study. The project identified three species, namely
126:
excreted by each steer during the summer grazing season. Further experiments showed that the uptake of the essential minerals nitrogen,
590:
the impact of this on soil, water and pasture health, and on control of pest flies is undoubtedly worth many millions of dollars a year
220:
in order to help biologically control the numbers of horn fly. It was thought that these beetles would be a safe source since the only
1959:
1730:
Doube and Macqueen (1991) Establishment of exotic dung beetle in Queensland: the role of habitat specificity, Entomorphaga 36 353-360
1623:
1523:
422:, as a base from which to study European species that may be more suited for introduction to cooler, southern areas of Australia.
460:
of beetle species within Australia and reduce the liability of any one species to become extinct because of a disease or chance
1939:
1944:
1934:
1755:
Edwards, P (2007), Introduced Dung Beetles in Australia 1967-2007: current status and future directions, Landcare Australia,
632:
and Water Resources as part of its Rural R&D for Profit program, the MLA Donor Company, and various project partners.
59:, noted that Australian farmland was covered in a large number of cattle dung pads. This was in contrast to the fields of
635:
In 2018, John Feehan recorded Canberra's first fly-free summer, which he attributed to the introduction of dung beetles.
1618:
Edwards, P. B. and Pavri, C. in Bailey, P. (2007), Pests of field crops and pastures, pub. CSIRO Publishing, Australia,
401:
Although not always possible, researchers preferred to select beetles that could be easily identified in terms of their
406:
1915:- George Bornemissza, founder of the Australian Dung Beetle Project, receives the Medal of the Order of Australia
382:
212:
The first beetles to be imported to Australia came from Hawaii. Here, dung beetles, particularly the species
1949:
1478:
1473:
524:
277:
1739:
McKay, Andrew (1976), Surprise and Enterprise: fifty years of science for Australia, pub. CSIRO Publishing.
513:
In 1998, interest in the project was revived when John Feehan, the manager of Soilcam, was invited by the
1954:
321:
1909:
1864:
1810:
440:
269:
32:
109:. Once introduced, dung beetles in Australia were studied in order to determine their effects on:
1483:
600:
402:
345:
36:
24:
530:
The objective of the Queensland Dung Beetle Project was to provide the first comprehensive and
1756:
1619:
1519:
531:
465:
1818:
327:
The aim was to find beetles that would match, as closely as possible, 8 selection criteria:
1868:
313:
273:
240:. For this reason, these particular beetles were never released onto Australian pastures.
1451:§ modified from a table in Edwards (2007) with some additional information from Edwards,
1814:
468:
in that region, and as a thank you to the island for being cooperative in the research.
1974:
1883:
1637:
Fullaway, D. T. (1921), Horn fly control, Hawaiian Forestry and Agriculture, 18:219-221
431:
136:
209:
measures were established to ensure no pestilent species made their way to Australia.
1923:
1822:
608:
identify geographical gaps in dung beetle distribution across the whole of Australia;
543:
224:
present in Hawaii that does not already exist in Australia is the giant liver fluke,
151:
Introducing dung beetles as a means to control fly populations was first utilised in
1888:
514:
436:
309:
196:
minimise successful fly and worm breeding by disrupting their reproductive cycles.
119:
113:
52:
623:
address the potential need for further introductions of dung beetles to Australia.
611:
identify seasonal gaps in dung beetle activity in all climate zones of Australia;
63:
where the dung was removed and recycled back into the soil by various species of
1666:
Doube, B. M. (1987), Dung "Down Under", South African Journal of Science 83, p87
593:
415:
172:
64:
1694:
Bornemissza GF (1979). "The Australian Dung Beetle Research Unit in Pretoria".
614:
clarify the role of native dung beetle species in the dispersal of cattle dung;
39:
project with the primary goal to control the polluting effects of cattle dung.
537:
Improving Sustainable Land Management Systems in Queensland using Dung Beetles
445:
312:
rivers alone), and these species have co-evolved alongside large bovids (e.g.
253:
249:
206:
127:
93:
68:
640:
Table 1: Species of introduced dung beetle that have established in Australia
457:
317:
140:
56:
1542:
Bornemissza GF (1960). "Could dung eating insects improve our pastures?".
205:"piggy-backed" their way to Australia with the beetles. Therefore, strict
1899:
519:
461:
244:
233:
221:
188:
164:
156:
123:
106:
72:
67:(coprids). Native Australian species of beetle had co-evolved alongside
1791:
Cribb, J (11 October 2006) Fly times when the dry comes, The Australian
1588:
Bornemissza GF (1976). "The Australian dung beetle project 1965-1975".
464:. Genetic variants were also imported to Hawaii in order to enrich the
450:
305:
131:
89:
84:
48:
419:
217:
152:
76:
60:
228:, the eggs of which do not survive ingestion by beetles. Samples of
1838:"Entomologist John Feehan records Canberra's first fly-free summer"
620:
identify a suitable repository of unpublished dung beetle data; and
539:" and lasted for two years from January 2001 until December 2002.
280:, 10 km and 30 km offshore respectively. By April 1970,
237:
80:
1893:
1713:
628:
1904:
29:
Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation
1910:- UK based website with information on African dung beetles
1544:
Journal of the Australian Institute of Agricultural Science
617:
undertake appropriate redistribution of introduced species;
264:
In the early years of the project, the dung beetle species
1861:
296:
Australian Dung Beetle Project Research Unit in Pretoria
1537:
1535:
1614:
1612:
1222:
ACT, NSW, NT, QLD, SA, Tas, Vic, WA, Norfolk Island
284:
was firmly established over an area of 400 km.
663:
660:
16:Scientific research and biological control project
216:, had already been successfully introduced from
405:so as to be able to correctly identify them in
348:needed to prefer cattle dung over other types.
8:
1518:. Australia: Allen & Unwin. p. 46.
1645:
1643:
1192:NSW, QLD, SA, Tas, Vic, WA, Norfolk Island
1189:NSW, QLD, SA, Tas, Vic, WA, Norfolk Island
997:Rainfall, summer rainfall, winter rainfall
489:, establishing well, other species such as
472:CSIRO Dung Beetle Research base in Canberra
232:were shipped to the CSIRO research base in
1896:- 2017-2021 Australian dung beetle project
1633:
1631:
1225:ACT, NSW, NT, QLD, SA, WA, Norfolk Island
637:
1590:Australian Meat Research Committee Review
1965:Habitat management equipment and methods
1751:
1749:
1747:
1745:
1689:
1687:
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1683:
1681:
1662:
1660:
1658:
1656:
1509:
1507:
1505:
1503:
1501:
1499:
542:The Queensland Dung Beetle project used
1803:Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment
1778:
1776:
1774:
1772:
1770:
1768:
1583:
1581:
1579:
1577:
1495:
1446:
1426:
629:Dung Beetle Ecosystem Engineers project
1575:
1573:
1571:
1569:
1567:
1565:
1563:
1561:
1559:
1557:
1516:Fields of Discovery: Australia's CSIRO
1836:Thistleton, John (12 February 2015).
340:2. Predominantly bovine dung-breeders
23:(1965–1985), conceived and led by Dr
7:
155:as a biological control against the
47:Upon his arrival to Australia from
14:
1063:Summer rainfall, winter rainfall
1970:1965 establishments in Australia
1930:Nature conservation in Australia
1889:CSIROpedia - Dung Beetle Program
1696:South African Journal of Science
118:Experiments were carried out in
1900:Dung Beetle Solutions Australia
1894:Dung Beetle Ecosystem Engineers
859:ACT, NSW, NT, QLD, SA, Vic, WA
1905:Queensland Dung Beetle Project
83:, the dung pads remain on the
31:(CSIRO), was an international
21:Australian Dung Beetle Project
1:
1336:Spain, Greece, Italy, Turkey
599:A report by Penny Edwards of
1823:10.1016/0167-8809(96)01030-4
505:Further dung beetle research
161:Haematobia irritans irritans
51:in 1951, Dr Bornemissza, an
1862:African Dung Beetles Online
1457:African Dung Beetles Online
1403:
1371:
1338:
1305:
1273:
1241:
1208:
1175:
1142:
1109:
1076:
1043:
1010:
977:
944:
911:
878:
845:
812:
793:NSW, QLD, SA, Tas, Vic, WA
779:
746:
713:
679:
407:mark, release and recapture
1991:
994:NSW, NT, QLD, SA, Vic, WA
942:South Africa (via Hawaii)
862:NSW, NT, QLD, SA, Vic, WA
555:. Some species, including
177:Haematobia irritans exigua
1960:Agricultural soil science
1447:
1429:
1395:
1362:
1329:
1297:
1265:
1232:
1199:
1166:
1133:
1100:
1067:
1034:
1001:
968:
935:
902:
869:
838:Euoniticellus intermedius
836:
803:
770:
737:
704:
671:
666:
657:
654:
651:
648:
645:
553:Euoniticellus intermedius
491:Euoniticellus intermedius
426:Beetle collection surveys
383:interspecific competition
353:3. Dung burial efficiency
1271:Nigeria, Senegal, Zaire
331:1. Genuine dung-breeders
320:during 1978-1980 and in
171:) and the blood-sucking
43:Background and inception
1479:National Heritage Trust
1474:Biological pest control
1303:Sri Lanka (via Hawaii)
1299:Onthophagus sagittarius
1234:Onthophagus nigiventris
928:ACT, NSW, SA, Tas, Vic
772:Euoniticellus africanus
604:action is required to:
525:National Heritage Trust
1940:Ecological experiments
1884:Dung Down Under (1972)
1514:Collis B (2002). "2".
1355:NSW, SA, Tas, Vic, WA
1352:NSW, SA, Tas, Vic, WA
871:Euoniticellus pallipes
829:NSW, SA, Tas, Vic, WA
826:NSW, SA, Tas, Vic, WA
409:follow-up experiments.
139:which can lead to the
1945:Agricultural research
1935:Conservation projects
1867:1 August 2009 at the
1107:Kenya, Rwanda, Zaire
390:7. Distribution range
381:In order to minimise
322:Hluhluwe Game Reserve
1267:Onthophagus obliquus
1102:Onitis vanderkelleni
805:Euoniticellus fulvus
581:Onitis vanderkelleni
565:Onthophagus obliquus
1815:1996AgEE...58..157D
1201:Onthophagus gazella
1168:Onthophagus binodis
937:Liatongus militaris
925:ACT, NSW, Tas, Vic
642:
569:Sisyphus infuscatus
549:Onthophagus gazella
527:, in October 2000.
499:Liatongus militaris
495:Onthophagus binodis
487:Onthophagus gazella
362:4. Ease of handling
270:Northern Queensland
260:First introductions
214:Onthophagus gazella
100:Aims of the project
33:scientific research
1842:The Canberra Times
1484:Landcare Australia
1331:Onthophagus taurus
904:Geotrupes spiniger
664:Areas established
649:Country of origin
638:
601:Landcare Australia
561:Onitis westermanni
346:introduced species
324:during 1981–1986.
226:Fasciola gigantean
187:In experiments in
169:Musca vetustissima
37:biological control
25:George Bornemissza
1761:978-0-9806271-0-7
1718:dungbeetle.com.au
1465:
1464:
1417:NSW, NT, QLD, WA
1397:Sisyphus spinipes
1319:NSW, NT, QLD, WA
1159:NSW, NT, QLD, WA
1027:NSW, SA, Vic, WA
991:NSW, NT, QLD, WA
958:NSW, NT, QLD, WA
895:NSW, SA, Vic, WA
661:Areas of release
523:funding from the
466:genetic diversity
1982:
1871:
1859:
1853:
1852:
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1833:
1827:
1826:
1809:(2–3): 157–169.
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1423:Summer rainfall
1414:
1409:
1391:Summer rainfall
1382:
1377:
1358:Winter rainfall
1349:
1344:
1325:Summer rainfall
1316:
1311:
1293:Summer rainfall
1284:
1279:
1261:Summer rainfall
1252:
1247:
1228:Summer rainfall
1219:
1214:
1195:Winter rainfall
1186:
1181:
1162:Summer rainfall
1153:
1148:
1135:Onitis viridulus
1129:Summer rainfall
1120:
1115:
1096:Summer rainfall
1087:
1082:
1069:Onitis pecuarius
1054:
1049:
1030:Winter rainfall
1021:
1016:
988:
983:
964:Summer rainfall
955:
950:
931:Winter rainfall
922:
917:
898:Winter rainfall
889:
884:
865:Summer rainfall
856:
851:
832:Winter rainfall
823:
818:
799:Summer rainfall
790:
785:
766:Winter rainfall
757:
752:
733:Summer rainfall
724:
719:
700:Winter rainfall
690:
685:
643:
378:6. Compatibility
1990:
1989:
1985:
1984:
1983:
1981:
1980:
1979:
1920:
1919:
1880:
1875:
1874:
1869:Wayback Machine
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739:Copris hispanus
722:
717:
706:Copris elphenor
691:(not by CSIRO)
688:
683:
652:Total released
577:Copris elphenor
557:Copris diversus
507:
474:
439:and ecological
428:
370:5. Fast breeder
314:African buffalo
298:
274:Magnetic Island
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45:
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1007:
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658:Last release
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1955:Scarabaeinae
1857:
1845:. Retrieved
1841:
1831:
1806:
1802:
1796:
1787:
1735:
1726:
1717:
1708:
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1671:
1602:
1593:
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1515:
1456:
1452:
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1396:
1366:Paschalidis
1363:
1348:January 1984
1330:
1310:January 1968
1298:
1278:January 1976
1266:
1239:East Africa
1233:
1200:
1180:October 1971
1167:
1134:
1114:October 1974
1101:
1068:
1048:October 1979
1035:
1024:NSW, SA, WA
1020:January 1982
1015:January 1977
1002:
969:
949:January 1968
936:
903:
892:NSW, SA, WA
870:
837:
804:
784:October 1971
771:
751:October 1983
738:
718:January 1977
705:
697:NSW, SA, WA
672:
639:
634:
626:
598:
589:
586:
580:
576:
572:
568:
564:
560:
556:
552:
548:
541:
536:
532:quantitative
529:
515:Taroom Shire
512:
508:
498:
494:
490:
486:
483:
479:
475:
455:
437:biodiversity
429:
412:
326:
301:
299:
292:s activity.
289:
286:
281:
265:
263:
242:
229:
225:
213:
211:
203:
194:
184:Worm control
176:
168:
160:
143:of waterways
120:South Africa
114:Soil quality
103:
71:such as the
53:entomologist
46:
20:
18:
1847:9 September
1455:(2007) and
982:August 1972
673:Bubas bison
594:Buffalo fly
510:marketing.
416:Montpellier
398:8. Taxonomy
335:altogether.
290:O. gazella'
278:Palm Island
173:buffalo fly
148:Fly control
65:dung beetle
1924:Categories
1490:References
1408:March 1972
1376:March 1973
1315:March 1977
1251:March 1983
1236:d'Orbigny
1203:Fabricius
1104:Lansberge
1071:Lansberge
1053:April 1984
1005:Fabricius
972:Fabricius
939:Castelnau
916:April 1979
883:March 1977
873:Fabricius
817:March 1978
684:April 1983
446:laboratory
302:O. gazella
282:O. gazella
266:O. gazella
254:Queensland
250:Townsville
230:O. gazella
207:quarantine
200:Quarantine
165:bush flies
128:phosphorus
94:herbivores
92:and large
69:marsupials
1433:1,680,399
1420:NSW, QLD
1388:NSW, QLD
1333:Schreber
1170:Thunberg
1152:July 1980
1137:Bohemann
1123:NSW, QLD
1093:NSW, QLD
1090:NSW, QLD
796:NSW, QLD
756:June 1994
741:Linnaeus
458:gene pool
441:abundance
357:activity.
318:Cape Town
141:pollution
57:ecologist
1865:Archived
1550:: 54–56.
1468:See also
1339:164,499
1322:NSW, NT
1287:QLD, NT
1246:May 1975
1209:420,415
1176:173,018
1086:May 1979
1038:Boheman
978:186,441
906:Marsham
846:248,637
723:May 1983
646:Species
520:Brisbane
462:mutation
403:taxonomy
245:formalin
234:Canberra
222:parasite
189:Pretoria
157:horn fly
124:nitrogen
107:Tasmania
73:kangaroo
1811:Bibcode
1596:: 1–30.
1404:36,125
1372:85,933
1242:29,960
1110:10,852
1077:11,395
1011:18,682
945:70,450
912:12,082
909:France
879:46,642
840:Reiche
813:76,944
780:49,009
774:Harold
451:habitat
306:Zambezi
132:sulphur
90:bovines
85:pasture
49:Hungary
27:of the
1759:
1714:"Home"
1650:31-41)
1622:
1522:
1453:et al.
1430:Total:
1306:9,075
1274:9,300
1143:8,008
1044:8,738
807:Goeze
744:Spain
714:2,287
680:1,613
579:, and
420:France
310:Kunene
218:Africa
153:Hawaii
137:runoff
77:wombat
61:Europe
1975:CSIRO
708:Klug
238:mites
81:fauna
1849:2023
1757:ISBN
1620:ISBN
1520:ISBN
1448:Key:
1290:QLD
1258:NSW
1255:NSW
1126:QLD
747:294
730:QLD
727:QLD
689:1996
627:The
567:and
559:and
551:and
497:and
308:and
276:and
130:and
75:and
55:and
35:and
19:The
1819:doi
1057:WA
763:WA
760:WA
694:WA
414:in
1926::
1840:.
1817:.
1807:58
1805:.
1767:^
1744:^
1716:.
1700:75
1698:.
1680:^
1655:^
1642:^
1630:^
1611:^
1594:30
1592:.
1556:^
1548:26
1546:.
1534:^
1498:^
575:,
493:,
418:,
252:,
1851:.
1825:.
1821::
1813::
1720:.
1528:.
588:"
535:"
175:(
167:(
159:(
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