Australian constitutional law

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of command" test for the validity of the exercise of the corporations power. Accordingly, the judgment suggests that, henceforth, it may be a sufficient basis of validity that Federal legislation be specifically addressed to constitutional corporations ("A constitutional corporation must...", "A constitutional corporation must not..."), without any additional requirement that the legislation also address some aspect of the status or activities of corporations which is specific to such entities. If this is correct, then given the preponderant role of corporations in the modern economy, the possibility exists for substantial Federal control of the greater part of the economy, with little if any regard to the traditional constitutional "heads of power".

2243:. A former chairman of a Commonwealth Parliamentary Committee on Migration claimed to have been defamed by a newspaper which had published a letter accusing him of bias, in his official capacity, towards people of his own ethnic background. By trial, it was conceded that the accusation was false. However the Court accepted a "constitutional defence" which was said (by three Justices) to operate when otherwise defamatory statements concerning the fitness of a public official to hold office were published without knowledge of, or recklessness as to, their falsity, and when publication was reasonable in the circumstances. 1722:. Prima facie, it does not cover intrastate aviation. However, a purely intrastate aviation industry is no longer economically feasible and separate systems of state regulation pose safety concerns. As a result, the High Court held that all aviation has an interstate character, placing it within Commonwealth legislative power. In 1937 a referendum was submitted to the people giving the Commonwealth power over aviation, and that the referendum was rejected by the people. The rejection of a power by the people has never persuaded the Court that the Commonwealth should not exercise the power. 2223:

is constitutionally entrenched". That being so, freedom of public discussion of political and economic matters is essential to allow the people to make their political judgments so as to exercise their right to vote effectively. Furthermore, since "public affairs and political discussion are indivisible", it is impossible to limit this necessary freedom to purely Federal issues: it applies also to issues which might be the preserve of the State or local levels of government. Therefore, there is implied in the Constitution a guarantee of freedom of communication on

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new legislation applies to all employees of a "constitutional corporation." A constitutional corporation is a corporation within the meaning of section 51(xx) of the Constitution. The legislation also applies to employees of the Commonwealth and its agencies, and some others. The expected coverage of this law is approximately 85% of the Australian workforce. That proportion is likely to increase as employers who operate as sole traders or in partnerships incorporate to take advantage of the new legislation's relatively "employer-friendly" provisions.

1288:) and exclusive (section 52) powers are stated to be "subject to this Constitution". As a result, the Commonwealth's law-making power is subject to the limitations and guarantees in the Constitution (both express and implied). For example, section 99 forbids the Commonwealth from giving preference to any State or part of a State "by any law or regulation of trade, commerce, or revenue". And as discussed below, an implied guarantee of freedom of political communication has been held to limit the Commonwealth's power to regulate political discourse. 226: 1996:, trial by jury, "just terms" compensation, free trade between the states, and protection against discrimination based on the state an individual lives in. (A referendum proposal to amend the Constitution to clarify these rights and to make them good also against the States was defeated in 1988.) As will be seen, guaranteed access to the High Court can itself amount to an important right. And the guarantee of free trade and commerce was for a time interpreted as something like an individual right. 1590:, regarding inconsistency between Commonwealth and State laws, was broadly interpreted. Commonwealth law prevails not only where inconsistent obligations are imposed, but where Commonwealth legislation evinces an intention to "cover the field" by being the whole law on a particular subject. The Commonwealth can "manufacture" inconsistency by expressly stating that its legislation is intended to cover the field. However, an issue that was raised, without being conclusively resolved, in the 1675:, the Commonwealth government decided to take over the collection of income taxes and return some proceeds to the States as grants. The Commonwealth passed legislation to levy income tax at a nationwide rate similar to the previous combination of Commonwealth tax and the various state taxes. Separate legislation then granted section 96 monetary grants to states if the State did not levy income taxes. In practice, it would be difficult for States to continue taxing. 2193:

terms of the Constitution, or on its structure. Since the 1990s the High Court has discovered rights which are said to be implied by the very structure and textual form of the Constitution. Chief amongst these is an implied right to freedom of communication on political matters. In addition, some protections of civil liberties have been the result of the High Court's zealous attempts to safeguard the independence of, and confidence in, the Federal judiciary.

66: 2275:(NSW) permitting the exclusion of women from ordination as priests infringes the right of women to "rise to positions from which they may take part in political speech as religious leaders." Any such constitutional protection would depend on a court finding that the anti-discrimination laws, first, effectively burdened political speech (as relevant to the Commonwealth Parliament) and, secondly, disproportionately burdened such speech. 2271:. But it remains to be seen whether a suitable expansion of the notion of "political communication" may not lead, in time, to a similar result. In the migration-bias case, some of the Justices, while being careful to quarantine "commercial speech without political content", seemed to imply that the scope of "political speech" may nevertheless be very broad indeed. Mitchell Landrigan goes as far as arguing that the exception to the 231: 1656:, inevitably authority over these taxes was vested exclusively in the Commonwealth Parliament (section 90). It was acknowledged that this would create a situation where the Commonwealth would raise much more money than it could spend, whereas the States, being still responsible for most areas of law and of social infrastructure, would need to spend much more money than they could raise (the problem now known as " 1568:(after changes in the composition of the Court) swept away this doctrine. The court now insisted on adhering only to interpreting a statute "expounded according to the intent of the Parliament that made it; and that intention has to be found by an examination of the language used in the statute as a whole". There was to be no reading in of implications by reference to the presumed intentions of the framers. 1561:" doctrine and "implied inter-governmental immunities" were used to preserve state power. Reserved state powers holds that the Constitution should be read in a restrictive way so as to preserve as much autonomy as possible for the States. Implied intergovernmental immunities holds that Commonwealth and States are immune to each other's laws and cannot mutually regulate each other's governmental apparatus. 2461: 879: 1660:"). Although the framers were able to agree on a formula for distribution of the Commonwealth's surplus to the States in the first few years after Federation, they could not agree on a long-term formula. Accordingly, section 96 of the Constitution provides that the Commonwealth Parliament "may grant financial assistance to any State on such terms and conditions as it thinks fit". 1153:, which mandate the Governor General to act on ministerial advice, except in exceptional circumstances. Because the conventions are not written in The Constitution, the limits of the Governor General's powers are unclear. Convention does, however, allow The Governor General to exercise some powers without ministerial advice in exceptional circumstances. These powers are known as 2389:, including that their removal and subsequent detention without due process was in contravention of the Constitution. Dawson J, and McHugh J, held that the Constitution contained no general guarantee of due process of law. Toohey, Gaudron and Gummow JJ held that the removal of Indigenous children was not the exercise of judicial power, hence no question of due process arose. 2449:

free to legislate as they please with respect to their own courts. A requirement to order the "preventive detention" of someone who has not been charged with any criminal offence was found "incompatible" with the exercise of Federal judicial power. In this rather circuitous manner, the High Court has found a limited constitutional guarantee of due process.

2180:, which was notable also for the Court's willingness to use the transcripts of the Convention debates as an aid to interpretation, the Court unanimously decided that what the section prohibited, in relation to interstate trade and commerce, were only "discriminatory burdens of a protectionist kind". That is, the section did no more than guarantee " 1664:

grants" it has in fact become paramount in the field of tertiary education. Although any state has the option to refuse a grant, the consequences of doing so make this unattractive. Similarly, the Commonwealth has become dominant in the field of public hospitals, and a major player in the field of roads and other major infrastructure.

2334:, and limited the Federal government's legislative power to limit that franchise. The court held that removing right to vote for serious misconduct was acceptable and that the previous legislation was valid, however imprisonment failed as a method of identifying serious criminal misconduct such that the 2006 amendments were invalid. 2432:

The individual was a prisoner (under state law) whose sentence was about to expire but who was alleged to have made threats against the safety of various persons, to be carried out when released. The State Parliament enacted a law, applying only to him, which authorised the Supreme Court of New South

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The High Court subsequently held that closing the electoral roles 7 days after the issuing of writs was not a burden on the constitutional mandate that members of Parliament be directly chosen by the people. The right to vote does not involve a corresponding right not to vote. The High Court rejected

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legislation against all the challenges that had been made to it in an action brought by each of the States and mainland Territories, as well as certain trade unions. The single majority judgment, while it did not expressly adopt, waved aside all the objections that had been argued against the "object

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Another example concerns intellectual property. Although the Constitution gave the Commonwealth Parliament power over "copyrights, patents of inventions and designs, and trade marks", the enormous growth of electronic media content has given this power a much wider scope than could possibly have been

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The Constitution required direct election of members to both Houses of Parliament from the beginning (sections 7 and 24). This was a novelty at the time, since the national upper houses with which the framers were best acquainted were chosen by other means: indirect election by the State legislatures

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polity, with enumerated limited specific powers conferred on the Federal Parliament. The State Parliaments are not assigned specific enumerated powers; rather the powers of their predecessor colonial Parliaments are continued except insofar as they are expressly withdrawn or vested exclusively in the

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Wales to make "preventive detention orders" for periods up to six months, with the possibility of renewal. The orders were to be made if the Court was satisfied, "on the balance of probabilities", that the person to whom the Act applied was "more likely than not to commit a serious act of violence".

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which involved the alleged defamation of a former Prime Minister of New Zealand a unanimous Court did state the operative principle. It rejected the "constitutional defence" of the migration-bias case just discussed, and instead expanded the scope of "qualified privilege", requiring the defendant to

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In both cases, the majority of the High Court reasoned that, since the Constitution required direct election of members of the Federal Parliament, and since moreover the Ministers of State were required to be or swiftly become members of that Parliament, the result was that "representative democracy

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Although it would appear that there is an open-ended potential for the Commonwealth to encroach on areas of traditional State competence through the external affairs power, to date it has been used with some discretion, if only because the use of the power in this way inevitably excites considerable

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The Constitution gives the Commonwealth Parliament power over "external affairs". Originally this power had little content, because Australia's foreign relations were managed by the United Kingdom. As Australia gained independence and international personality, so did the significance of this power.

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duty," which states cannot levy. The High Court has long stated the definition in terms such as "an inland tax on a step in production, manufacture, sale or distribution of goods". However, it does not include a mere fee for a licence to carry on a particular business or profession. Accordingly, the

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One result of this has been that the Commonwealth has been able to make grants to the States on terms so specific as to amount to the virtual takeover of particular fields of competence. For instance, although the Constitution gives the Commonwealth no express power over education, by means of "tied

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The constitution also provides some opportunities for Federal-State co-operation: any State can "refer" a "matter" to the Commonwealth Parliament, and the Commonwealth Parliament can exercise, "at the request or with the concurrence of the Parliaments of all the States directly concerned", any power

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The Act was found invalid, however, on the ground that since the Supreme Court of New South Wales had been invested with federal jurisdiction, it must not be required to perform a function "incompatible" with the exercise of the judicial power of the Commonwealth. To that extent, the States are not

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In separate cases in 1915, and 1918, the High Court held that "judicial power" (essentially, the power of interpretation of the law and enforcement of decisions) could not be invested in anything other than a Chapter III court, and specifically, in anything other than a body whose members have life

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of a person's proprietary rights by the Commonwealth (or a prohibition on effectively exercising them) is insufficient to amount to an acquisition. And "just terms" has been taken to mean something less than "just compensation"; in particular, it does not necessarily require payment to the owner of

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status. However, since the Parliament is not constitutionally able to limit or abolish access to the High Court for the purpose of applying for one of these "constitutional writs", such applications have become a major means of challenging migration decisions. In 2014–15 94% of the applications for

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legislation, which, relying primarily on the corporations power, seeks to create a uniform national industrial relations system to the exclusion of both the States' and the Commonwealth's own industrial relations systems. Previous systems were based on the 'conciliation and arbitration' power. The

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The corporations power allows the Commonwealth to legislate on "foreign corporations, and trading or financial corporations formed within the limits of the Commonwealth". Although the width of the expression "trading or financial corporations" has never been authoritatively settled, it appears that

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aspect under the external affairs power. The High Court has held that the power covers the regulation of conduct that takes place outside Australia, suggesting that mere externality to Australia could enliven the power. In particular, Commonwealth legislation of 1998 that retroactively criminalised

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Australia's relations with other countries fall directly under the subject of external affairs. It includes relations with other British Dominions and further extends to relations with international organisations. The pursuit and advancement of friendliness with foreign governments is another vital

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In 1999, the Commonwealth Parliament passed legislation introducing a new broad-based Federal indirect tax, the Goods and Services Tax; the revenue from this tax was to go entirely to the States and Territories in exchange for abolishing a range of other indirect taxes. By this stage, the financial

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The judicial power of the Commonwealth is vested, in Chapter III of the Constitution, in the High Court and such other courts as the Parliament creates or invests with Federal jurisdiction. In Australian constitutional jargon, such courts are called "Chapter III courts". The members of Chapter III

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period, rather than on the value of goods currently being sold. Although these seem similar to excise duties, a series of High Court precedents had effectively "quarantined" such fees from disallowance in the areas of liquor retailing, tobacco retailing, and petrol distribution. In 1997, by a bare

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in passing the law is irrelevant. An example is environmental legislation. The Constitution does not provide the Commonwealth Parliament with any power to control the environment or its use. Nonetheless, a very broad-ranging environmental protection Act could be passed relying on a combination of

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The Commonwealth can only legislate with respect to an enumerated head of power, This does not mean that the law must be solely, or even predominantly, directed at that head of power. As long as it can be "fairly characterized" as a law with respect to an enumerated power, it is irrelevant that it

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of the House of Representatives, are not mentioned. Nonetheless, these have been fundamental features of Australian constitutional practice from the start. More recently, the principle of responsible government was reinforced by the High Court of Australia which upheld orders for a Minister of the

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In addition, a constitutional requirement that "trade, commerce, and intercourse among the States ... shall be absolutely free" (section 92) was, for a time, interpreted as a guarantee of some degree of freedom from economic regulation by either Commonwealth or State Parliaments. The reference to

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in 1803. Although completely foreign to both British and Australian colonial experience, the framers of the Australian Constitution clearly intended that the practice would take hold in Australia, and even expressly adverted to it in the Constitutional text (in section 76). This power of judicial

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taken reasonable steps to verify the accuracy of the published material, and also, in most circumstances, to have given the defamed person an opportunity to respond. On the other hand, the Court made it clear that the qualified privilege may extend to discussion concerning the United Nations and

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Implied rights are the political and civil freedoms that necessarily underlie the actual words of the constitution but are not themselves expressly stated directly in the constitution. The High Court has held that no implication can be drawn from the Constitution which is not based on the actual

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so as to be devoid of any real meaning. For example, in 1904 it was found that discrimination in favour of people who are "residents of and domiciled in Western Australia" was permissible, as the Constitution only prohibited discrimination on the basis of a person's state of residence, not their

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The Constitution states that the Commonwealth "shall not make any law for establishing any religion, or for imposing any religious observance, or for prohibiting the free exercise of any religion, and no religious test shall be required as a qualification for any office or public trust under the

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capacity as judges rather than as members of a Chapter III court. But this raised the question of which such functions were compatible with the simultaneous holding of Federal judicial office. The answers offered by the Court have been controversial and involved some very fine distinctions: for

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if they were serving sentences of three years or more. 2006 legislation sought to disenfranchise all prisoners, regardless of the length of their sentence. The validity of the disenfranchisement was challenged by Vickie Roach who was serving a four-year gaol term for negligently causing serious

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gave the Commonwealth power to provide a wide range of social services. This included unemployment and sickness benefits, maternity allowances, child endowment, and medical and dental services. Apart from defence, social services is the largest area of Commonwealth expenditure. Along with the

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and section 52. Section 52 powers are 'exclusive' to the Commonwealth (although some section 51 powers are in practice necessarily exclusive, such as the power with respect to borrowing money on the public credit of the Commonwealth in paragraph (iv), and the power to legislate with respect to

2213:, concerned a Federal provision criminalising the "bringing into disrepute" of members of an industrial relations tribunal, and a prosecution under that provision of a person who had published a newspaper article repeatedly describing such members as "corrupt" and "compliant". The second case, 1932:

The Constitution contains no comprehensive set of human rights guarantees. Factors sometimes cited for this include faith in the common law's protection of rights and a belief that a powerful Senate would effectively resist overzealous governments. The Constitution does contain protection for

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These arrangements, however, are only hinted at in the text of the Constitution. There is a requirement (section 64) that the "Queen's Ministers of State", who are nominally appointed by the Governor-General, be or swiftly become members of either House of Parliament. The existence of the

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The Court stressed that this freedom is not absolute, but the result in both cases was that the relevant Federal legislation was struck down. In the latter case, some strong dissents to the effect that limiting expenditure on political advertising in the electronic media might actually

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majority, the High Court decided that this area of doctrinal quarantine was incoherent with the rest of the law relating to excise duties and removed it. The immediate result was the loss of some $ 5 billion (Australian) in the annual revenues of the States and Territories.

1896:(section 76), and the exceptions to, and conditions on, its power to hear appeals (section 73). However, the Constitution grants the Court some original jurisdiction directly, without the possibility of Parliamentary limitation (section 75). This includes matters in which "a 2184:" (in the conventional sense) among the States. But in relation to "intercourse" (i.e. personal movement between States), the Court suggested that the scope of the guarantee would be much wider, and may even, in relation to some forms of such intercourse, be truly absolute. 2166:

The constitutional requirement that "trade, commerce, and intercourse amongst the States ... shall be absolutely free" (section 92) was for a considerable time interpreted as a guarantee of some degree of freedom from government regulation. A notable example of this line of

2123:, the modern approach to interpretation was developed. The court held that the purpose of the section was national unity, and consequentially, residence should be given a broader meaning. In addition, the court overruled a case in which the historical approach was used. 1137:, along with the Senate and the House of Representatives (section 1). Today, the King of Australia has replaced the King of the United Kingdom within Australia's parliament, but they happen to be the same person. The Monarch is represented in Australia by an appointed 2151:

prescribed jury trial, the Court has been willing to impose some content on that notion. In particular, it has insisted that conviction by a jury for a Federal offence must be by the unanimous agreement of the jurors – a majority verdict will not suffice.

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The use of the term "acquisition" has been interpreted so as to require that the Commonwealth (or some other party for a Commonwealth purpose) actually acquire possessory or proprietary rights over the property in question, or at least some benefit: the mere

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In reaching its conclusion, each of the seven Justices issued a separate opinion. Combining this with the fact that there is little case law referencing section 117, there remains significant debate over the nature and extent of the right contained within

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Representation in the House of Representatives is based on population and ‘original states’ have equal numbers in the Senate. The two houses are equal in power except for certain restrictions in financial matters. For example, the Senate may not amend a

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The Australian Constitution provides the Governor-General with a number of powers, including; the power to dissolve Parliament (Sections 5, 57), the power to refuse assent to bills presented to her (section 58) and the power to dismiss the government

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separation in the Constitution. However, the same consideration does not militate against a separation of the judicial power from the other two, and in fact the High Court has come to insist on this with some force. It has also held that the

1626:'. Particularly in the last two decades, many Acts of very wide-ranging effect have been passed on just these bases, in fields as diverse as environment protection, privacy, and anti-discrimination, fields in which the Commonwealth has no 2440:

Parliament passed such an Act, it would be found invalid, as it was in effect a legislative judgment and so violated of the constitutional separation of the judicial power. However, the High Court found that the separation of powers was

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While there is no significant separation of the legislative and executive powers (the "political branches"), the High Court has developed an increasingly stringent doctrine of the separation of the judicial power from the other two.

1299:, but is in some respects broader: for instance, it includes "astronomical and meteorological observations", marriage and divorce, and interstate industrial relations. The interpretation of similar heads of power – for instance the 2135:

The constitutional guarantee that a trial on indictment for a federal offence must be by jury (section 80) has been rendered virtually worthless because the High Court has decided that it is applicable only to a trial that proceeds

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Both these cases concerned the validity of Federal legislation. But two years later, the Court extended the implied guarantee into the area of private law, by holding that it also applied to limit the statutory and common law of

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By this decision, the system of industrial arbitration that had been in place for 30 years, and which involved judges of the Conciliation and Arbitration Court acting in both a judicial and an administrative capacity, was

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gives the Commonwealth Parliament power over "postal, telegraphic, telephonic, and other like services". With little controversy, this power now covers radio, television, satellite, cable, and optic fibre technologies.

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The Constitution is silent as to many aspects of the democratic process, leaving these details to be provided by Parliament. The Constitution does however require in sections 7 and 24 that the members of Parliament be

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The use of the referendum in initially adopting the Constitution, and its requirement for constitutional amendment, has been cited by justices of the High Court to argue that the Constitution is fundamentally based on

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All but the last of these have been read down by the High Court, at least relative to the content of the corresponding United States guarantees. On the other hand, since the 1990s the High Court has been developing a

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implies that a body exercising that power must do so in a manner that is consistent with traditional notions of what constitutes judicial process. The result may be a limited constitutional guarantee of due process.

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demonstrates, it may defer or refuse to pass such a Bill altogether; Bills to impose taxation or appropriate revenue may not originate in the Senate; and the Senate may not amend a Bill so as to increase taxation.

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Probably the most obvious development in Australian constitutional law has been the steady growth in the power of the federal government relative to the states. Several factors could account for this, including:

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is dealt with in Chapter III, and is vested in the Federal High Court and "in such other federal courts as the Parliament creates, and in such other courts as it invests with federal jurisdiction" (section 71).

2070:, combined with the fact that the Australian provision is expressed as a positive grant of power coupled with a limitation, have been read so as to weaken the Australian guarantee relative to the American one. 1819:, the High Court has upheld Commonwealth legislation forbidding the Tasmanian government from proceeding with a dam that would have submerged an area of Tasmanian government-owned land that had been declared a 4857: 2375:

courts may not be removed except by the Governor-General on an address from both Houses of Parliament on the ground of proved misbehaviour or incapacity; they otherwise hold office until the age of 70.

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of the British Parliament, which is its technical legal foundation). This doctrine has achieved greater prominence since the cessation, in 1986, of all authority of that Parliament over Australia: see

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by way of indictment, and it is completely in Parliament's discretion to decide which offences are triable on indictment and which are not. This narrow view is confirmed in the majority judgement of

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judicial power. To some extent the rigour of the separation of powers doctrine was softened by the Court's subsequent acceptance that judges could, constitutionally, be assigned functions in their

2219:, concerned a Federal attempt to ban political advertising on radio and television during election periods and to strictly control it at other times, via a system of "free time" entitlements. 1277:

can be legislated on by both state and Commonwealth parliaments. However, in the event of inconsistency or an intention by the Commonwealth to cover the field the Commonwealth law prevails (

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the long established universal adult suffrage may now be recognized as a fact and as a result it is doubtful whether ... anything less than this could be described as a choice by the people.

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in the 1890s and approved by the voters in each of the Australian colonies. The British government did, however, insist on one change to the text, to allow a greater range of appeals to the

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This case, however, and a series of following cases, failed to produce a clear statement of the operative principle which commanded the support of a majority of the Court. But in 1997 in

4575: 3803: 2144:. Powerful dissents to the effect that the section must be given some substantive meaning (the trial of offences of some specific degree of gravity must be by jury) have not prevailed. 5663: 2021:

has had in that country. The High Court, in rejecting a challenge to Federal funding of church schools, seemed to take the view that nothing less than an explicit establishment of a

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The constitutional guarantee of freedom of political communication is, prima facie, far more restricted than the generalised guarantee of freedom of speech and of the press in the

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the taxation part of the scheme was held to be valid based on the taxation power, and the grants held to be valid on the basis of the words 'terms and conditions' of section 96.

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was whether the Commonwealth can "clear the field" by stating an intention that State laws are not to apply even if the Commonwealth does not enact other laws in their place.

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It was assumed by the framers, in line with British and local colonial tradition, that the executive government would consist of Ministers who were members of Parliament and "

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As corporations have come to dominate the economy, the practical scope the corporations power has increased. For example, in 2005 the Commonwealth Parliament enacted the

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The prohibition on establishing any religion has had nothing like the impact that the corresponding ban on making a law "respecting an establishment of religion" in the

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was not broad enough to cover incorporation itself. This decision threatened the validity of Australian companies incorporated under commonwealth law. The states used

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States had for a long time levied, with the compliance of the High Court, "business franchise fees" on retailers of products, particularly liquor and tobacco products.

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Additionally, amendments "altering the limits" of a State or diminishing its proportional representation in Parliament require the approval of electors in that State.

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Even before the Engineer's case, a line of judicial reasoning asserted that Commonwealth powers should be interpreted broadly rather than narrowly wherever possible.

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More recently, the external affairs power has been used to remove the States' power to criminalise male homosexual activity. This followed an adverse report by the

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in constitutional amendment was not followed, so that constitutional alterations, although they must be approved by the people, can only be initiated by Parliament.

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However, the Queen is an element of the Parliament as well as being head of the executive; and the Ministers of State who "advise" the Governor-General are actually

1129:" is not used in the Constitution, it was intended that the Commonwealth (like the colonies) would continue to recognise the British Sovereign. "The Queen" (meaning 6462: 6422: 2526: 2047: 1778: 1619: 1521: 1164:

when no party, or coalition of parties has a majority of seats in The House of Representatives and the power to dismiss a Prime Minister, who has been subject to a

442: 432: 1141:. The executive power is vested in the Governor-General "as the Queen's representative" (section 61), as is the command-in-chief of the armed forces (section 68). 6417: 6407: 2768:"The Americanness of the Australian Constitution: The Influence of American Constitutional Jurisprudence on Australian Constitutional Jurisprudence: 1988 to 1994" 2584: 6412: 6384: 6269: 5729: 5009: 4906: 2729: 2522: 2421: 1855: 1762: 1750: 1639: 1615: 1611: 1525: 1511: 424: 2830: 2644: 6379: 6369: 6364: 6359: 6354: 6344: 6339: 6334: 6329: 6324: 6309: 6289: 6259: 6254: 6249: 6244: 5724: 5571: 5510: 3193: 2518: 2105: 2098: 2005: 1719: 1711: 1607: 1300: 1222: 1210: 1198:

The role of the Monarch is today even more circumscribed and amounts only to appointing (and, in theory, dismissing) a Governor-General on the advice of the

1150: 311: 2264:, the High Court further endorsed the view that a qualified freedom of political communication exists and provided an updated and more detailed legal test. 6394: 6234: 6229: 6219: 6199: 6189: 6174: 6144: 6139: 6134: 6129: 6124: 6119: 6114: 6109: 6104: 6099: 6094: 6089: 6084: 6079: 6074: 6069: 6064: 6059: 6054: 6049: 6044: 6039: 6034: 6029: 6024: 6019: 6014: 6009: 6004: 5999: 5994: 5989: 5984: 5979: 5974: 5969: 5964: 5959: 5954: 5949: 5944: 5939: 5934: 5929: 5924: 5919: 5914: 5909: 5904: 5899: 5894: 5889: 5884: 5879: 5874: 5869: 5864: 5859: 5854: 5849: 5844: 5839: 5834: 5829: 5824: 5819: 5814: 5809: 5804: 5799: 5794: 5719: 5709: 5699: 5556: 5453: 5412: 5407: 5376: 5156: 4346: 2484: 2248: 2161: 2014:

In determining what is considered a religion, the High Court has adopted a broad approach; demonstrating an unwillingness to create a limiting definition.

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The text of the Constitution was not presented to the British Parliament for formal enactment until it had been approved by the electors of the colonies.

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gave the Commonwealth power over Aboriginal affairs, which has had a significant effect particularly in the pastoral and central regions of Australia.

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in this area means that Australia cannot be said, strictly, to operate entirely under a written constitution, but has to some extent a system like the

5657: 4114: 3322: 2504: 1743: 1735: 1285: 1274: 1269: 1105: 719: 642: 622: 5617: 5586: 5576: 5566: 5561: 3424: 1325: 1192: 701: 697: 686: 4136: 3084: 1012: 527: 773: 758: 3858: 999:

consists mostly of that body of doctrine which interprets the Commonwealth Constitution. The Constitution itself is embodied in clause 9 of the

6557: 5525: 4328: 4004: 1183:

on this ground in 1932). However, it remains controversial whether they include the power to dismiss a Prime Minister who, while retaining the

939: 550: 4559: 763: 5653: 5648: 5427: 5336: 4831: 4821:

Judges' appointment, tenure, and remuneration. Judicial office was originally for life; the age limit was introduced by a referendum in 1977.

3446: 3299: 2627: 2594: 1591: 1008: 920: 176: 5668: 2411:

compatible, while a power to make recommendations concerning the protection of land which might be of heritage significance to Aboriginals

1093:

to strike down legislation deemed incompatible with the Constitution was first asserted by the Supreme Court itself in the seminal case of

271: 2425:(1996) concerned a criminal law passed by the New South Parliament and directed at a single named individual (somewhat in the manner of a 753: 6482: 3776: 6532: 6517: 6477: 6452: 5643: 5381: 5160: 4608: 2479: 1488: 1373: 1203: 568: 247: 19: 6472: 6442: 2348:

holding that both above the line and below the line voting were constitutionally valid methods for the people to choose their Senators.

6467: 6457: 6447: 5520: 4615: 4332: 3678: 3336: 3252: 2922: 2918: 2894: 2890: 2341:, where the High Court held that amendments restricting the enrolment of voters once an election has been called were also invalid. * 2202: 1133:, defined to include "Her Majesty's heirs and successors in the sovereignty of the United Kingdom"), was one of the three elements of 1090: 647: 158: 6427: 5315: 6432: 5505: 4709: 2489: 2367: 2084: 1385: 745: 582: 1089:

to declare legislation unconstitutional and therefore invalid – has its origin in American experience, where the right of the

6374: 6349: 6319: 6314: 6304: 6299: 6294: 6284: 6279: 6274: 6264: 6239: 6224: 6214: 6209: 6204: 6194: 6184: 6179: 6169: 6164: 6159: 6154: 6149: 5329: 4329:"The State of Play in the Constitutionally Implied Freedom of Political Discussion and Bans on Electoral Canvassing in Australia" 2966: 2566: 2416: 1984:

on the separation of powers and through its findings of rights implied by the text and structure of the constitutional document.

1004: 732: 509: 504: 499: 494: 489: 484: 1980:

in the Constitution are scant, and have mostly been read down, some protections have been created by the High Court through its

1022:

The Constitution created a framework of government some of whose main features, and sources of inspiration, were the following:

981:, the highest court in the Australian judicial system. Several major doctrines of Australian constitutional law have developed. 5074: 4242: 3927: 3119: 3034: 2744: 2209: 1671:. Once the advantages of income tax were recognised, both the Commonwealth and the States levied income taxes. However, during 825: 810: 540: 322: 290: 2361:, government means that there can be no meaningful separation of the legislative and executive powers, despite their distinct 768: 4683: 4092: 3387: 3361: 2323: 1812: 1718:

A greater struggle occurred over Commonwealth legislation in the field of aviation. Commonwealth regulation is based on the

1679: 1214: 670: 632: 555: 5228: 2207:

Two cases decided in 1992 established a new implied right to freedom of communication on political matters. The first case,

1494:

There have been 44 proposals for constitutional amendment put to the people since Federation. Of these, only 8 have passed.

783: 778: 5495: 5422: 4181: 2338: 1969:"intercourse", on the other hand, has always been understood as guaranteeing a right to movement across State boundaries. 1138: 845: 820: 613: 517: 184: 110: 3695: 1217:. However, it would be a mistake to exaggerate the importance of this aspect of Australia's constitutional arrangements: 3274: 2415:

compatible. The most striking application (and extension) of this "incompatibility" doctrine, however, has involved the

1080: 627: 1915:

In recent years, the Parliament has all but eliminated the possibility of appeal against many decisions in the area of

1537:

the willingness of Australian governments, including supporters of States' rights, to exercise their powers to the full

1517:

the development of new areas of competence which did not exist at Federation, and which have fallen to the Commonwealth

1265:, which has been described as "an allocation of exclusive powers to both levels of government, not concurrent powers." 1228:

more completely written constitutional systems also develop binding conventions: for instance, popular election to the

1111:

A brief overview of the other listed features will provide a background for the doctrinal developments examined below.

5612: 4533: 3597: 3571: 2299: 1364: 1199: 1161: 1086: 925: 141: 4723: 2677: 2054:

contains a prohibition: "nor shall private property be taken ... without just compensation". The differences between

1355:", that is, answerable, to it, and that the continued existence of the government would depend on it maintaining the 5673: 5062: 4265: 3524: 3097: 1804: 1739: 1402:

is dealt with in Chapter II, and is vested in the Governor-General as the Queen's representative (section 61). The

1292: 1233: 855: 709: 397: 353: 2294:". In 1975 two judges of the High Court suggested that these requirements may amount to a right to vote, holding " 1175:

may also include the power to dismiss a Prime Minister who is engaging in persistent illegal action (Governor Sir

5607: 5352: 2311: 2171:

was the High Court's disallowance of a Commonwealth Act which had the aim of nationalising the banking industry.

2046:

The Constitution gives the Commonwealth power "with respect to ... the acquisition of property on just terms" in

1823:

under the World Heritage Convention to which Australia is a party. Land use is otherwise a State responsibility.

1016: 996: 990: 974: 815: 75: 5551: 5535: 5281: 5250: 5237: 5222: 5192: 5170: 5126: 5113: 5104: 5098: 5049: 5018: 4968: 4942: 4692: 4542: 4512: 4437: 4428: 4407: 4394: 4355: 4324: 4310: 4290: 4251: 4210: 4190: 4165: 4145: 4123: 4101: 4079: 4054: 4034: 4014: 3975: 3955: 3841: 3790: 3763: 3743: 3723: 3640: 3606: 3581: 3555: 3533: 3506: 3476: 3456: 3433: 3419: 3397: 3371: 3345: 3331: 3309: 3283: 3261: 3247: 3225: 3203: 3173: 3151: 3128: 3106: 3080: 3076: 3062: 3022: 2753: 2739: 2499: 2358: 2260: 1452: 1352: 1333: 1225:

is confined almost entirely to the relations between the Queen/Governor-General and the Ministers of State; and

1202:, as well as performing (by invitation) certain ceremonial functions when personally present in Australia. See 1035: 905: 724: 532: 225: 2867: 2816: 1571:

As a result, the constitution is no longer read in a way which attempts to preserve the power of the states.

5515: 5479: 5443: 5366: 4946: 4910: 4890: 4886: 4441: 3903: 3702: 3496: 2992: 2975: 2494: 2474: 2258:

other countries, even where there is no direct nexus with the exercise of political choice in Australia. In

2112: 1816: 1710:

The development of various technologies during the twentieth century also added to the power of the centre.

1484: 1251: 1165: 1134: 1101: 978: 860: 840: 835: 345: 217: 207: 23: 1693:

These "franchise fees" were mostly calculated according to the value of the retailer's sales in a specific

5678: 5500: 5474: 4882: 1831: 1827: 1296: 1262: 1229: 910: 890: 865: 850: 805: 595: 468: 450: 335: 303: 5417: 4959: 4932: 4589: 4555: 2381: 2303: 2284: 1893: 1558: 1552: 1180: 1120: 1100:

review of legislation for conformity with the Constitution has been exercised almost exclusively by the

796: 378: 131: 94: 51: 4818: 4778: 2586:

The constitution of a federal commonwealth : the making and meaning of the Australian constitution

1992:

As mentioned, there are five rights which the Constitution guarantees against the Commonwealth –

1336:, which requires that the Bill to amend the Constitution be approved by a majority of electors overall 4492: 4488: 2690: 1803:, even if the subject matter of the treaty is otherwise not within Commonwealth power. In the case of 1273:

matters referred to the Commonwealth by a State in paragraph (xxxvii)). By contrast, the subjects in

5402: 5066: 3410: 3238: 2971: 1820: 1755: 1428: 1391: 1368: 1356: 1184: 1042: 577: 194: 1892:

To a very large extent, the Constitution leaves it to Parliament to determine both the High Court's

18:

For the story of how Australia evolved from a set of British colonies to an independent nation, see

3164: 2331: 1993: 1952:

an ambiguously worded prohibition on discrimination against residents of other States (section 117)

1940: 1480: 1471:

Constitutional referendums were based on the Swiss practice. However, the Swiss use of the popular

714: 2308:...in Australia, there may be a basic right to vote implied in the text of the constitution itself 5622: 5263: 5078: 4471: 3991: 3868: 2787: 1905: 1472: 1146: 1095: 388: 383: 31: 3935: 3917: 3876: 3862: 2445:

a feature of the New South Wales constitution, so the State Act was not invalid on that ground.

1949:"just terms" for the compulsory "acquisition" of property by the Commonwealth (section 51(xxxi)) 1622:

and so on. The law can be supported by those powers although Parliament intended it to be an '

1520:

the growing importance of legislative areas that were always Commonwealth powers (for example,

1291:

The list of powers assigned to the Federal Parliament is quite similar to that assigned by the

5704: 5448: 5386: 5209: 5183: 5135: 5070: 4744: 4567: 4455: 3931: 3872: 3852: 3850: 3030: 2838: 2779: 2678:

American and Australian Constitutions: Continuing Adventures in Comparative Constitutional Law

2652: 2623: 2600: 2590: 2426: 2386: 2345: 2240: 1623: 1507:

doctrines of constitutional interpretation which favour a broad reading of Commonwealth powers

1395: 915: 900: 239: 187: 4793:

High Court Justice Sir Owen Dixon described the power of the Australian Parliament to invest

4619: 4381: 4261: 4225:"Political Discussion as a Defence to Defamation: Lange v Australian Broadcasting Commission" 2025:

as the official religion of the Commonwealth would come within the terms of the prohibition.

5144: 4802: 4516: 4508: 4463: 4070: 3918:"The (Limited) Significance of the Individual in Section 117 State Residence Discrimination" 3546: 3279: 3058: 2804: 2466: 2357:

As mentioned above, the fact that the Constitution prescribes a system of "responsible", or

2176: 1897: 1657: 1436: 1051: 970: 883: 545: 455: 149: 5246: 5218: 5188: 5166: 5122: 5109: 5094: 5045: 5014: 4985: 4964: 4938: 4862: 4836: 4762: 4728: 4688: 4433: 4416: 4403: 4372: 4351: 4306: 4286: 4247: 4224: 4206: 4186: 4161: 4141: 4097: 4075: 4050: 4030: 3971: 3951: 3891: 3837: 3808: 3759: 3739: 3719: 3602: 3577: 3551: 3529: 3502: 3472: 3429: 3415: 3393: 3367: 3341: 3327: 3305: 3243: 3221: 3199: 3147: 3124: 3102: 3018: 2945: 2926: 2898: 2749: 1807:, the High Court found that the Commonwealth had the power to implement the United Nations 1678:

This arrangement was twice challenged by the States in the High Court and twice upheld. In

65: 5233: 4538: 4390: 4119: 4010: 3786: 3636: 3452: 3257: 3169: 2735: 1916: 1796:

in Europe by Australian citizens was held a valid exercise of the external affairs power.

1652:

being still a newer notion). Since one of the main reasons for Federation was to create a

1399: 1304: 1067: 895: 435: 368: 356: 4989: 4866: 4840: 3895: 3812: 2949: 1644:

At the time of Federation, the colonies' main source of revenue consisted of customs and

3072: 1468:. A double majority – a majority of electors and of a majority of states – is required. 4520: 2562: 2075: 2022: 1440: 1321: 1261:

Federal Parliament by the Constitution. The framers rejected an alternative model, the

1206:

for further details on the development of the monarch's role in relation to Australia.

1188: 1172: 1130: 408: 230: 166: 3619: 2891:"Research Note 24 1997–98 – Powers of the Head of State of Australia and South Africa" 2330:" conferred a limited "right to vote". In principle, these words guaranteed qualified 6551: 5530: 5305:

Greg Craven, "Conversations with the Constitution" (1st ed, UNSW Press, Sydney, 2004)

4641: 4475: 3674: 3656: 3013: 2940: 2168: 1981: 1958: 1653: 1311:

which, at the time of Federation, could be exercised only by the British Parliament.

1126: 373: 363: 1874:

On 14 November 2006, the High Court by a 5-to-2 majority upheld the validity of the

1861:

it covers at least all commercial enterprises carried out under the corporate form.

4889:

children who had been systematically removed from their families by the Australian

2032:

religion by prohibiting the Commonwealth from "imposing any religious observance".

1977: 1973: 1793: 1672: 314: 1937:

right to vote in Commonwealth elections if one can vote in State ones (section 41)

1838:, to which Australia is a party. Rather than challenge the resulting Commonwealth 1398:

is dealt with in Chapter I, and is vested in the Federal Parliament (section 1).

1866: 1734:

The Commonwealth power has been extended by four constitutional amendments. An

1460:

On the same principle, any amendment to the Constitution requires approval at a

1176: 282: 102: 4644:

Electoral and Referendum Amendment (Electoral Integrity and Other Measures) Act

4467: 2108:

provides protection against discrimination on the basis of state of residence.

1439:), or a combination of appointment for life and hereditary succession (British 1340:

a majority of electors in a majority of States (that is, four out of the six).

977:. Legal cases regarding Australian constitutional law are often handled by the 2456: 2392:

The converse of the separation of powers is the decision of the High Court in

2316: 2181: 1909: 1799:

The power has also been held to extend to the implementation of international

1789: 1668: 1649: 1461: 1403: 1257: 1058: 1029: 689: 293: 261: 118: 4571: 2842: 2783: 2656: 2604: 1104:, and almost invariably with a full bench of all its members, such as in the 5321: 4805:

expedient", essentially an economy measure in a country of small population.

4706:"Prisoners and the Right to Vote: Roach v AEC and Commonwealth of Australia" 830: 250: 1064:

only very limited guarantees of personal rights (rejection of the US model)

1054:

as a representative of a monarch (existing colonial models, notably Canada)

4456:"Voices in the Political Wilderness: Women in the Sydney Anglican Diocese" 1149:(section 64)., however, the practical use of such powers is restricted by 3756:

Church of the New Faith v Commissioner of Pay-roll Tax (Scientology case)

1901: 1800: 1702:

dependence of the States on the Commonwealth had become almost complete.

84: 4982:

Victorian Stevedoring & General Contracting Company Pty Ltd v Dignan

2791: 2767: 2407:

instance, it has held that a power to authorise telephone interceptions

1842:

of 1994, the Tasmanian Parliament repealed the legislation in question.

1598:

could also be categorised as a law regarding some other subject matter.

1108:. Influence from American jurisprudence has occurred in specific cases. 26:. For a briefer outline of the basic structure of the Constitution, see 4665: 2919:"Research Note 25 1997–98 – The Reserve Powers of the Governor-General" 1920: 1943:, and prohibition of religious tests for Federal offices (section 116) 1769:

to refer the power over incorporation to the Commonwealth Parliament.

5157:

Wilson v Minister for Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander Affairs

2705:"The Other Metropolis: The Australian Founders' Knowledge of America" 2298:" In 1983 the High Court took a limited view of the right to vote in 1038:, or "responsible", government (British and existing colonial models) 4971:

1 per Toohey J at p. 84, Gaudron J at p. 110 and Gummow J at p. 162.

3632:

R v Federal Court of Australia; Ex parte WA National Football League

2831:"Analysis | Comparing Australian and American federal jurisprudence" 2691:

A Comparison of the Constitutions of Australia and the United States

2645:"Analysis | Comparing Australian and American federal jurisprudence" 1510:

the "fiscal imbalance" between the Commonwealth and the States (see

4758:

Day v Australian Electoral Officer for the State of South Australia

1809:

Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination

1685:

States are also at the mercy of the High Court's definition of an "

1015:

in London. It came into force on 1 January 1901, at which time the

5286:

Australian Constitutional Law and Theory: Commentary and Materials

2398:

in 1956, that Chapter III courts cannot be invested with anything

2622:(6 ed.). Leichhardt, NSW: Federation Press. pp. 77–88. 2620:

Blackshield and Williams Australian Constitutional Law and Theory

1742:

allowed the Commonwealth to take over and manage state debts. An

1195:

when the Governor-General acted against the advice of Ministers.

3859:"Section 117 of the Constitution: The Unfinished Rehabilitation" 3323:

Actors and Announcers Equity Association v Fontana Films Pty Ltd

5325: 4609:"Inside outcasts: prisoners and the right to vote in Australia" 1946:

trial by jury in Federal cases tried on indictment (section 80)

1187:

of the House of Representatives, is not able to get the annual

4858:

Waterside Workers' Federation of Australia v J W Alexander Ltd

1686: 1645: 1160:

The reserve powers allow The Governor General to commission a

1026:

constitutional monarchy (British and existing colonial models)

740: 1048:

direct election to both Houses of Parliament (then a novelty)

4047:

North Eastern Dairy Co Ltd v Dairy Industry Authority of NSW

3194:

Amalgamated Society of Engineers v Adelaide Steamship Co Ltd

2079:

the value of the property when it was compulsorily acquired

1256:

The Constitution sets up the Commonwealth of Australia as a

64: 5372:

Chapter I of the Constitution of Australia: The Legislature

1125:

Australia is a constitutional monarchy. Although the term "

5408:

Chapter II of the Constitution of Australia: The Executive

5141:

Gypsy Jokers Motorcycle Club INC v Commissioner of Police

3217:

Jumbunna Coal Mine NL v Victorian Coal Miners' Association

2805:

COMPARATIVE LAW IN AUSTRALIAN CONSTITUTIONAL JURISPRUDENCE

2419:, a court that may be invested with Federal jurisdiction. 2385:(1997) the High Court considered claims by members of the 22:, and for a discussion of Australia's federal system, see 5293:

The Annotated Constitution of the Australian Commonwealth

5042:

Brandy v Human Rights & Equal Opportunity Commission

3142:

Attorney-General for NSW v Brewery Employees Union of NSW

1007:

in 1900 after its text had been negotiated in Australian

2028:

Section 116 also protects the right of a person to have

4413:

Gibbs v Christies Beach Sports & Social Club (No 1)

2618:

Williams, George; Brennan, Sean; Lynch, Andrew (2014).

30:. For an overview of constitutional law generally, see 4505:

Attorney-General (Cth); Ex rel McKinlay v Commonwealth

3053:

R v Kirby; Ex parte Boilermakers' Society of Australia

2889:

Ireland, Ian & Magarey, Kirsty (23 January 1998).

2817:

UNITED STATES INFLUENCE ON THE AUSTRALIAN LEGAL SYSTEM

2315:

injury in a car accident and her legal team comprised

1367:

and Cabinet, and the requirement for them to have the

1085:

The process of judicial review – the ability of

973:

relating to the interpretation and application of the

5628:

Australian Constitution (Public Record Copy) Act 1990

3804:

Adelaide Co of Jehovah's Witnesses Inc v Commonwealth

2542: – inconsistency between state and federal laws 1720:

interstate and international trade and commerce power

1547:

Reserved State powers doctrine and the Engineers case

5449:

Chapter III of the constitution of Australia: Courts

4282:

Australian Capital Television Pty Ltd v Commonwealth

2216:

Australian Capital Television Pty Ltd v Commonwealth

2111:

Historically, section 117 had been read down by the

1836:

International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights

1307:

in the US – has in some cases been different.

6393: 5738: 5687: 5664:

2017–18 Australian parliamentary eligibility crisis

5636: 5600: 5544: 5488: 5467: 5436: 5395: 5359: 3777:

Attorney-General (Vic); Ex Rel Black v Commonwealth

2956:

at p. 606 per Grifith CJ, Barton & O'Connor JJ.

1924:constitutional writs involved immigration matters. 1912:is sought against an officer of the Commonwealth". 4708:. Human Rights Law Resource Centre. Archived from 4661:"Prisoner goes to High Court to win right to vote" 5318:from the Australian Attorney-General's Department 4741:Holmdahl v Australian Electoral Commission (No 2) 4258:Suntory (Aust) Pty Ltd v Commissioner of Taxation 2269:First Amendment to the United States Constitution 2052:Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution 2042:Section 51(xxxi) of the Constitution of Australia 2019:First Amendment to the United States Constitution 5288:(3rd ed., Federation Press, Annandale NSW, 2002) 4991: 4868: 4842: 3897: 3814: 3659:Workplace Relations Amendment (Work Choices) Act 2951: 3696:"High Court of Australia Annual Report 2014-15" 3566: 3564: 3047: 3045: 3043: 2567:"The Privy Council – an Australian Perspective" 1965:in the text and structure of the Constitution. 1779:Section 51(xxix) of the Australian Constitution 1332:Again, federalism is evident in the process of 1268:The bulk of enumerated powers are contained in 1061:for amendment of the Constitution (Swiss model) 4927: 4925: 4923: 3663:. Commonwealth of Australia. 12 December 2006. 3294: 3292: 2306:, writing extrajudicially in 2000, said that " 1586:, this approach was reinforced. For example, 5337: 5010:Kable v Director of Public Prosecutions (NSW) 4907:Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission 3592: 3590: 2974: at par. 32, 2 SCR 3 (31 May 2007), 2730:Australian Communist Party v The Commonwealth 2589:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 2417:Supreme Court of the State of New South Wales 2337:The 2006 legislation was again considered in 1856:Section 51(xx) of the Australian Constitution 1667:The Commonwealth has also come to monopolise 1640:Constitutional basis of taxation in Australia 1512:Constitutional basis of taxation in Australia 1191:passed by the Senate, as happened during the 947: 425:Federal Circuit and Family Court of Australia 8: 5065:have been appointed as the President of the 4789: 4787: 3829: 3827: 3825: 3188: 3186: 3184: 3182: 2106:Section 117 of the Constitution of Australia 2099:Section 117 of the Constitution of Australia 2006:Section 116 of the Constitution of Australia 1712:Section 51(v) of the Australian Constitution 1422:Direct election to both Houses of Parliament 5454:Section 75 of the Constitution of Australia 5413:Section 61 of the Constitution of Australia 5377:Section 51 of the Constitution of Australia 4832:New South Wales v Commonwealth (Wheat Case) 4347:Lange v Australian Broadcasting Corporation 4303:Theophanous v Herald & Weekly Times Ltd 3519: 3517: 3515: 3069:Attorney-General (Commonwealth) v The Queen 2485:Separation of church and state in Australia 2249:Lange v Australian Broadcasting Corporation 2162:Section 92 of the Constitution of Australia 2092:Protection against residency discrimination 1919:, especially in regard to applications for 1575:Broad interpretation of Commonwealth powers 6453:(xviii) Copyrights, patents and trademarks 5742: 5521:Implied freedom of political communication 5344: 5330: 5322: 4636: 4634: 4632: 2912: 2910: 2908: 2540:Section 109 of the Australian Constitution 2235:representative democracy did not prevail. 1435:in 1913), executive appointment for life ( 1001:Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 954: 940: 38: 28:Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 4596:. Commonwealth of Australia. 16 May 2005. 4115:Castlemaine Tooheys Ltd v South Australia 3679:"The Role of the Courts in Migration Law" 3651: 3649: 3382: 3380: 3356: 3354: 3120:White v Director of Military Prosecutions 2505:Section 51 of the Australian Constitution 5618:Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942 5295:(LexisNexis Butterworths, Sydney, 2002) 5004: 5002: 4678: 4676: 3425:Matthews v Chicory Marketing Board (Vic) 2866:. australianpolitics.com. Archived from 2772:Australasian Journal of American Studies 1933:several specific rights. These include: 1326:Australian constitutional crisis of 1975 1193:Australian constitutional crisis of 1975 991:Constitution of Australia § History 4648:. Commonwealth of Australia. July 2007. 4495:Commonwealth of Australia Constitution. 4176: 4174: 4137:Betfair Pty Limited v Western Australia 4065: 4063: 3491: 3489: 3487: 3485: 2554: 2422:Kable v Director of Public Prosecutions 1447:Referendum for constitutional amendment 1414:to be or become members of Parliament. 680:Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade 74: 50: 44:This article is part of a series on the 6418:(v) Post and telegraph (communication) 5229:Kirk v Industrial Relations Commission 4276: 4274: 2326:that the requirement that members be " 1758:scheme of universal health insurance. 1754:grants power, it is the basis for the 1230:Electoral College of the United States 5679:Separatist movements within Australia 5526:Implied immunity of instrumentalities 5302:(4th ed., Butterworths, Sydney, 1997) 2310:". Prior to 2006 prisoners were only 2131:Trial by jury for indictable offences 1390:The Constitution features a distinct 1372:government to table documents in the 1236:, has probably become a binding norm. 1179:of New South Wales dismissed Premier 7: 5730:VIII: Alteration of the Constitution 5669:List of proposed states of Australia 2864:"Key Terms: Constitutional Monarchy" 2147:On the other hand, where Parliament 6513:(xxxv) Conciliation and arbitration 5644:Constitutional history of Australia 5300:The High Court and the Constitution 5061:As of June 2017 judges of the 4578:from the original on 26 April 2013. 4158:Sportsbet Pty Ltd v New South Wales 3736:Street v Queensland Bar Association 2989:"House of Representatives Practice" 2680:, 30 J. Marshall L. Rev. 627 (1997) 2480:Constitutional history of Australia 2121:Street v Queensland Bar Association 1489:Constitutional history of Australia 1204:Constitutional history of Australia 1075:The Constitution and the High Court 20:constitutional history of Australia 4616:Parliamentary Library of Australia 4333:Parliamentary Library of Australia 3337:Fairfax v Commissioner of Taxation 3275:Wenn v Attorney-General (Victoria) 3253:Clyde Engineering Co Ltd v Cowburn 2923:Parliamentary Library of Australia 2917:Downing, Susan (23 January 1998). 2895:Parliamentary Library of Australia 2203:Freedom of political communication 2197:Freedom of political communication 2174:In 1988 following the decision in 1608:interstate and international trade 1091:Supreme Court of the United States 14: 6408:(i) Interstate trade and commerce 4564:(2001) 21 Australian Bar Review 1 2829:Aroney, Nicholas; Kincaid, John. 2643:Aroney, Nicholas; Kincaid, John. 2490:Separation of powers in Australia 1972:Although express protections for 1840:Human Rights (Sexual Conduct) Act 1386:Separation of powers in Australia 1359:in the House of Representatives. 1168:in the House of Representatives. 4659:Kenneth Nguyen (25 April 2007). 3598:Richardson v Forestry Commission 3087: (on appeal from Australia). 2967:Canadian Western Bank v. Alberta 2459: 2368:separation of the judicial power 2156:Freedom from economic regulation 2097:This section is an excerpt from 877: 733:Australia and the United Nations 229: 224: 6458:(xix) Naturalization and aliens 5075:Administrative Appeals Tribunal 4893:and State government agencies: 4724:Murphy v Electoral Commissioner 4607:Jerome Davidson (24 May 2004). 4243:Nationwide News Pty Ltd v Wills 4007:(the Bank Nationalisation Case) 3928:Melbourne University Law Review 3922:Melbourne University Law Review 3620:Toonen v Australia (1994) UNHCR 3390:("the Second Uniform Tax case") 2745:Pape v Commissioner of Taxation 2507: – federal heads of power 2322:In 2007 the High Court held in 2210:Nationwide News Pty Ltd v Wills 1466:section 128 of the Constitution 6508:(xxxi) Acquisition of property 5291:John Quick and Robert Garran, 4684:Roach v Electoral Commissioner 4093:Bath v Alston Holdings Pty Ltd 3364:("the First Uniform Tax case") 3362:South Australia v Commonwealth 2703:Evans, Harry (December 2009). 2324:Roach v Electoral Commissioner 1830:on Tasmanian provisions. The 1215:British unwritten constitution 1: 6558:Australian constitutional law 5496:Australian Constitutional Law 5316:Full text of the Constitution 5264:Community Protection Act 1994 4556:The Hon Justice Michael Kirby 4182:Rowe v Electoral Commissioner 2693:, 4 Buff. L. Rev. 155 (1955). 2563:The Honourable Murray Gleeson 2339:Rowe v Electoral Commissioner 2328:directly chosen by the people 2319:, QC and Michael Pearce, SC. 2292:directly chosen by the people 2011:Commonwealth" (section 116). 1592:Workplace Relations Challenge 1232:, though not mandated by the 967:Australian constitutional law 5700:II: The Executive Government 5243:Attorney-General v Emmerson 4454:Landrigan, Mitchell (2009). 3992:[2000] HCATrans 687 2273:Anti-Discrimination Act 1977 1761:The High Court decided that 1542:Centralising interpretations 1531:constitutional amendment or 1464:, by the process set out in 1081:Judicial review in Australia 921:Australian Capital Territory 583:Premiers and chief ministers 578:Governors and administrators 5613:Statute of Westminster 1931 5592:Retirement of judges (1977) 4534:R v Pearson; Ex parte Sipka 4203:McGinty v Western Australia 3857:Matheison, Michael (1999). 3675:Chief Justice Robert French 3572:Polyukhovich v Commonwealth 2709:Papers on Parliament No. 52 2300:R v Pearson; Ex parte Sipka 1680:the Second Uniform Tax case 1376:after he refused to do so. 1087:The High Court of Australia 533:Referendums and plebiscites 6574: 5674:Republicanism in Australia 5654:Constitutional Conventions 5511:Constitutional conventions 4781:Judicial power and Courts. 4745:[2012] SASCFC 110 4592:Commonwealth Electoral Act 4468:10.1177/1037969X0903400307 4266:Federal Court (Full Court) 4005:Bank of NSW v Commonwealth 3888:Davies v Western Australia 3819:) at p. 123 per Latham CJ. 3525:Koowarta v Bjelke-Petersen 3098:Re Wakim; Ex parte McNally 2819:, THE HON ROBERT FRENCH AC 2572:. High Court of Australia. 2436:It is clear that, had the 2346:2016 Senate voting changes 2282: 2200: 2159: 2119:In the 1989 landmark case 2096: 2039: 2003: 1853: 1834:was established under the 1805:Koowarta v Bjelke-Petersen 1776: 1773:The external affairs power 1637: 1550: 1450: 1383: 1293:United States Constitution 1249: 1234:United States Constitution 1211:constitutional conventions 1118: 1078: 1009:Constitutional Conventions 1003:, which was passed by the 995:Constitutional law in the 988: 588:Parliaments and assemblies 451:State and territory courts 398:Federal Court of Australia 17: 5745: 5608:Constitution of Australia 5531:Reserve power (sovereign) 5428:Federal Executive Council 5353:Constitution of Australia 5210:[2012] NSWCA 243 5136:[2012] NSWCA 266 5105:Wainohu v New South Wales 4560:"Upholding The Franchise" 4440:17 (7 October 2015), 4382:[2011] SASCFC 84 3902: (23 December 1904), 3499:(the Tasmanian Dams Case) 3031:[1999] NSWCA 176 2583:Aroney, Nicholas (2009). 2036:"Just terms" compensation 1813:Racial Discrimination Act 1726:envisaged at Federation. 1658:vertical fiscal imbalance 1223:constitutional convention 1151:constitutional convention 1017:Commonwealth of Australia 997:Commonwealth of Australia 975:Constitution of Australia 177:Federal Executive Council 6483:(xxiiiA) Social security 5382:House of Representatives 5145:[2008] WASC 166 4935:(Stolen Generation case) 4429:McCloy v New South Wales 3916:Simpson, Amelia (2008). 2766:KEYZER, PATRICK (2000). 2519:Trade and Commerce Power 2500:Referendums in Australia 2261:McCloy v New South Wales 1888:Access to the High Court 1751:amendment passed in 1946 1744:amendment passed in 1967 1453:Referendums in Australia 1347:Parliamentary government 1334:constitutional amendment 1315:Parliamentary structures 1301:Trade and Commerce Power 518:Federal electoral system 272:House of Representatives 6498:(xxix) External affairs 5582:Casual vacancies (1977) 5557:Senate elections (1906) 5073:, and President of the 4509:[1975] HCA 653 4460:Alternative Law Journal 4417:[2000] SADC 28 4373:[2000] SADC 35 4262:[2009] FCAFC 80 3497:Commonwealth v Tasmania 3388:Victoria v Commonwealth 3280:[1948] HCA 134 3059:[1956] HCA 110 3033:, (1999) 46 NSWLR 563, 2993:Parliament of Australia 2752:, (2009) 238 2495:Federalism in Australia 2475:Australian Constitution 2302:. The High Court Judge 1846:political controversy. 1706:New areas of competence 1601:Likewise, Parliament's 1498:Growth of federal power 1374:NSW Legislative Council 1252:Federalism in Australia 1115:Constitutional monarchy 1102:High Court of Australia 979:High Court of Australia 601:State electoral systems 346:High Court of Australia 24:Federalism in Australia 6395:Enumerated legislative 5572:Social services (1946) 5567:2nd State debts (1928) 5562:1st State debts (1910) 5501:Responsible government 5475:Inter-State Commission 5247:[2014] HCA 13 5219:[1983] HCA 12 5189:[2004] HCA 37 5123:[1985] HCA 16 5110:[2011] HCA 24 5095:[1995] HCA 26 5046:[1995] HCA 10 5015:[1996] HCA 24 4986:[1931] HCA 34 4909:. 1997. Archived from 4887:Torres Strait Islander 4863:[1918] HCA 56 4837:[1915] HCA 17 4763:[2016] HCA 20 4729:[2016] HCA 36 4689:[2007] HCA 43 4404:[2013] HCA 58 4352:[1997] HCA 25 4307:[1994] HCA 46 4287:[1992] HCA 45 4248:[1992] HCA 46 4207:[1996] HCA 48 4187:[2010] HCA 46 4162:[2012] HCA 18 4142:[2008] HCA 11 4098:[1988] HCA 27 4076:[1988] HCA 18 4051:[1975] HCA 45 4031:[1950] HCA 18 3972:[1915] HCA 13 3952:[1993] HCA 44 3892:[1904] HCA 46 3838:[1985] HCA 72 3760:[1983] HCA 40 3740:[1989] HCA 53 3720:[1973] HCA 32 3603:[1988] HCA 10 3578:[1991] HCA 32 3552:[2007] HCA 33 3530:[1982] HCA 27 3503:[1983] HCA 21 3473:[1949] HCA 46 3430:[1938] HCA 38 3416:[1997] HCA 34 3394:[1957] HCA 54 3368:[1942] HCA 14 3342:[1965] HCA 64 3328:[1982] HCA 23 3306:[2006] HCA 52 3244:[1930] HCA 12 3222:[1908] HCA 95 3200:[1920] HCA 54 3148:[1908] HCA 94 3125:[2007] HCA 29 3103:[1999] HCA 27 3055:("Boilermakers' case") 3019:[1998] HCA 71 2750:[2009] HCA 23 2732:(Communist party case) 2527:External Affairs Power 2088:addresses this issue. 1850:The corporations power 1832:Human Rights Committee 1828:Human Rights Committee 1763:the corporations power 1533:referral by the States 1324:Bill, although as the 698:Diplomatic missions of 570:States and territories 69: 6503:(xxx) Pacific islands 5710:IV: Finance and Trade 5536:Reserved State powers 5280:Tony Blackshield and 5234:[2010] HCA 1 5167:[1996] HCA 18 5161:Hindmarsh Island case 4965:[1997] HCA 27 4960:Kruger v Commonwealth 4939:[1997] HCA 27 4933:Kruger v Commonwealth 4539:[1983] HCA 6 4434:[2015] HCA 34 4391:[2013] HCA 4 4120:[1990] HCA 1 4011:[1948] HCA 7 3834:Kingswell v The Queen 3809:[1943] HCA 12 3787:[1981] HCA 2 3637:[1979] HCA 6 3574:(War Crimes Act Case) 3453:[1990] HCA 2 3258:[1926] HCA 6 3170:[1904] HCA 1 3073:[1957] UKPC 4 2946:[1904] HCA 57 2736:[1951] HCA 5 2382:Kruger v Commonwealth 2285:Suffrage in Australia 2142:Kingswell v the Queen 1961:of rights said to be 1894:original jurisdiction 1559:reserved State powers 1553:Reserved State powers 1433:Seventeenth Amendment 1303:in Australia and the 1166:vote of no confidence 1121:Monarchy in Australia 1032:(United States model) 218:Australian Parliament 159:Deputy Prime Minister 68: 5601:Constitutional texts 5506:Separation of powers 5206:Kable v State of NSW 5067:Fair Work Commission 4916:on 29 December 2005. 4801:jurisdiction as an " 4378:Adelaide v Corneloup 4229:High Court Review 13 3988:Brownlee v The Queen 3449:(Incorporation case) 3411:Ha v New South Wales 3037:(NSW, Australia) 2353:Right to due process 2082:The Australian film 1883:Protection of rights 1767:'the referral power' 1526:trading corporations 1483:(rather than on the 1429:United States Senate 1392:separation of powers 1380:Separation of powers 1106:Communist Party case 1043:separation of powers 884:Australia portal 6493:(xxvii) Immigration 6397:powers (Section 51) 5705:III: The Judicature 3948:Cheatle v The Queen 3865:on 25 October 2000. 2344:a challenge to the 2332:universal franchise 2227:political matters. 2116:state of domicile. 2050:. By contrast, the 2000:Freedom of religion 1941:freedom of religion 1821:World Heritage Area 1817:Tasmanian Dams Case 1811:in the form of the 1557:Prior to 1920 the " 1481:popular sovereignty 969:is the area of the 523:Electoral divisions 6528:(xxxviii) Imperial 6518:(xxxvi) Transition 5725:VII: Miscellaneous 5623:Australia Act 1986 5587:Referendums (1977) 5577:Aboriginals (1967) 5552:Referendum process 5468:Other institutions 5459:Boilermakers' Case 5132:KS v Veitch (No 2) 4903:Bringing Them Home 4590:"Section 93(8)(b) 3869:Federal Law Review 3447:NSW v Commonwealth 3302:(WorkChoices case) 3300:NSW v Commonwealth 3144:(Union Label Case) 2676:James A. Thomson, 2523:Corporations Power 2395:Boilermakers' Case 1246:Division of powers 1209:The importance of 1096:Marbury v. Madison 1005:British Parliament 926:Northern Territory 541:Voter registration 70: 32:constitutional law 6545: 6544: 6541: 6540: 6523:(xxxvii) Referral 6463:(xx) Corporations 5695:I: The Parliament 5360:Legislative power 5184:Al-Kateb v Godwin 4896:"Community Guide" 4387:Monis v The Queen 4223:Burns, R (1997). 4027:McCarter v Brodie 3677:(25 March 2011). 2807:, NICHOLAS ARONEY 2629:978-1-86287-918-8 2596:978-1-139-12968-8 2427:Bill of attainder 2387:Stolen Generation 1994:religious freedom 1928:No Bill of Rights 1815:. In the case of 1792:committed during 1740:amendment in 1928 1736:amendment in 1910 1624:environmental law 1396:Legislative power 1284:Both concurrent ( 1057:requirement of a 1041:distinct textual 1019:came into being. 964: 963: 906:Western Australia 720:Visa requirements 672:Foreign relations 658:Political parties 556:Political funding 551:Political parties 188:Albanese ministry 55: 6565: 6533:(xxxix) Incident 6478:(xxiii) Pensions 5743: 5423:Governor-General 5346: 5339: 5332: 5323: 5268: 5260: 5254: 5215:Fencott v Muller 5202: 5196: 5180: 5174: 5153: 5147: 5088: 5082: 5059: 5053: 5038: 5032: 5028: 5022: 5006: 4997: 4993: 4978: 4972: 4956: 4950: 4929: 4918: 4917: 4915: 4900: 4880: 4874: 4870: 4854: 4848: 4844: 4828: 4822: 4812: 4806: 4791: 4782: 4772: 4766: 4754: 4748: 4738: 4732: 4720: 4714: 4713: 4712:on 6 March 2008. 4702: 4696: 4680: 4671: 4670: 4656: 4650: 4649: 4638: 4627: 4626: 4624: 4618:. 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Archived from 3854: 3845: 3831: 3820: 3816: 3800: 3794: 3773: 3767: 3753: 3747: 3733: 3727: 3713: 3707: 3706: 3700: 3692: 3686: 3685: 3683: 3671: 3665: 3664: 3653: 3644: 3628: 3622: 3616: 3610: 3594: 3585: 3568: 3559: 3547:Thomas v Mowbray 3543: 3537: 3521: 3510: 3493: 3480: 3466: 3460: 3443: 3437: 3407: 3401: 3384: 3375: 3358: 3349: 3319: 3313: 3296: 3287: 3271: 3265: 3235: 3229: 3213: 3207: 3196:(Engineers Case) 3190: 3177: 3165:D'Emden v Pedder 3161: 3155: 3138: 3132: 3116: 3110: 3094: 3088: 3049: 3038: 3010: 3004: 3003: 3001: 2999: 2991:(6th ed.). 2985: 2979: 2963: 2957: 2953: 2937: 2931: 2930: 2929:on 26 July 2010. 2925:. Archived from 2914: 2903: 2902: 2901:on 29 June 2011. 2897:. Archived from 2886: 2880: 2879: 2877: 2875: 2870:on 8 August 2010 2860: 2854: 2853: 2851: 2849: 2826: 2820: 2814: 2808: 2802: 2796: 2795: 2763: 2757: 2726: 2720: 2719: 2717: 2715: 2700: 2694: 2687: 2681: 2674: 2668: 2667: 2665: 2663: 2640: 2634: 2633: 2615: 2609: 2608: 2580: 2574: 2573: 2571: 2565:(18 June 2008). 2559: 2469: 2467:Australia portal 2464: 2463: 2462: 2177:Cole v Whitfield 2048:Section 51(xxxi) 1634:Fiscal imbalance 1522:external affairs 1437:Senate of Canada 1221:the reliance on 1139:Governor-General 1052:Governor-General 971:law of Australia 956: 949: 942: 882: 881: 880: 846:Multiculturalism 821:Environmentalism 799: 687:Foreign Minister 673: 616: 615:Local government 571: 546:Leadership spill 478:Recent elections 471: 456:Law of Australia 338: 233: 228: 210: 150:Anthony Albanese 134: 111:Governor-General 87: 58: 53: 45: 39: 6573: 6572: 6568: 6567: 6566: 6564: 6563: 6562: 6548: 6547: 6546: 6537: 6448:(xiv) Insurance 6428:(ix) Quarantine 6396: 6389: 5734: 5683: 5632: 5596: 5540: 5484: 5463: 5432: 5396:Executive power 5391: 5355: 5350: 5312: 5282:George Williams 5277: 5272: 5271: 5261: 5257: 5241: 5226: 5213: 5203: 5199: 5181: 5177: 5154: 5150: 5139: 5130: 5117: 5102: 5091:Grollo v Palmer 5089: 5085: 5060: 5056: 5039: 5035: 5029: 5025: 5007: 5000: 4979: 4975: 4957: 4953: 4930: 4921: 4913: 4898: 4894: 4881: 4877: 4855: 4851: 4829: 4825: 4813: 4809: 4792: 4785: 4773: 4769: 4755: 4751: 4739: 4735: 4721: 4717: 4704: 4703: 4699: 4681: 4674: 4658: 4657: 4653: 4640: 4639: 4630: 4625:on 6 July 2004. 4622: 4611: 4606: 4605: 4601: 4588: 4587: 4583: 4554: 4553: 4549: 4531: 4527: 4503: 4499: 4487: 4483: 4453: 4452: 4448: 4426: 4422: 4411: 4398: 4385: 4376: 4366: 4362: 4344: 4340: 4323: 4321: 4317: 4301: 4297: 4279: 4272: 4255: 4240: 4236: 4222: 4221: 4217: 4201: 4197: 4179: 4172: 4156: 4152: 4134: 4130: 4112: 4108: 4090: 4086: 4068: 4061: 4045: 4041: 4025: 4021: 4002: 3998: 3986: 3982: 3966: 3962: 3946: 3942: 3915: 3914: 3910: 3886: 3882: 3856: 3855: 3848: 3832: 3823: 3801: 3797: 3774: 3770: 3754: 3750: 3734: 3730: 3714: 3710: 3698: 3694: 3693: 3689: 3681: 3673: 3672: 3668: 3655: 3654: 3647: 3629: 3625: 3617: 3613: 3595: 3588: 3569: 3562: 3544: 3540: 3522: 3513: 3494: 3483: 3467: 3463: 3444: 3440: 3408: 3404: 3385: 3378: 3359: 3352: 3334:169; See also: 3320: 3316: 3297: 3290: 3272: 3268: 3239:Ex parte McLean 3236: 3232: 3214: 3210: 3191: 3180: 3162: 3158: 3139: 3135: 3117: 3113: 3095: 3091: 3079:288; (1957) 95 3066: 3050: 3041: 3035:Court of Appeal 3027:Egan v Chadwick 3011: 3007: 2997: 2995: 2987: 2986: 2982: 2964: 2960: 2938: 2934: 2916: 2915: 2906: 2888: 2887: 2883: 2873: 2871: 2862: 2861: 2857: 2847: 2845: 2835:Washington Post 2828: 2827: 2823: 2815: 2811: 2803: 2799: 2765: 2764: 2760: 2727: 2723: 2713: 2711: 2702: 2701: 2697: 2688: 2684: 2675: 2671: 2661: 2659: 2649:Washington Post 2642: 2641: 2637: 2630: 2617: 2616: 2612: 2597: 2582: 2581: 2577: 2569: 2561: 2560: 2556: 2551: 2465: 2460: 2458: 2455: 2355: 2312:disenfranchised 2287: 2281: 2205: 2199: 2190: 2164: 2158: 2133: 2128: 2127: 2102: 2094: 2044: 2038: 2008: 2002: 1990: 1930: 1890: 1885: 1858: 1852: 1781: 1775: 1732: 1708: 1642: 1636: 1620:foreign affairs 1606:powers such as 1577: 1566:Engineer's case 1555: 1549: 1544: 1500: 1455: 1449: 1424: 1400:Executive power 1388: 1382: 1349: 1317: 1305:Commerce Clause 1254: 1248: 1243: 1123: 1117: 1083: 1077: 1068:judicial review 993: 987: 960: 931: 930: 911:South Australia 891:New South Wales 878: 876: 871: 870: 801: 797: 789: 788: 750: 737: 729: 710:Nationality law 706: 694: 675: 671: 663: 662: 618: 614: 606: 605: 592: 573: 569: 561: 560: 537: 514: 473: 469: 461: 460: 447: 436:Will Alstergren 420: 393: 357:Stephen Gageler 340: 336: 328: 327: 323:Shadow Ministry 299: 267: 235: 212: 208: 200: 199: 172: 136: 132: 124: 123: 89: 85: 56: 52: 43: 35: 12: 11: 5: 6571: 6569: 6561: 6560: 6550: 6549: 6543: 6542: 6539: 6538: 6536: 6535: 6530: 6525: 6520: 6515: 6510: 6505: 6500: 6495: 6490: 6485: 6480: 6475: 6473:(xxii) Divorce 6470: 6468:(xxi) Marriage 6465: 6460: 6455: 6450: 6445: 6443:(xiii) Banking 6440: 6438:(xii) Currency 6435: 6430: 6425: 6420: 6415: 6410: 6405: 6401: 6399: 6391: 6390: 6388: 6387: 6382: 6377: 6372: 6367: 6362: 6357: 6352: 6347: 6342: 6337: 6332: 6327: 6322: 6317: 6312: 6307: 6302: 6297: 6292: 6287: 6282: 6277: 6272: 6267: 6262: 6257: 6252: 6247: 6242: 6237: 6232: 6227: 6222: 6217: 6212: 6207: 6202: 6197: 6192: 6187: 6182: 6177: 6172: 6167: 6162: 6157: 6152: 6147: 6142: 6137: 6132: 6127: 6122: 6117: 6112: 6107: 6102: 6097: 6092: 6087: 6082: 6077: 6072: 6067: 6062: 6057: 6052: 6047: 6042: 6037: 6032: 6027: 6022: 6017: 6012: 6007: 6002: 5997: 5992: 5987: 5982: 5977: 5972: 5967: 5962: 5957: 5952: 5947: 5942: 5937: 5932: 5927: 5922: 5917: 5912: 5907: 5902: 5897: 5892: 5887: 5882: 5877: 5872: 5867: 5862: 5857: 5852: 5847: 5842: 5837: 5832: 5827: 5822: 5817: 5812: 5807: 5802: 5797: 5792: 5787: 5782: 5777: 5772: 5767: 5762: 5757: 5752: 5746: 5740: 5736: 5735: 5733: 5732: 5727: 5722: 5720:VI: New States 5717: 5712: 5707: 5702: 5697: 5691: 5689: 5685: 5684: 5682: 5681: 5676: 5671: 5666: 5661: 5651: 5646: 5640: 5638: 5634: 5633: 5631: 5630: 5625: 5620: 5615: 5610: 5604: 5602: 5598: 5597: 5595: 5594: 5589: 5584: 5579: 5574: 5569: 5564: 5559: 5554: 5548: 5546: 5542: 5541: 5539: 5538: 5533: 5528: 5523: 5518: 5513: 5508: 5503: 5498: 5492: 5490: 5486: 5485: 5483: 5482: 5477: 5471: 5469: 5465: 5464: 5462: 5461: 5456: 5451: 5446: 5440: 5438: 5437:Judicial power 5434: 5433: 5431: 5430: 5425: 5420: 5415: 5410: 5405: 5399: 5397: 5393: 5392: 5390: 5389: 5384: 5379: 5374: 5369: 5363: 5361: 5357: 5356: 5351: 5349: 5348: 5341: 5334: 5326: 5320: 5319: 5311: 5310:External links 5308: 5307: 5306: 5303: 5298:Leslie Zines, 5296: 5289: 5276: 5273: 5270: 5269: 5255: 5197: 5175: 5148: 5119:Hilton v Wells 5083: 5054: 5033: 5023: 4998: 4973: 4951: 4919: 4875: 4849: 4823: 4807: 4783: 4767: 4749: 4733: 4715: 4697: 4672: 4651: 4628: 4599: 4581: 4547: 4525: 4497: 4481: 4446: 4420: 4369:Bass v Roberts 4360: 4338: 4315: 4295: 4270: 4234: 4215: 4195: 4170: 4150: 4128: 4106: 4084: 4059: 4039: 4019: 3996: 3980: 3968:R v Bernasconi 3960: 3940: 3908: 3880: 3846: 3821: 3795: 3768: 3748: 3728: 3708: 3687: 3666: 3645: 3623: 3611: 3586: 3560: 3538: 3511: 3481: 3461: 3438: 3422:465; see also 3402: 3376: 3350: 3314: 3288: 3266: 3250:472; see also 3230: 3208: 3178: 3156: 3133: 3111: 3089: 3039: 3005: 2980: 2958: 2932: 2904: 2881: 2855: 2821: 2809: 2797: 2758: 2721: 2695: 2689:Zelman Cowan, 2682: 2669: 2635: 2628: 2610: 2595: 2575: 2553: 2552: 2550: 2547: 2546: 2545: 2544: 2543: 2534: 2533: 2532: 2531: 2530: 2529: 2511: 2510: 2509: 2508: 2497: 2492: 2487: 2482: 2477: 2471: 2470: 2454: 2451: 2354: 2351: 2283:Main article: 2280: 2277: 2201:Main article: 2198: 2195: 2189: 2188:Implied rights 2186: 2160:Main article: 2157: 2154: 2132: 2129: 2103: 2095: 2093: 2090: 2076:extinguishment 2062:, and between 2040:Main article: 2037: 2034: 2004:Main article: 2001: 1998: 1989: 1988:Express rights 1986: 1954: 1953: 1950: 1947: 1944: 1938: 1929: 1926: 1889: 1886: 1884: 1881: 1854:Main article: 1851: 1848: 1777:Main article: 1774: 1771: 1731: 1728: 1707: 1704: 1635: 1632: 1576: 1573: 1551:Main article: 1548: 1545: 1543: 1540: 1539: 1538: 1535: 1529: 1518: 1515: 1508: 1499: 1496: 1451:Main article: 1448: 1445: 1441:House of Lords 1423: 1420: 1384:Main article: 1381: 1378: 1365:Prime Minister 1348: 1345: 1316: 1313: 1250:Main article: 1247: 1244: 1242: 1239: 1238: 1237: 1226: 1200:Prime Minister 1173:reserve powers 1162:Prime Minister 1155:reserve powers 1131:Queen Victoria 1119:Main article: 1116: 1113: 1079:Main article: 1076: 1073: 1072: 1071: 1065: 1062: 1055: 1049: 1046: 1039: 1033: 1027: 986: 983: 962: 961: 959: 958: 951: 944: 936: 933: 932: 929: 928: 923: 918: 913: 908: 903: 898: 893: 887: 886: 873: 872: 869: 868: 863: 858: 853: 848: 843: 838: 833: 828: 823: 818: 813: 808: 802: 795: 794: 791: 790: 787: 786: 781: 776: 774:European Union 771: 766: 761: 759:United Kingdom 756: 749: 748: 743: 736: 735: 728: 727: 722: 717: 712: 705: 704: 693: 692: 683: 682: 676: 669: 668: 665: 664: 661: 660: 655: 650: 645: 640: 635: 630: 625: 619: 612: 611: 608: 607: 604: 603: 598: 591: 590: 585: 580: 574: 567: 566: 563: 562: 559: 558: 553: 548: 543: 536: 535: 530: 525: 520: 513: 512: 507: 502: 497: 492: 487: 481: 480: 474: 467: 466: 463: 462: 459: 458: 453: 446: 445: 443:List of Judges 439: 438: 429: 428: 419: 418: 416:List of Judges 412: 411: 409:Debra Mortimer 402: 401: 392: 391: 386: 381: 376: 371: 366: 360: 359: 350: 349: 341: 334: 333: 330: 329: 326: 325: 319: 318: 308: 307: 298: 297: 287: 286: 276: 275: 266: 265: 255: 254: 244: 243: 222: 221: 213: 206: 205: 202: 201: 198: 197: 191: 190: 181: 180: 171: 170: 167:Richard Marles 163: 162: 154: 153: 146: 145: 142:Prime Minister 137: 130: 129: 126: 125: 122: 121: 115: 114: 106: 105: 99: 98: 90: 83: 82: 79: 78: 72: 71: 61: 60: 48: 47: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6570: 6559: 6556: 6555: 6553: 6534: 6531: 6529: 6526: 6524: 6521: 6519: 6516: 6514: 6511: 6509: 6506: 6504: 6501: 6499: 6496: 6494: 6491: 6489: 6486: 6484: 6481: 6479: 6476: 6474: 6471: 6469: 6466: 6464: 6461: 6459: 6456: 6454: 6451: 6449: 6446: 6444: 6441: 6439: 6436: 6434: 6433:(x) Fisheries 6431: 6429: 6426: 6424: 6421: 6419: 6416: 6414: 6413:(ii) Taxation 6411: 6409: 6406: 6403: 6402: 6400: 6398: 6392: 6386: 6383: 6381: 6378: 6376: 6373: 6371: 6368: 6366: 6363: 6361: 6358: 6356: 6353: 6351: 6348: 6346: 6343: 6341: 6338: 6336: 6333: 6331: 6328: 6326: 6323: 6321: 6318: 6316: 6313: 6311: 6308: 6306: 6303: 6301: 6298: 6296: 6293: 6291: 6288: 6286: 6283: 6281: 6278: 6276: 6273: 6271: 6268: 6266: 6263: 6261: 6258: 6256: 6253: 6251: 6248: 6246: 6243: 6241: 6238: 6236: 6233: 6231: 6228: 6226: 6223: 6221: 6218: 6216: 6213: 6211: 6208: 6206: 6203: 6201: 6198: 6196: 6193: 6191: 6188: 6186: 6183: 6181: 6178: 6176: 6173: 6171: 6168: 6166: 6163: 6161: 6158: 6156: 6153: 6151: 6148: 6146: 6143: 6141: 6138: 6136: 6133: 6131: 6128: 6126: 6123: 6121: 6118: 6116: 6113: 6111: 6108: 6106: 6103: 6101: 6098: 6096: 6093: 6091: 6088: 6086: 6083: 6081: 6078: 6076: 6073: 6071: 6068: 6066: 6063: 6061: 6058: 6056: 6053: 6051: 6048: 6046: 6043: 6041: 6038: 6036: 6033: 6031: 6028: 6026: 6023: 6021: 6018: 6016: 6013: 6011: 6008: 6006: 6003: 6001: 5998: 5996: 5993: 5991: 5988: 5986: 5983: 5981: 5978: 5976: 5973: 5971: 5968: 5966: 5963: 5961: 5958: 5956: 5953: 5951: 5948: 5946: 5943: 5941: 5938: 5936: 5933: 5931: 5928: 5926: 5923: 5921: 5918: 5916: 5913: 5911: 5908: 5906: 5903: 5901: 5898: 5896: 5893: 5891: 5888: 5886: 5883: 5881: 5878: 5876: 5873: 5871: 5868: 5866: 5863: 5861: 5858: 5856: 5853: 5851: 5848: 5846: 5843: 5841: 5838: 5836: 5833: 5831: 5828: 5826: 5823: 5821: 5818: 5816: 5813: 5811: 5808: 5806: 5803: 5801: 5798: 5796: 5793: 5791: 5788: 5786: 5783: 5781: 5778: 5776: 5773: 5771: 5768: 5766: 5763: 5761: 5758: 5756: 5753: 5751: 5748: 5747: 5744: 5741: 5737: 5731: 5728: 5726: 5723: 5721: 5718: 5716: 5715:V: The States 5713: 5711: 5708: 5706: 5703: 5701: 5698: 5696: 5693: 5692: 5690: 5686: 5680: 5677: 5675: 5672: 5670: 5667: 5665: 5662: 5659: 5655: 5652: 5650: 5649:The Dismissal 5647: 5645: 5642: 5641: 5639: 5635: 5629: 5626: 5624: 5621: 5619: 5616: 5614: 5611: 5609: 5606: 5605: 5603: 5599: 5593: 5590: 5588: 5585: 5583: 5580: 5578: 5575: 5573: 5570: 5568: 5565: 5563: 5560: 5558: 5555: 5553: 5550: 5549: 5547: 5543: 5537: 5534: 5532: 5529: 5527: 5524: 5522: 5519: 5517: 5514: 5512: 5509: 5507: 5504: 5502: 5499: 5497: 5494: 5493: 5491: 5487: 5481: 5480:Privy Council 5478: 5476: 5473: 5472: 5470: 5466: 5460: 5457: 5455: 5452: 5450: 5447: 5445: 5442: 5441: 5439: 5435: 5429: 5426: 5424: 5421: 5419: 5416: 5414: 5411: 5409: 5406: 5404: 5401: 5400: 5398: 5394: 5388: 5385: 5383: 5380: 5378: 5375: 5373: 5370: 5368: 5365: 5364: 5362: 5358: 5354: 5347: 5342: 5340: 5335: 5333: 5328: 5327: 5324: 5317: 5314: 5313: 5309: 5304: 5301: 5297: 5294: 5290: 5287: 5283: 5279: 5278: 5274: 5266: 5265: 5259: 5256: 5252: 5249:, (2010) 253 5248: 5244: 5239: 5236:, (2010) 239 5235: 5231: 5230: 5224: 5221:, (1983) 152 5220: 5216: 5211: 5207: 5201: 5198: 5194: 5191:, (2004) 219 5190: 5186: 5185: 5179: 5176: 5172: 5169:, (1996) 189 5168: 5164: 5162: 5158: 5152: 5149: 5146: 5142: 5137: 5133: 5128: 5125:, (1985) 157 5124: 5120: 5115: 5112:, (2011) 243 5111: 5107: 5106: 5100: 5097:, (1995) 184 5096: 5092: 5087: 5084: 5080: 5076: 5072: 5068: 5064: 5063:Federal Court 5058: 5055: 5051: 5048:, (1995) 183 5047: 5043: 5037: 5034: 5027: 5024: 5020: 5017:, (1996) 189 5016: 5012: 5011: 5005: 5003: 4999: 4995: 4987: 4983: 4977: 4974: 4970: 4967:, (1997) 190 4966: 4962: 4961: 4955: 4952: 4948: 4944: 4941:, (1997) 190 4940: 4936: 4934: 4928: 4926: 4924: 4920: 4912: 4908: 4904: 4897: 4892: 4888: 4884: 4879: 4876: 4872: 4864: 4860: 4859: 4853: 4850: 4846: 4838: 4834: 4833: 4827: 4824: 4820: 4816: 4811: 4808: 4804: 4803:autochthonous 4800: 4796: 4790: 4788: 4784: 4780: 4776: 4771: 4768: 4764: 4760: 4759: 4753: 4750: 4746: 4742: 4737: 4734: 4730: 4726: 4725: 4719: 4716: 4711: 4707: 4701: 4698: 4694: 4691:, (2007) 233 4690: 4686: 4685: 4679: 4677: 4673: 4668: 4667: 4662: 4655: 4652: 4647: 4645: 4637: 4635: 4633: 4629: 4621: 4617: 4610: 4603: 4600: 4595: 4593: 4585: 4582: 4577: 4573: 4569: 4565: 4561: 4557: 4551: 4548: 4544: 4541:, (1983) 152 4540: 4536: 4535: 4529: 4526: 4522: 4518: 4514: 4511:, (1975) 135 4510: 4506: 4501: 4498: 4494: 4490: 4485: 4482: 4477: 4473: 4469: 4465: 4461: 4457: 4450: 4447: 4443: 4439: 4436:, (2015) 257 4435: 4431: 4430: 4424: 4421: 4418: 4414: 4409: 4406:, (2013) 252 4405: 4401: 4396: 4393:, (2013) 249 4392: 4388: 4383: 4379: 4374: 4370: 4364: 4361: 4357: 4354:, (1997) 189 4353: 4349: 4348: 4342: 4339: 4334: 4330: 4326: 4319: 4316: 4312: 4309:, (1994) 182 4308: 4304: 4299: 4296: 4292: 4289:, (1992) 177 4288: 4284: 4283: 4277: 4275: 4271: 4267: 4263: 4259: 4253: 4250:, (1992) 177 4249: 4245: 4244: 4238: 4235: 4230: 4226: 4219: 4216: 4212: 4209:, (1996) 186 4208: 4204: 4199: 4196: 4192: 4189:, (2010) 243 4188: 4184: 4183: 4177: 4175: 4171: 4167: 4164:, (2012) 249 4163: 4159: 4154: 4151: 4147: 4144:, (2008) 234 4143: 4139: 4138: 4132: 4129: 4125: 4122:, (1990) 169 4121: 4117: 4116: 4110: 4107: 4103: 4100:, (1988) 165 4099: 4095: 4094: 4088: 4085: 4081: 4078:, (1988) 165 4077: 4073: 4072: 4066: 4064: 4060: 4056: 4052: 4048: 4043: 4040: 4036: 4032: 4028: 4023: 4020: 4016: 4012: 4008: 4006: 4000: 3997: 3993: 3989: 3984: 3981: 3977: 3973: 3969: 3964: 3961: 3957: 3954:, (1993) 177 3953: 3949: 3944: 3941: 3937: 3933: 3929: 3926:(2008) 32(2) 3923: 3919: 3912: 3909: 3905: 3901: 3893: 3889: 3884: 3881: 3878: 3874: 3870: 3867:(1999) 27(3) 3864: 3860: 3853: 3851: 3847: 3843: 3840:, (1985) 159 3839: 3835: 3830: 3828: 3826: 3822: 3818: 3810: 3806: 3805: 3799: 3796: 3792: 3789:, (1981) 146 3788: 3784: 3780: 3778: 3772: 3769: 3765: 3762:, (1983) 154 3761: 3757: 3752: 3749: 3745: 3742:, (1989) 168 3741: 3737: 3732: 3729: 3725: 3722:, (1973) 128 3721: 3717: 3716:Henry v Boehm 3712: 3709: 3705:. p. 19. 3704: 3697: 3691: 3688: 3684:. High Court. 3680: 3676: 3670: 3667: 3662: 3660: 3652: 3650: 3646: 3642: 3639:, (1979) 143 3638: 3634: 3633: 3627: 3624: 3621: 3615: 3612: 3608: 3605:, (1988) 164 3604: 3600: 3599: 3593: 3591: 3587: 3583: 3580:, (1991) 172 3579: 3575: 3573: 3567: 3565: 3561: 3557: 3554:, (2007) 233 3553: 3549: 3548: 3542: 3539: 3535: 3532:, (1983) 153 3531: 3527: 3526: 3520: 3518: 3516: 3512: 3508: 3505:, (1983) 158 3504: 3500: 3498: 3492: 3490: 3488: 3486: 3482: 3478: 3474: 3470: 3465: 3462: 3458: 3455:, (1990) 169 3454: 3450: 3448: 3442: 3439: 3435: 3431: 3427: 3426: 3421: 3418:, (1997) 189 3417: 3413: 3412: 3406: 3403: 3399: 3395: 3391: 3389: 3383: 3381: 3377: 3373: 3369: 3365: 3363: 3357: 3355: 3351: 3347: 3344:, (1965) 114 3343: 3339: 3338: 3333: 3330:, (1982) 150 3329: 3325: 3324: 3318: 3315: 3311: 3308:, (2006) 229 3307: 3303: 3301: 3295: 3293: 3289: 3285: 3281: 3277: 3276: 3270: 3267: 3263: 3259: 3255: 3254: 3249: 3245: 3241: 3240: 3234: 3231: 3227: 3223: 3219: 3218: 3212: 3209: 3205: 3201: 3197: 3195: 3189: 3187: 3185: 3183: 3179: 3175: 3171: 3167: 3166: 3160: 3157: 3153: 3149: 3145: 3143: 3137: 3134: 3130: 3127:, (2007) 231 3126: 3122: 3121: 3115: 3112: 3108: 3105:, (1999) 198 3104: 3100: 3099: 3093: 3090: 3086: 3085:Privy Council 3082: 3078: 3074: 3070: 3064: 3060: 3056: 3054: 3048: 3046: 3044: 3040: 3036: 3032: 3028: 3024: 3020: 3016: 3015: 3014:Egan v Willis 3009: 3006: 2994: 2990: 2984: 2981: 2977: 2976:Supreme Court 2973: 2969: 2968: 2962: 2959: 2955: 2947: 2943: 2942: 2941:Deakin v Webb 2936: 2933: 2928: 2924: 2920: 2913: 2911: 2909: 2905: 2900: 2896: 2892: 2885: 2882: 2869: 2865: 2859: 2856: 2844: 2840: 2836: 2832: 2825: 2822: 2818: 2813: 2810: 2806: 2801: 2798: 2793: 2789: 2785: 2781: 2777: 2773: 2769: 2762: 2759: 2755: 2751: 2747: 2746: 2741: 2737: 2733: 2731: 2725: 2722: 2710: 2706: 2699: 2696: 2692: 2686: 2683: 2679: 2673: 2670: 2658: 2654: 2650: 2646: 2639: 2636: 2631: 2625: 2621: 2614: 2611: 2606: 2602: 2598: 2592: 2588: 2587: 2579: 2576: 2568: 2564: 2558: 2555: 2548: 2541: 2538: 2537: 2536: 2535: 2528: 2524: 2520: 2517: 2516: 2515: 2514: 2513: 2512: 2506: 2503: 2502: 2501: 2498: 2496: 2493: 2491: 2488: 2486: 2483: 2481: 2478: 2476: 2473: 2472: 2468: 2457: 2452: 2450: 2446: 2444: 2439: 2434: 2430: 2428: 2424: 2423: 2418: 2414: 2410: 2405: 2401: 2397: 2396: 2390: 2388: 2384: 2383: 2376: 2372: 2369: 2364: 2360: 2359:parliamentary 2352: 2350: 2349: 2347: 2340: 2335: 2333: 2329: 2325: 2320: 2318: 2313: 2309: 2305: 2304:Michael Kirby 2301: 2297: 2293: 2286: 2279:Right to vote 2278: 2276: 2274: 2270: 2265: 2263: 2262: 2256: 2251: 2250: 2244: 2242: 2236: 2234: 2228: 2226: 2220: 2218: 2217: 2212: 2211: 2204: 2196: 2194: 2187: 2185: 2183: 2179: 2178: 2172: 2170: 2169:jurisprudence 2163: 2155: 2153: 2150: 2145: 2143: 2139: 2130: 2124: 2122: 2117: 2114: 2109: 2107: 2100: 2091: 2089: 2087: 2086: 2080: 2077: 2071: 2069: 2065: 2061: 2057: 2053: 2049: 2043: 2035: 2033: 2031: 2026: 2024: 2020: 2015: 2012: 2007: 1999: 1997: 1995: 1987: 1985: 1983: 1982:jurisprudence 1979: 1975: 1970: 1966: 1964: 1960: 1959:jurisprudence 1951: 1948: 1945: 1942: 1939: 1936: 1935: 1934: 1927: 1925: 1922: 1918: 1913: 1911: 1907: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1887: 1882: 1880: 1877: 1872: 1869: 1868: 1862: 1857: 1849: 1847: 1843: 1841: 1837: 1833: 1829: 1824: 1822: 1818: 1814: 1810: 1806: 1802: 1797: 1795: 1791: 1785: 1780: 1772: 1770: 1768: 1764: 1759: 1757: 1752: 1747: 1745: 1741: 1737: 1729: 1727: 1723: 1721: 1716: 1713: 1705: 1703: 1699: 1696: 1691: 1688: 1683: 1681: 1676: 1674: 1670: 1665: 1661: 1659: 1655: 1654:common market 1651: 1647: 1641: 1633: 1631: 1629: 1625: 1621: 1617: 1613: 1609: 1604: 1599: 1595: 1593: 1589: 1585: 1580: 1574: 1572: 1569: 1567: 1564:In 1920, the 1562: 1560: 1554: 1546: 1541: 1536: 1534: 1530: 1527: 1523: 1519: 1516: 1513: 1509: 1506: 1505: 1504: 1497: 1495: 1492: 1491:for details. 1490: 1486: 1482: 1476: 1474: 1469: 1467: 1463: 1458: 1454: 1446: 1444: 1442: 1438: 1434: 1430: 1421: 1419: 1415: 1413: 1408: 1405: 1401: 1397: 1393: 1387: 1379: 1377: 1375: 1370: 1366: 1360: 1358: 1354: 1346: 1344: 1341: 1339: 1335: 1330: 1327: 1323: 1314: 1312: 1308: 1306: 1302: 1298: 1294: 1289: 1287: 1282: 1280: 1276: 1271: 1266: 1264: 1259: 1253: 1245: 1240: 1235: 1231: 1227: 1224: 1220: 1219: 1218: 1216: 1212: 1207: 1205: 1201: 1196: 1194: 1190: 1186: 1182: 1178: 1174: 1169: 1167: 1163: 1158: 1156: 1152: 1148: 1142: 1140: 1136: 1132: 1128: 1127:Head of State 1122: 1114: 1112: 1109: 1107: 1103: 1098: 1097: 1092: 1088: 1082: 1074: 1069: 1066: 1063: 1060: 1056: 1053: 1050: 1047: 1044: 1040: 1037: 1036:parliamentary 1034: 1031: 1028: 1025: 1024: 1023: 1020: 1018: 1014: 1013:Privy Council 1010: 1006: 1002: 998: 992: 984: 982: 980: 976: 972: 968: 957: 952: 950: 945: 943: 938: 937: 935: 934: 927: 924: 922: 919: 917: 914: 912: 909: 907: 904: 902: 899: 897: 894: 892: 889: 888: 885: 875: 874: 867: 864: 862: 859: 857: 856:Republicanism 854: 852: 849: 847: 844: 842: 839: 837: 834: 832: 829: 827: 824: 822: 819: 817: 814: 812: 809: 807: 804: 803: 800: 793: 792: 785: 782: 780: 777: 775: 772: 770: 767: 765: 764:United States 762: 760: 757: 755: 752: 751: 747: 744: 742: 739: 738: 734: 731: 730: 726: 723: 721: 718: 716: 713: 711: 708: 707: 703: 699: 696: 695: 691: 688: 685: 684: 681: 678: 677: 674: 667: 666: 659: 656: 654: 651: 649: 646: 644: 641: 639: 636: 634: 631: 629: 626: 624: 621: 620: 617: 610: 609: 602: 599: 597: 594: 593: 589: 586: 584: 581: 579: 576: 575: 572: 565: 564: 557: 554: 552: 549: 547: 544: 542: 539: 538: 534: 531: 529: 526: 524: 521: 519: 516: 515: 511: 508: 506: 503: 501: 498: 496: 493: 491: 488: 486: 483: 482: 479: 476: 475: 472: 465: 464: 457: 454: 452: 449: 448: 444: 441: 440: 437: 434: 433:Chief Justice 431: 430: 427: 426: 422: 421: 417: 414: 413: 410: 407: 406:Chief Justice 404: 403: 400: 399: 395: 394: 390: 387: 385: 382: 380: 377: 375: 372: 370: 367: 365: 362: 361: 358: 355: 354:Chief Justice 352: 351: 348: 347: 343: 342: 339: 332: 331: 324: 321: 320: 316: 313: 310: 309: 306: 305: 301: 300: 295: 292: 289: 288: 284: 281: 278: 277: 274: 273: 269: 268: 263: 260: 257: 256: 252: 249: 246: 245: 242: 241: 237: 236: 234: 232: 227: 220: 219: 215: 214: 211: 204: 203: 196: 193: 192: 189: 186: 183: 182: 179: 178: 174: 173: 168: 165: 164: 161: 160: 156: 155: 151: 148: 147: 144: 143: 139: 138: 135: 128: 127: 120: 117: 116: 113: 112: 108: 107: 104: 101: 100: 97: 96: 92: 91: 88: 81: 80: 77: 73: 67: 63: 62: 59: 49: 46: 41: 40: 37: 33: 29: 25: 21: 16: 6423:(vi) Defence 5637:Other topics 5299: 5292: 5285: 5275:Bibliography 5262: 5258: 5242: 5227: 5214: 5205: 5200: 5182: 5178: 5155: 5151: 5140: 5131: 5118: 5103: 5090: 5086: 5057: 5041: 5036: 5026: 5008: 4981: 4976: 4958: 4954: 4949:(Australia). 4931: 4911:the original 4902: 4878: 4856: 4852: 4830: 4826: 4815:Constitution 4814: 4810: 4798: 4797:courts with 4794: 4775:Constitution 4774: 4770: 4756: 4752: 4740: 4736: 4722: 4718: 4710:the original 4700: 4682: 4669:. p. 3. 4664: 4654: 4643: 4620:the original 4602: 4591: 4584: 4563: 4550: 4532: 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Australian constitutional law

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