847:– A feature of human autoimmune disease is that it is largely restricted to a small group of antigens, several of which have known signaling roles in the immune response (DNA, C1q, IgGFc, Ro, Con. A receptor, Peanut agglutinin receptor(PNAR)). This fact gave rise to the idea that spontaneous autoimmunity may result when the binding of antibody to certain antigens leads to aberrant signals being fed back to parent B cells through membrane bound ligands. These ligands include B cell receptor (for antigen), IgG Fc receptors, CD21, which binds complement C3d, Toll-like receptors 9 and 7 (which can bind DNA and nucleoproteins) and PNAR. More indirect aberrant activation of B cells can also be envisaged with autoantibodies to acetyl choline receptor (on thymic myoid cells) and hormone and hormone binding proteins. Together with the concept of T-cell–B-cell discordance this idea forms the basis of the hypothesis of self-perpetuating autoreactive B cells. Autoreactive B cells in spontaneous autoimmunity are seen as surviving because of subversion both of the T cell help pathway and of the feedback signal through B cell receptor, thereby overcoming the negative signals responsible for B cell self-tolerance without necessarily requiring loss of T cell self-tolerance.
841:– A normal immune response is assumed to involve B and T cell responses to the same antigen, even if we know that B cells and T cells recognise very different things: conformations on the surface of a molecule for B cells and pre-processed peptide fragments of proteins for T cells. However, there is nothing as far as we know that requires this. All that is required is that a B cell recognising antigen X endocytoses and processes a protein Y (normally =X) and presents it to a T cell. Roosnek and Lanzavecchia showed that B cells recognising IgGFc could get help from any T cell responding to an antigen co-endocytosed with IgG by the B cell as part of an immune complex. In coeliac disease it seems likely that B cells recognising tissue transglutamine are helped by T cells recognising gliadin.
374:
abnormal T cell response it is usually not to the antigen recognised by autoantibodies. Thus, in rheumatoid arthritis there are autoantibodies to IgG Fc but apparently no corresponding T cell response. In systemic lupus there are autoantibodies to DNA, which cannot evoke a T cell response, and limited evidence for T cell responses implicates nucleoprotein antigens. In Celiac disease there are autoantibodies to tissue transglutaminase but the T cell response is to the foreign protein gliadin. This disparity has led to the idea that human autoimmune disease is in most cases (with probable exceptions including type I diabetes) based on a loss of B cell tolerance which makes use of normal T cell responses to foreign antigens in a variety of aberrant ways.
53:
868:. Although rheumatic fever has been attributed to molecular mimicry for half a century no antigen has been formally identified (if anything too many have been proposed). Moreover, the complex tissue distribution of the disease (heart, joint, skin, basal ganglia) argues against a cardiac specific antigen. It remains entirely possible that the disease is due to e.g. an unusual interaction between immune complexes, complement components and endothelium.
944:– this mechanism of autoimmune disease is unique in that it does not result from a defect in the hematopoietic system. Instead, disease results from the exposure of cryptic N-glycan (polysaccharide) linkages common to lower eukaryotes and prokaryotes on the glycoproteins of mammalian non-hematopoietic cells and organs This exposure of phylogenically primitive glycans activates one or more mammalian
1153:. Managing inflammation is critical in autoimmune diseases. Non-immunological therapies, such as hormone replacement in Hashimoto's thyroiditis or Type 1 diabetes mellitus treat outcomes of the autoaggressive response, thus these are palliative treatments. Dietary manipulation limits the severity of celiac disease. Steroidal or NSAID treatment limits inflammatory symptoms of many diseases.
302:, which is the ability of an individual to ignore "self", while reacting to "non-self". This breakage leads to the immune system mounting an effective and specific immune response against self antigens. The exact genesis of immunological tolerance is still elusive, but several theories have been proposed since the mid-twentieth century to explain its origin.
352:, according to which autoreactive T cells that are not represented in the thymus will mature and migrate to the periphery, where they will not encounter the appropriate antigen because it is inaccessible tissues. Consequently, auto-reactive B cells, that escape deletion, cannot find the antigen or the specific helper T cell.
948:
receptors to induce a chronic sterile inflammatory state. In the presence of chronic and inflammatory cell damage, the adaptive immune system is recruited and self–tolerance is lost with increased autoantibody production. In this form of the disease, the absence of lymphocytes can accelerate organ
1307:
It has been theorized that free radicals contribute to the onset of type-1 diabetes in infants and young children, and therefore that the risk could be reduced by high intake of antioxidant substances during pregnancy. However, a study conducted in a hospital in
Finland from 1997 to 2002 concluded
882:
found in the antigen-binding portion (Fab) of the immunoglobulin molecule. Plotz and
Oldstone presented evidence that autoimmunity can arise as a result of a cross-reaction between the idiotype on an antiviral antibody and a host cell receptor for the virus in question. In this case, the host-cell
703:
is indicated by that many autoimmune diseases tend to fluctuate in accordance with hormonal changes, for example: during pregnancy, in the menstrual cycle, or when using oral contraception. A history of pregnancy also appears to leave a persistent increased risk for autoimmune disease. It has been
448:
Certain individuals are genetically susceptible to developing autoimmune diseases. This susceptibility is associated with multiple genes plus other risk factors. Genetically predisposed individuals do not always develop autoimmune diseases. Three main sets of genes are suspected in many autoimmune
1272:
While major depression is not necessarily an autoimmune disease, some of its physiological symptoms are inflammatory and autoimmune in nature. Omega-3 may inhibit production of interferon gamma and other cytokines which cause the physiological symptoms of depression. This may be due to the fact
1094:
Using the traditional "organ specific" and "non-organ specific" classification scheme, many diseases have been lumped together under the autoimmune disease umbrella. However, many chronic inflammatory human disorders lack the telltale associations of B and T cell driven immunopathology. In the
553:
has emerged as a significant factor linked to various autoimmune diseases, such as Type I diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, Hashimoto's thyroiditis, Graves' disease, Addison's disease, Myasthenia Gravis, vitiligo, systemic sclerosis, juvenile idiopathic arthritis, and
373:
A puzzling feature of the documented loss of tolerance seen in spontaneous human autoimmunity is that it is almost entirely restricted to the autoantibody responses produced by B lymphocytes. Loss of tolerance by T cells has been extremely hard to demonstrate, and where there is evidence for an
369:
Tolerance can also be differentiated into "central" and "peripheral" tolerance, on whether or not the above-stated checking mechanisms operate in the central lymphoid organs (thymus and bone marrow) or the peripheral lymphoid organs (lymph node, spleen, etc., where self-reactive B-cells may be
220:
While a high level of autoimmunity is unhealthy, a low level of autoimmunity may actually be beneficial. Taking the experience of a beneficial factor in autoimmunity further, one might hypothesize with intent to prove that autoimmunity is always a self-defense mechanism of the mammal system to
200:
In 1904, this theory was challenged by the discovery of a substance in the serum of patients with paroxysmal cold hemoglobinuria that reacted with red blood cells. During the following decades, a number of conditions could be linked to autoimmune responses. However, the authoritative status of
814:
Several mechanisms are thought to be operative in the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases, against a backdrop of genetic predisposition and environmental modulation. It is beyond the scope of this article to discuss each of these mechanisms exhaustively, but a summary of some of the important
382:
There are a large number of immunodeficiency syndromes that present clinical and laboratory characteristics of autoimmunity. The decreased ability of the immune system to clear infections in these patients may be responsible for causing autoimmunity through perpetual immune system activation.
1102:
This has led to the recent proposal that the spectrum of autoimmunity should be viewed along an "immunological disease continuum", with classical autoimmune diseases at one extreme and diseases driven by the innate immune system at the other extreme. Within this scheme, the full spectrum of
321:, according to which self-reactive lymphoid cells are destroyed during the development of the immune system in an individual. For their work Frank M. Burnet and Peter B. Medawar were awarded the 1960 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine "for discovery of acquired immunological tolerance".
741:
The putative mechanism is that the parasite attenuates the host immune response in order to protect itself. This may provide a serendipitous benefit to a host that also has autoimmune disease. The details of parasite immune modulation are not yet known, but may include secretion of
654:
s a whole, women are much more likely to develop autoimmune disease than men. Being female is the single greatest risk factor for developing autoimmune disease than any other genetic or environmental risk factor yet discovered. Autoimmune conditions overrepresented in women include:
1103:
autoimmunity can be included. Many common human autoimmune diseases can be seen to have a substantial innate immune mediated immunopathology using this new scheme. This new classification scheme has implications for understanding disease mechanisms and for therapy development.
859:
may share structural similarities with certain host antigens; thus, any antibody produced against this antigen (which mimics the self-antigens) can also, in theory, bind to the host antigens, and amplify the immune response. The idea of molecular mimicry arose in the context of
424:(CGD) as well. CGD is a caused by decreased production of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase by neutrophils. Hypomorphic RAG mutations are seen in patients with midline granulomatous disease; an autoimmune disorder that is commonly seen in patients with
949:
damage, and intravenous IgG administration can be therapeutic. Although this route to autoimmune disease may underlie various degenerative disease states, no diagnostics for this disease mechanism exist at present, and thus its role in human autoimmunity is currently unknown.
1308:
that there was no statistically significant correlation between antioxidant intake and diabetes risk. This study involved monitoring of food intake through questionnaires, and estimated antioxidant intake on this basis, rather than by exact measurements or use of supplements.
737:
attributes these correlations to the immune-manipulating strategies of pathogens. While such an observation has been variously termed as spurious and ineffective, according to some studies, parasite infection is associated with reduced activity of autoimmune disease.
1252: gene are commonly found in people with autoimmune diseases, giving one potential mechanism for vitamin D's role in autoimmunity. There is mixed evidence on the effect of vitamin D supplementation in type 1 diabetes, lupus, and multiple sclerosis.
541:
The contributions of genes outside the MHC complex remain the subject of research, in animal models of disease (Linda Wicker's extensive genetic studies of diabetes in the NOD mouse), and in patients (Brian Kotzin's linkage analysis of susceptibility to
732:
An interesting inverse relationship exists between infectious diseases and autoimmune diseases. In areas where multiple infectious diseases are endemic, autoimmune diseases are quite rarely seen. The reverse, to some extent, seems to hold true. The
3384:
471:
The first two, which are involved in the recognition of antigens, are inherently variable and susceptible to recombination. These variations enable the immune system to respond to a very wide variety of invaders, but may also give rise to
201:
Ehrlich's postulate hampered the understanding of these findings. Immunology became a biochemical rather than a clinical discipline. By the 1950s, the modern understanding of autoantibodies and autoimmune diseases started to spread.
1264:
Studies have shown that adequate consumption of omega-3 fatty acids counteracts the effects of arachidonic acids, which contribute to symptoms of autoimmune diseases. Human and animal trials suggest that omega-3 is an effective
1111:
Diagnosis of autoimmune disorders largely rests on accurate history and physical examination of the patient, and high index of suspicion against a backdrop of certain abnormalities in routine laboratory tests (example, elevated
830:
before the former can undergo differentiation into plasma B-cells and subsequently produce antibodies in large quantities. This requirement of a T cell can be bypassed in rare instances, such as infection by organisms producing
554:
psoriatic arthritis. PTPN22 is involved in regulating the activity of immune cells, and so variations in this gene can lead to dysregulation of the immune response, making individuals more susceptible to autoimmune diseases.
1970:
Vosughimotlagh, Ahmad; Rasouli, Seyed Erfan; Rafiemanesh, Hosein; Safarirad, Molood; Sharifinejad, Niusha; Madanipour, Atossa; Dos Santos Vilela, Maria
Marluce; Heropolitańska-Pliszka, Edyta; Azizi, Gholamreza (2023-08-28).
1219:
Because most human cells and tissues have receptors for vitamin D, including T and B cells, adequate levels of vitamin D can aid in the regulation of the immune system. Vitamin D plays a role in immune function by acting
269:
production. Thus
Stefanova et al. (2002) demonstrated that self-MHC recognition (which, if too strong may contribute to autoimmune disease) maintains the responsiveness of CD4+ T cells when foreign antigens are absent.
370:
destroyed). It must be emphasised that these theories are not mutually exclusive, and evidence has been mounting suggesting that all of these mechanisms may actively contribute to vertebrate immunological tolerance.
698:
The reasons for the sex role in autoimmunity vary. Women appear to generally mount larger inflammatory responses than men when their immune systems are triggered, increasing the risk of autoimmunity. Involvement of
197:. Ehrlich later adjusted his theory to recognize the possibility of autoimmune tissue attacks, but believed certain innate protection mechanisms would prevent the autoimmune response from becoming pathological.
1289:, have been shown to both stimulate immune response to tumors in mice and to regulate immune function, delaying or preventing the onset of nonobese diabetes. This is particularly true of the Shirota strain of
893:
have been recently divided into two groups according to the population of cells whose functions they promote: Helper T-cells type 1 or type 2. The second category of cytokines, which include IL-4, IL-10 and
433:
704:
suggested that the slight, direct exchange of cells between mothers and their children during pregnancy may induce autoimmunity. This would tip the gender balance in the direction of the female.
3942:
2656:
Srinivasan R, Houghton AN, Wolchok JD (July 2002). "Induction of autoantibodies against tyrosinase-related proteins following DNA vaccination: unexpected reactivity to a protein paralogue".
436:
also autoimmunity and infections coexist: organ-specific autoimmune manifestations (e.g., hypoparathyroidism and adrenocortical failure) and chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis. Finally,
979:
Autoimmune diseases can be broadly divided into systemic and organ-specific or localised autoimmune disorders, depending on the principal clinico-pathologic features of each disease.
783:
Certain chemical agents and drugs can also be associated with the genesis of autoimmune conditions, or conditions that simulate autoimmune diseases. The most striking of these is the
2907:"Helminth infection with Litomosoides sigmodontis induces regulatory T cells and inhibits allergic sensitization, airway inflammation, and hyperreactivity in a murine asthma model"
298:
provided clear evidence that, at least in terms of antibody-producing B cells (B lymphocytes), diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and thyrotoxicosis are associated with loss of
3501:
365:, wherein regulatory T-lymphocytes (commonly CD4FoxP3 cells, among others) function to prevent, downregulate, or limit autoaggressive immune responses in the immune system.
1185:
have been shown to be useful in treating RA. Some of these immunotherapies may be associated with increased risk of adverse effects, such as susceptibility to infection.
835:, which are capable of initiating polyclonal activation of B-cells, or even of T-cells, by directly binding to the β-subunit of T-cell receptors in a non-specific fashion.
1158:
4421:
3935:
1475:
250:(those that have not encountered non-self antigens before) recovered from these mice 36 hours post-anti-MHC administration showed decreased responsiveness to the
123:
3928:
1572:
Poletaev AB, Churilov LP, Stroev YI, Agapov MM (June 2012). "Immunophysiology versus immunopathology: Natural autoimmunity in human health and disease".
3464:– The 1960 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to Frank M. Burnet and Peter B Medawar "for discovery of acquired immunological tolerance."
526:
Fewer correlations exist with MHC class I molecules. The most notable and consistent is the association between HLA B27 and spondyloarthropathies like
2613:
Kubach J, Becker C, Schmitt E, Steinbrink K, Huter E, Tuettenberg A, Jonuleit H (April 2005). "Dendritic cells: sentinels of immunity and tolerance".
4504:
4499:
4100:
916:. Dendritic cells that are defective in apoptosis can lead to inappropriate systemic lymphocyte activation and consequent decline in self-tolerance.
2531:"Co-infection with Trypanosoma brucei brucei prevents experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis in DBA/1 mice through induction of suppressor APCs"
4455:
3494:
390:, in which multiple autoimmune diseases are seen, e.g., inflammatory bowel disease, autoimmune thrombocytopenia and autoimmune thyroid disease.
4277:
412:
In addition to chronic and/or recurrent infections many autoimmune diseases including arthritis, autoimmune hemolytic anemia, scleroderma and
409:
are commonly seen in such individuals. Presence of multiple uncleared viral infections due to lack of perforin are thought to be responsible.
228:
Second, autoimmunity may have a role in allowing a rapid immune response in the early stages of an infection when the availability of foreign
225:
and non-self; the attack on cells may be the consequence of cycling metabolic processes necessary to keep the blood chemistry in homeostasis.
1515:
1401:
181:
and is present in all individuals, even in normal health state. It causes autoimmune diseases if self-reactivity can lead to tissue damage.
1244: occurs in lupus, patients are advised to avoid sunlight which may be responsible for vitamin D deficiency seen in this disease.
934:
to also targeting other epitopes. In contrast to molecular mimicry, the other epitopes need not be structurally similar to the primary one.
1195:(helminths). There are currently two closely related treatments available, inoculation with either Necator americanus, commonly known as
3399:
2031:
1068:
135:
1273:
that an imbalance in omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids, which have opposing effects, is instrumental in the etiology of major depression.
3487:
2353:
2287:
4494:
4272:
1790:
1133:
are used to diagnose many autoimmune diseases. The levels of autoantibodies are measured to determine the progress of the disease.
2685:"Mammalian N-glycan branching protects against innate immune self-recognition and inflammation in autoimmune disease pathogenesis"
4131:
3833:
1504:
Silverstein AM (2013). "Chapter 2: Autoimmunity: A History of the Early
Struggle for Recognition". In Mackay IR, Rose NR (eds.).
784:
711:. The X-inactivation skew theory, proposed by Princeton University's Jeff Stewart, has recently been confirmed experimentally in
684:
464:
425:
387:
4267:
3192:
Agmon-Levin N, Theodor E, Segal RM, Shoenfeld Y (October 2013). "Vitamin D in systemic and organ-specific autoimmune diseases".
2862:
Dunne DW, Cooke A (May 2005). "A worm's eye view of the immune system: consequences for evolution of human autoimmune disease".
1228: cells. Research has demonstrated an association between low serum vitamin D and autoimmune diseases, including
745:
A paradoxical observation has been the strong association of certain microbial organisms with autoimmune diseases. For example,
111:
4313:
4175:
4170:
1162:
3828:
3327:"Intake of antioxidant vitamins and trace elements during pregnancy and risk of advanced beta cell autoimmunity in the child"
1358:
688:
636:
4393:
3771:
1064:
775:, and production of large amounts of antibodies of varying specificities, some of which may be self-reactive (see below).
421:
331:, in which self-reactive T- or B-cells become inactivated in the normal individual and cannot amplify the immune response.
883:
receptor is envisioned as an internal image of the virus, and the anti-idiotype antibodies can react with the host cells.
429:
4546:
4450:
1237:
984:
616:
481:
115:
2778:
Nikoopour E, Schwartz JA, Singh B (September 2008). "Therapeutic benefits of regulating inflammation in autoimmunity".
4352:
4155:
1016:. These conditions tend to be associated with autoantibodies to antigens which are not tissue specific. Thus although
1009:
974:
660:
417:
243:
into mice expressing a single type of MHC Class II molecule (H-2) to temporarily prevent CD4+ T cell-MHC interaction.
189:
In the later 19th century, it was believed that the immune system was unable to react against the body's own tissues.
432:(WAS) patients also present with eczema, autoimmune manifestations, recurrent bacterial infections and lymphoma. In
341:, wherein a network of antibodies capable of neutralizing self-reactive antibodies exists naturally within the body.
4383:
4061:
3657:
3032:"Sunlight and vitamin D for bone health and prevention of autoimmune diseases, cancers, and cardiovascular disease"
1241:
1038:
668:
575:
127:
4413:
4236:
295:
1293:(LcS). The LcS strain is mainly found in yogurt and similar products in Europe and Japan, and rarely elsewhere.
675:, among many others. A few autoimmune diseases that men are just as or more likely to develop as women include:
4327:
4096:
4082:
3410:
1233:
1034:
760:
680:
566:
508:
413:
107:
2570:
Edwards JC, Cambridge G (May 2006). "B-cell targeting in rheumatoid arthritis and other autoimmune diseases".
4200:
3963:
3837:
3595:
1325:
1082:
299:
420:(XLA). Recurrent bacterial and fungal infections and chronic inflammation of the gut and lungs are seen in
4331:
3859:
3577:
3513:
3470:– an NIAID-funded database resource of reference and experiment data covering the entire immunology domain
1245:
756:
716:
676:
535:
527:
147:
98:
and other normal body constituents. Any disease resulting from this type of immune response is termed an "
31:
3806:
3662:
3640:
1330:
1191:
is an experimental approach that involves inoculation of the patient with specific parasitic intestinal
958:
898:(to name a few), seem to have a role in prevention of exaggeration of pro-inflammatory immune responses.
768:
747:
3325:
Uusitalo L, Kenward MG, Virtanen SM, Uusitalo U, Nevalainen J, Niinistö S, et al. (August 2008).
2220:"Tyrosine Phosphatase PTPN22: Multifunctional Regulator of Immune Signaling, Development, and Disease"
4489:
4484:
4468:
4378:
4308:
4165:
4077:
3823:
3756:
3667:
3591:
1714:
1620:
1381:
1042:
1005:
791:
649:
626:
515:
143:
139:
3479:
4541:
4511:
3883:
3818:
3801:
3635:
3553:
3388:
2987:
Quinnell RJ, Bethony J, Pritchard DI (2004). "The immunoepidemiology of human hookworm infection".
2905:
Dittrich AM, Erbacher A, Specht S, Diesner F, Krokowski M, Avagyan A, et al. (February 2008).
1249:
1225:
997:
993:
543:
504:
496:
394:
204:
More recently, it has become accepted that autoimmune responses are an integral part of vertebrate
119:
1483:
4516:
4398:
4388:
4282:
4180:
4160:
3997:
3955:
3703:
3266:
3238:
3217:
3012:
2887:
2638:
2595:
2511:
2389:
1663:
1644:
1320:
1266:
1229:
1202:
1188:
1124:
1113:
1074:
1054:
1048:
954:
945:
734:
719:. Other complex X-linked genetic susceptibility mechanisms are proposed and under investigation.
672:
595:
531:
519:
489:
406:
159:
99:
4208:
664:
585:
131:
1973:"Clinical manifestation for immunoglobulin A deficiency: a systematic review and meta-analysis"
790:
Cigarette smoking is now established as a major risk factor for both incidence and severity of
4218:
4213:
4013:
4002:
3751:
3517:
3473:
3421:
3348:
3307:
3258:
3209:
3169:
3111:
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3004:
2969:
2928:
2879:
2844:
2795:
2760:
2706:
2665:
2630:
2587:
2552:
2493:
2444:
2334:
2257:
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2200:
2182:
2143:
2094:
2059:
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2012:
1994:
1952:
1934:
1895:
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1742:
1683:
1636:
1589:
1554:
1511:
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1397:
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1020:
is more or less tissue specific in presentation, it may be included in this group because the
851:
606:
500:
360:
318:
65:
763:, respectively. This has been explained by the tendency of the infecting organism to produce
707:
Another theory suggests the female high tendency to get autoimmunity is due to an imbalanced
4262:
4196:
4113:
4108:
4049:
3976:
3951:
3871:
3811:
3783:
3778:
3746:
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3338:
3297:
3250:
3201:
3159:
3149:
3101:
3093:
3043:
2996:
2959:
2918:
2871:
2834:
2826:
2787:
2750:
2740:
2696:
2622:
2579:
2542:
2483:
2475:
2434:
2426:
2368:
2324:
2314:
2247:
2231:
2190:
2174:
2133:
2125:
2086:
2043:
2002:
1984:
1942:
1926:
1885:
1877:
1836:
1828:
1732:
1722:
1675:
1628:
1581:
1544:
1446:
1436:
1389:
95:
3920:
3461:
962:
4403:
4373:
4257:
4185:
4039:
3992:
3766:
2235:
2129:
1269:
for many cases of
Rheumatoid Arthritis, Inflammatory Bowel Disease, Asthma, and Psoriasis.
1166:
1013:
989:
927:
861:
458:
453:
402:
338:
310:
291:
262:
155:
87:
1285:
Various types of bacteria and microflora present in fermented dairy products, especially
2946:
Wohlleben G, Trujillo C, MĂĽller J, Ritze Y, Grunewald S, Tatsch U, Erb KJ (April 2004).
2007:
1972:
1794:
1718:
1624:
4287:
4241:
4034:
3793:
3738:
3679:
3599:
3572:
3164:
3137:
3106:
3081:
2839:
2814:
2755:
2728:
2488:
2463:
2439:
2414:
2329:
2302:
2252:
2219:
2195:
2162:
2138:
2113:
1947:
1914:
1890:
1865:
1841:
1816:
1451:
1424:
1130:
1120:
905:
832:
795:
764:
708:
437:
283:
103:
3393:
2948:"Helminth infection modulates the development of allergen-induced airway inflammation"
1737:
1702:
1679:
440:
is also sometimes associated with the development of autoimmune and atopic phenomena.
4535:
4462:
4054:
3761:
3650:
3000:
2830:
2413:
Uz E, Loubiere LS, Gadi VK, Ozbalkan Z, Stewart J, Nelson JL, Ozcelik T (June 2008).
2358:
1832:
772:
328:
266:
247:
244:
205:
3270:
3221:
3016:
2891:
2642:
1585:
208:(sometimes termed "natural autoimmunity"). Autoimmunity should not be confused with
52:
17:
4357:
4147:
4029:
4018:
3728:
3713:
3645:
3543:
3254:
2599:
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1017:
865:
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398:
255:
237:
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209:
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91:
1648:
1609:"Self-recognition promotes the foreign antigen sensitivity of naive T lymphocytes"
1350:
3415:
2745:
2701:
2684:
2464:"Inhibition of autoimmune type 1 diabetes by gastrointestinal helminth infection"
1881:
1505:
4044:
4024:
4008:
3476: - US National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases
3241:(December 2002). "Omega-3 fatty acids in inflammation and autoimmune diseases".
2923:
2906:
2090:
1299:
1178:
1001:
752:
712:
3426:
2791:
1989:
1707:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
3851:
3604:
3510:
3205:
3097:
3048:
3031:
2683:
Green RS, Stone EL, Tenno M, Lehtonen E, Farquhar MG, Marth JD (August 2007).
2430:
2178:
1930:
1866:"Immunodeficiency and autoimmunity: lessons from systemic lupus erythematosus"
1205:
is also being explored as a possible future therapy for autoimmune disorders.
1170:
1150:
913:
799:
485:
473:
287:
221:
survive. The system does not randomly lose the ability to distinguish between
79:
70:
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2243:
2186:
2055:
1998:
1938:
1558:
1441:
1240: (commonly referred to simply as lupus). However, since
1095:
last decade it has been firmly established that tissue "inflammation against
787:. Usually, withdrawal of the offending drug cures the symptoms in a patient.
3909:
3614:
3432:
3343:
3326:
3302:
3285:
2964:
2947:
2547:
2530:
1192:
1182:
1174:
1119:
In several systemic disorders, serological assays which can detect specific
890:
875:
692:
279:
233:
3352:
3311:
3262:
3213:
3173:
3138:"Vitamin D in Autoimmunity: Molecular Mechanisms and Therapeutic Potential"
3115:
3057:
3008:
2973:
2932:
2883:
2848:
2799:
2764:
2710:
2669:
2634:
2591:
2556:
2497:
2448:
2338:
2261:
2204:
2147:
2098:
2016:
1956:
1899:
1850:
1727:
1640:
1593:
1460:
1393:
2319:
2063:
1773:
1760:
Jerne NK (January 1974). "Towards a network theory of the immune system".
1746:
1687:
3899:
3684:
3672:
3630:
3584:
3548:
3284:
Matsuzaki T, Takagi A, Ikemura H, Matsuguchi T, Yokokura T (March 2007).
2479:
2077:
Klein J, Sato A (September 2000). "The HLA system. Second of two parts".
1196:
1058:
895:
879:
803:
798:
of proteins, since the effects of smoking correlate with the presence of
742:
anti-inflammatory agents or interference with the host immune signaling.
240:
163:
2626:
1632:
3967:
3904:
3718:
3567:
3538:
3082:"The implication of vitamin D and autoimmunity: a comprehensive review"
2813:
Zaccone P, Fehervari Z, Phillips JM, Dunne DW, Cooke A (October 2006).
2375:
1549:
1532:
931:
909:
856:
827:
823:
397:, an autosomal recessive primary immunodeficiency, is another example.
305:
Three hypotheses have gained widespread attention among immunologists:
251:
229:
3467:
3452:
American
Autoimmune Related Diseases Association: a nonprofit advocacy
3376:
2047:
4336:
3876:
3864:
3609:
3560:
1221:
1086:
550:
174:
2875:
2583:
1817:"Do self-perpetuating B lymphocytes drive human autoimmune disease?"
1608:
1482:(19th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education. Archived from
3456:
965:
in the pathogenesis of autoimmune disease are under investigation.
236:
present). In their study, Stefanova et al. (2002) injected an anti-
4303:
3971:
656:
259:
2032:"Genetic Susceptibility to the Development of Autoimmune Disease"
345:
In addition, two other theories are under intense investigation:
3437:
3404:
1154:
1099:" does not necessarily rely on abnormal T and B cell responses.
3924:
3483:
3080:
Yang CY, Leung PS, Adamopoulos IE, Gershwin ME (October 2013).
1199:, or Trichuris Suis Ova, commonly known as Pig Whipworm Eggs.
953:
The roles of specialized immunoregulatory cell types, such as
434:
autoimmune polyendocrinopathy-candidiasis-ectodermal dystrophy
2512:"Parasite Infection May Benefit Multiple Sclerosis Patients"
1349:
The
Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica (20 November 2018).
2462:
Saunders KA, Raine T, Cooke A, Lawrence CE (January 2007).
1123:
can be employed. Localised disorders are best diagnosed by
193:, at the turn of the 20th century, proposed the concept of
3451:
1141:
Treatments for autoimmune disease have traditionally been
2729:"A proposed classification of the immunological diseases"
3136:
Dankers W, Colin EM, van
Hamburg JP, Lubberts E (2017).
2161:
Chung, Sharon A.; Criswell, Lindsey A. (January 2007).
2114:"Recent advances in the genetics of autoimmune disease"
1388:(Second ed.). Oxford: Elsevier. pp. 292–296.
864:, which follows infection with Group A beta-haemolytic
27:
Immune response against an organism's own healthy cells
3457:
Immune Tolerance Network: a research-oriented resource
538:
within class II MHC promoters and autoimmune disease.
1703:"Clonal anergy: the universally anergic B lymphocyte"
1607:
Stefanová I, Dorfman JR, Germain RN (November 2002).
3366:
3286:"Intestinal microflora: probiotics and autoimmunity"
1533:"Origins and history of autoimmunity—A brief review"
822:– A normal immune system requires the activation of
4477:
4443:
4434:
4412:
4366:
4345:
4326:
4296:
4250:
4235:
4194:
4146:
4139:
4125:
4095:
4070:
3985:
3962:
3892:
3850:
3792:
3693:
3623:
3531:
3524:
3370:
2030:Heward, Joanne; Gough, Stephen C. L. (1997-12-01).
1423:Patt H, Bandgar T, Lila A, Shah N (December 2013).
1030:syndromes which affect a specific organ or tissue:
64:
45:
2367:
1815:Edwards JC, Cambridge G, Abrahams VM (June 1999).
1478:. In Kasper D, Fauci A, Hauser S, Longo D (eds.).
1425:"Management issues with exogenous steroid therapy"
162:. Autoimmune diseases are very often treated with
2415:"Skewed X-chromosome inactivation in scleroderma"
2218:Bottini, Nunzio; Peterson, Erik J. (2014-03-21).
4422:Transfusion-associated graft-versus-host disease
2722:
2720:
1913:Tam, Jonathan S.; Routes, John M. (March 2013).
480:HLA DR2 is strongly positively correlated with
2286:McCoy K (2 December 2009). Marcellin L (ed.).
1429:Indian Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism
1169:therapies, such as the TNFα antagonists (e.g.
232:limits the response (i.e., when there are few
3936:
3495:
3233:
3231:
124:eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis
60:Parts of body affected by autoimmune diseases
8:
3243:Journal of the American College of Nutrition
3194:Clinical Reviews in Allergy & Immunology
3086:Clinical Reviews in Allergy & Immunology
2419:Clinical Reviews in Allergy & Immunology
3468:The Immunology Database and Analysis Portal
2815:"Parasitic worms and inflammatory diseases"
1919:American Journal of Rhinology & Allergy
1864:Grammatikos AP, Tsokos GC (February 2012).
492:, and negatively correlated with DM Type 1.
4440:
4342:
4247:
4143:
4122:
3982:
3943:
3929:
3921:
3528:
3502:
3488:
3480:
3367:
3331:The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition
3036:The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition
2163:"PTPN22: Its role in SLE and autoimmunity"
1701:Pike BL, Boyd AW, Nossal GJ (March 1982).
1480:Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine
845:Aberrant B cell receptor-mediated feedback
514:HLA DR4 is correlated with the genesis of
51:
42:
3342:
3301:
3163:
3153:
3105:
3047:
2963:
2922:
2838:
2780:Inflammation & Allergy - Drug Targets
2754:
2744:
2727:McGonagle D, McDermott MF (August 2006).
2700:
2546:
2487:
2438:
2328:
2318:
2251:
2194:
2137:
2006:
1988:
1977:Allergy, Asthma & Clinical Immunology
1946:
1889:
1840:
1736:
1726:
1548:
1450:
1440:
2303:"Sex differences in autoimmune diseases"
2281:
2279:
2277:
2275:
2273:
2271:
1785:
1783:
1664:"The discovery of immunologic tolerance"
561:
4456:Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis
1341:
1024:are often ubiquitous t-RNA synthetases.
449:diseases. These genes are related to:
90:of an organism against its own healthy
2112:Gregersen PK, Olsson LM (2009-01-01).
1476:"Autoimmunity and Autoimmune Diseases"
4278:Post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis
3187:
3185:
3183:
3131:
3129:
3127:
3125:
3075:
3073:
3071:
3069:
3067:
2236:10.1146/annurev-immunol-032713-120249
2130:10.1146/annurev.immunol.021908.132653
7:
495:HLA DR3 is correlated strongly with
2615:International Journal of Hematology
2529:WĂĄllberg M, Harris RA (June 2005).
2079:The New England Journal of Medicine
1361:from the original on 5 January 2021
1069:idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura
930:changes from targeting the primary
755:have been strongly correlated with
407:enlargement of the liver and spleen
136:idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura
1915:"Common Variable Immunodeficiency"
465:major histocompatibility complexes
25:
4495:Autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome
3474:Understanding Autoimmune Diseases
728:Infectious diseases and parasites
534:. Correlations may exist between
378:Immunodeficiency and autoimmunity
4132:Hemolytic disease of the newborn
3001:10.1111/j.0141-9838.2004.00727.x
2831:10.1111/j.1365-3024.2006.00879.x
2352:Ainsworth C (15 November 2003).
2288:"Women and Autoimmune Disorders"
1833:10.1046/j.1365-2567.1999.00772.x
815:mechanisms have been described:
785:drug-induced lupus erythematosus
685:granulomatosis with polyangiitis
518:, type 1 diabetes mellitus, and
426:granulomatosis with polyangiitis
388:common variable immunodeficiency
4314:Subacute bacterial endocarditis
4176:Immune thrombocytopenic purpura
1662:Brent, Leslie (February 1997).
1586:10.1016/j.pathophys.2012.07.003
1537:Rheumatology & Autoimmunity
169:Autoimmunity means presence of
3829:Immunoglobulin class switching
3255:10.1080/07315724.2002.10719248
2388:Kruszelnicki KS (2004-02-12).
1181:and the costimulation blocker
1173:), the B cell depleting agent
794:. This may relate to abnormal
689:primary sclerosing cholangitis
637:Primary sclerosing cholangitis
102:". Prominent examples include
1:
4394:Postorgasmic illness syndrome
1680:10.1016/S0198-8859(96)00289-3
1474:Diamond B, Lipsky PE (2014).
1065:autoimmune haemolytic anaemia
904:– immune system cells called
647:Most autoimmune diseases are
422:chronic granulomatous disease
4451:Hypersensitivity pneumonitis
2746:10.1371/journal.pmed.0030297
2702:10.1016/j.immuni.2007.06.008
2390:"Hybrid Auto-Immune Women 3"
1882:10.1016/j.molmed.2011.10.005
1870:Trends in Molecular Medicine
1791:"Tolerance and Autoimmunity"
1531:Ahsan, Haseeb (March 2023).
1238:Systemic Lupus Erythematosus
985:Systemic autoimmune diseases
810:Pathogenesis of autoimmunity
617:Systemic lupus erythematosus
549:In recent studies, the gene
482:systemic lupus erythematosus
476:capable of self-reactivity.
116:systemic lupus erythematosus
4517:Systemic autoimmune disease
4353:Allergic contact dermatitis
4273:Hypersensitivity vasculitis
4156:Autoimmune hemolytic anemia
3030:Holick MF (December 2004).
2924:10.4049/jimmunol.180.3.1792
2224:Annual Review of Immunology
2118:Annual Review of Immunology
2091:10.1056/NEJM200009143431106
1357:. Encyclopædia Britannica.
1010:cryoglobulinemic vasculitis
975:List of autoimmune diseases
661:primary biliary cholangitis
418:X-linked agammaglobulinemia
4563:
4023:common allergies include:
3658:Polyclonal B cell response
2864:Nature Reviews. Immunology
2792:10.2174/187152808785748155
2572:Nature Reviews. Immunology
2366:(2421): 34. Archived from
2307:Biology of Sex Differences
2301:Voskuhl R (January 2011).
1990:10.1186/s13223-023-00826-y
1386:Encyclopedia of Immunology
1209:Nutrition and autoimmunity
972:
258:peptide, as determined by
29:
3206:10.1007/s12016-012-8342-y
3098:10.1007/s12016-013-8361-3
2431:10.1007/s12016-007-8044-z
2179:10.1080/08916930701510848
1931:10.2500/ajra.2013.27.3899
1177:, the anti-IL-6 receptor
839:T-cell–B-cell discordance
779:Chemical agents and drugs
709:X-chromosome inactivation
564:
296:University College London
59:
50:
4268:Henoch–Schönlein purpura
4083:Eosinophilic esophagitis
3296:(3 Suppl 2): 798S–802S.
3290:The Journal of Nutrition
3155:10.3389/fimmu.2016.00697
3042:(6 Suppl): 1678S–1688S.
2952:International Immunology
2535:International Immunology
1442:10.4103/2230-8210.123548
1380:Delves PJ (1998-01-01).
1035:diabetes mellitus type 1
942:Cryptic epitope exposure
902:Dendritic cell apoptosis
761:diabetes mellitus type 1
681:type 1 diabetes mellitus
509:type 1 diabetes mellitus
430:Wiskott–Aldrich syndrome
428:and NK/T cell lymphomas.
414:type 1 diabetes mellitus
393:Familial hemophagocytic
112:Henoch–Schönlein purpura
108:diabetes mellitus type 1
4384:Hashimoto's thyroiditis
4171:Guillain–Barré syndrome
3142:Frontiers in Immunology
3049:10.1093/ajcn/80.6.1678S
1507:The Autoimmune Diseases
1326:Protective autoimmunity
1083:autoimmune encephalitis
1039:Hashimoto's thyroiditis
872:Idiotype cross-reaction
669:Hashimoto's thyroiditis
576:Hashimoto's thyroiditis
570:of autoimmune diseases
350:Clonal ignorance theory
335:Idiotype network theory
300:immunological tolerance
274:Immunological tolerance
128:Hashimoto's thyroiditis
4485:Autoimmune adrenalitis
3772:Tolerance in pregnancy
3514:adaptive immune system
2468:Infection and Immunity
1728:10.1073/pnas.79.6.2013
1435:(Suppl 3): S612–S617.
1394:10.1006/rwei.1999.0075
1384:. In Delves PJ (ed.).
1279:Probiotics/Microflora
887:Cytokine dysregulation
757:ankylosing spondylitis
717:autoimmune thyroiditis
677:ankylosing spondylitis
528:ankylosing spondylitis
216:Low-level autoimmunity
148:ankylosing spondylitis
3807:Somatic hypermutation
3641:Polyclonal antibodies
3636:Monoclonal antibodies
3344:10.1093/ajcn/88.2.458
3303:10.1093/jn/137.3.798S
2965:10.1093/intimm/dxh062
2911:Journal of Immunology
2548:10.1093/intimm/dxh253
2354:"The Stranger Within"
2320:10.1186/2042-6410-2-1
1762:Annales d'Immunologie
1355:Health & Medicine
1331:Psychoneuroimmunology
1127:of biopsy specimens.
748:Klebsiella pneumoniae
723:Environmental factors
565:Ratio of female/male
356:Suppressor population
265:, proliferation, and
4490:Autoimmune hepatitis
4469:Transplant rejection
4379:Giant cell arteritis
4309:Rheumatoid arthritis
4166:Goodpasture syndrome
4078:Autoimmune urticaria
3824:Junctional diversity
3592:Antigen presentation
2480:10.1128/IAI.00664-06
1258:Omega-3 Fatty Acids
1006:rheumatoid arthritis
938:Epitope modification
792:rheumatoid arthritis
767:that are capable of
627:Rheumatoid arthritis
516:rheumatoid arthritis
325:Clonal anergy theory
144:rheumatoid arthritis
18:Autoimmmune response
4547:Autoimmune diseases
3956:autoimmune diseases
3819:V(D)J recombination
3802:Affinity maturation
3554:Antigenic variation
2989:Parasite Immunology
2819:Parasite Immunology
2627:10.1532/IJH97.04165
1719:1982PNAS...79.2013P
1633:10.1038/nature01146
1625:2002Natur.420..429S
1287:Lactobacillus casei
1213:Vitamin D/Sunlight
994:lupus erythematosus
544:lupus erythematosus
505:lupus erythematosus
403:swollen lymph nodes
395:lymphohistiocytosis
278:Pioneering work by
4399:Reactive arthritis
4389:Multiple sclerosis
4283:Reactive arthritis
4181:Pemphigus vulgaris
4161:Bullous pemphigoid
4062:Penicillin allergy
3998:Allergic urticaria
2995:(11–12): 443–454.
1550:10.1002/rai2.12049
1510:. Academic Press.
1321:Autoimmune disease
1267:treatment modality
1250:vitamin D receptor
1248: in the
1230:multiple sclerosis
1203:T-cell vaccination
1189:Helminthic therapy
1125:immunofluorescence
1114:C-reactive protein
1075:multiple sclerosis
1055:pemphigus vulgaris
1049:Pernicious anaemia
955:regulatory T cells
946:innate immune cell
735:hygiene hypothesis
673:multiple sclerosis
596:Multiple sclerosis
532:reactive arthritis
520:pemphigus vulgaris
490:multiple sclerosis
195:horror autotoxicus
160:multiple sclerosis
100:autoimmune disease
4529:
4528:
4525:
4524:
4430:
4429:
4322:
4321:
4231:
4230:
4227:
4226:
4219:Pernicious anemia
4214:Myasthenia gravis
4091:
4090:
4014:Atopic dermatitis
4003:Allergic rhinitis
3918:
3917:
3846:
3845:
3596:professional APCs
3447:
3446:
2048:10.1042/cs0930479
1619:(6914): 429–434.
1517:978-0-12-384930-4
1486:on 5 January 2021
1403:978-0-12-226765-9
1147:anti-inflammatory
1143:immunosuppressive
1079:myasthenia gravis
1047:Gastrointestinal:
1043:Addison's disease
920:Epitope spreading
852:Molecular mimicry
802:to citrullinated
645:
644:
607:Myasthenia gravis
501:myasthenia gravis
416:are also seen in
361:Regulatory T cell
286:in New York, and
140:Addison's disease
86:is the system of
76:
75:
40:Medical condition
30:For journal, see
16:(Redirected from
4554:
4512:Sjögren syndrome
4441:
4343:
4248:
4144:
4123:
3983:
3952:Hypersensitivity
3945:
3938:
3931:
3922:
3812:Clonal selection
3784:Immune privilege
3779:Immunodeficiency
3734:Cross-reactivity
3724:Hypersensitivity
3529:
3504:
3497:
3490:
3481:
3368:
3357:
3356:
3346:
3322:
3316:
3315:
3305:
3281:
3275:
3274:
3235:
3226:
3225:
3189:
3178:
3177:
3167:
3157:
3133:
3120:
3119:
3109:
3077:
3062:
3061:
3051:
3027:
3021:
3020:
2984:
2978:
2977:
2967:
2943:
2937:
2936:
2926:
2917:(3): 1792–1799.
2902:
2896:
2895:
2859:
2853:
2852:
2842:
2810:
2804:
2803:
2775:
2769:
2768:
2758:
2748:
2724:
2715:
2714:
2704:
2680:
2674:
2673:
2653:
2647:
2646:
2610:
2604:
2603:
2567:
2561:
2560:
2550:
2526:
2520:
2519:
2516:sciencedaily.com
2508:
2502:
2501:
2491:
2459:
2453:
2452:
2442:
2410:
2404:
2403:
2401:
2400:
2385:
2379:
2373:
2371:
2349:
2343:
2342:
2332:
2322:
2298:
2292:
2291:
2283:
2266:
2265:
2255:
2215:
2209:
2208:
2198:
2158:
2152:
2151:
2141:
2109:
2103:
2102:
2074:
2068:
2067:
2036:Clinical Science
2027:
2021:
2020:
2010:
1992:
1967:
1961:
1960:
1950:
1910:
1904:
1903:
1893:
1861:
1855:
1854:
1844:
1812:
1806:
1805:
1803:
1802:
1793:. Archived from
1787:
1778:
1777:
1768:(1–2): 373–389.
1757:
1751:
1750:
1740:
1730:
1713:(6): 2013–2017.
1698:
1692:
1691:
1668:Human Immunology
1659:
1653:
1652:
1604:
1598:
1597:
1569:
1563:
1562:
1552:
1528:
1522:
1521:
1501:
1495:
1494:
1492:
1491:
1471:
1465:
1464:
1454:
1444:
1420:
1414:
1413:
1411:
1410:
1377:
1371:
1370:
1368:
1366:
1346:
1242:photosensitivity
1167:immunomodulatory
1033:Endocrinologic:
998:Sjögren syndrome
753:coxsackievirus B
562:
497:Sjögren syndrome
459:T-cell receptors
177:that react with
120:Sjögren syndrome
88:immune responses
55:
43:
21:
4562:
4561:
4557:
4556:
4555:
4553:
4552:
4551:
4532:
4531:
4530:
4521:
4473:
4436:
4426:
4408:
4404:Type 1 diabetes
4374:Coeliac disease
4362:
4334:
4318:
4292:
4258:Arthus reaction
4239:
4223:
4209:Graves' disease
4190:
4186:Rheumatic fever
4135:
4103:
4087:
4066:
3993:Allergic asthma
3974:
3958:
3949:
3919:
3914:
3888:
3842:
3788:
3767:Clonal deletion
3695:
3689:
3619:
3520:
3508:
3448:
3443:
3442:
3379:
3365:
3360:
3324:
3323:
3319:
3283:
3282:
3278:
3237:
3236:
3229:
3191:
3190:
3181:
3135:
3134:
3123:
3079:
3078:
3065:
3029:
3028:
3024:
2986:
2985:
2981:
2945:
2944:
2940:
2904:
2903:
2899:
2876:10.1038/nri1601
2861:
2860:
2856:
2825:(10): 515–523.
2812:
2811:
2807:
2777:
2776:
2772:
2726:
2725:
2718:
2682:
2681:
2677:
2658:Cancer Immunity
2655:
2654:
2650:
2612:
2611:
2607:
2584:10.1038/nri1838
2569:
2568:
2564:
2528:
2527:
2523:
2510:
2509:
2505:
2461:
2460:
2456:
2412:
2411:
2407:
2398:
2396:
2387:
2386:
2382:
2351:
2350:
2346:
2300:
2299:
2295:
2285:
2284:
2269:
2217:
2216:
2212:
2160:
2159:
2155:
2111:
2110:
2106:
2085:(11): 782–786.
2076:
2075:
2071:
2029:
2028:
2024:
1969:
1968:
1964:
1912:
1911:
1907:
1863:
1862:
1858:
1814:
1813:
1809:
1800:
1798:
1789:
1788:
1781:
1759:
1758:
1754:
1700:
1699:
1695:
1661:
1660:
1656:
1606:
1605:
1601:
1574:Pathophysiology
1571:
1570:
1566:
1530:
1529:
1525:
1518:
1503:
1502:
1498:
1489:
1487:
1473:
1472:
1468:
1422:
1421:
1417:
1408:
1406:
1404:
1379:
1378:
1374:
1364:
1362:
1348:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1317:
1234:type 1 diabetes
1224: and
1211:
1139:
1109:
1014:dermatomyositis
990:coeliac disease
977:
971:
928:immune reaction
906:dendritic cells
862:rheumatic fever
855:– An exogenous
812:
781:
730:
725:
665:Graves' disease
586:Graves' disease
569:
560:
454:Immunoglobulins
446:
444:Genetic factors
386:One example is
380:
311:Clonal deletion
276:
263:phosphorylation
218:
187:
156:dermatomyositis
132:Graves' disease
41:
38:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4560:
4558:
4550:
4549:
4544:
4534:
4533:
4527:
4526:
4523:
4522:
4520:
4519:
4514:
4509:
4508:
4507:
4502:
4492:
4487:
4481:
4479:
4475:
4474:
4472:
4471:
4466:
4460:
4459:
4458:
4447:
4445:
4438:
4432:
4431:
4428:
4427:
4425:
4424:
4418:
4416:
4410:
4409:
4407:
4406:
4401:
4396:
4391:
4386:
4381:
4376:
4370:
4368:
4364:
4363:
4361:
4360:
4355:
4349:
4347:
4340:
4324:
4323:
4320:
4319:
4317:
4316:
4311:
4306:
4300:
4298:
4294:
4293:
4291:
4290:
4288:Serum sickness
4285:
4280:
4275:
4270:
4265:
4260:
4254:
4252:
4245:
4242:Immune complex
4233:
4232:
4229:
4228:
4225:
4224:
4222:
4221:
4216:
4211:
4205:
4203:
4192:
4191:
4189:
4188:
4183:
4178:
4173:
4168:
4163:
4158:
4152:
4150:
4141:
4137:
4136:
4134:
4129:
4127:
4120:
4119:
4118:
4117:
4116:
4111:
4093:
4092:
4089:
4088:
4086:
4085:
4080:
4074:
4072:
4068:
4067:
4065:
4064:
4059:
4058:
4057:
4052:
4047:
4042:
4037:
4032:
4027:
4016:
4011:
4006:
4000:
3995:
3989:
3987:
3980:
3960:
3959:
3950:
3948:
3947:
3940:
3933:
3925:
3916:
3915:
3913:
3912:
3907:
3902:
3896:
3894:
3890:
3889:
3887:
3886:
3881:
3880:
3879:
3869:
3868:
3867:
3856:
3854:
3848:
3847:
3844:
3843:
3841:
3840:
3831:
3826:
3821:
3816:
3815:
3814:
3809:
3798:
3796:
3794:Immunogenetics
3790:
3789:
3787:
3786:
3781:
3776:
3775:
3774:
3769:
3764:
3759:
3754:
3742:
3741:
3739:Co-stimulation
3736:
3731:
3726:
3721:
3716:
3711:
3706:
3699:
3697:
3691:
3690:
3688:
3687:
3682:
3680:Immune complex
3676:
3675:
3670:
3665:
3660:
3655:
3654:
3653:
3648:
3643:
3638:
3627:
3625:
3621:
3620:
3618:
3617:
3612:
3607:
3602:
3600:Dendritic cell
3588:
3587:
3582:
3581:
3580:
3578:Conformational
3575:
3564:
3563:
3558:
3557:
3556:
3551:
3546:
3535:
3533:
3526:
3522:
3521:
3509:
3507:
3506:
3499:
3492:
3484:
3478:
3477:
3471:
3465:
3459:
3454:
3445:
3444:
3441:
3440:
3429:
3418:
3407:
3396:
3380:
3375:
3374:
3372:
3371:Classification
3364:
3363:External links
3361:
3359:
3358:
3337:(2): 458–464.
3317:
3276:
3249:(6): 495–505.
3227:
3200:(2): 256–266.
3179:
3121:
3092:(2): 217–226.
3063:
3022:
2979:
2958:(4): 585–596.
2938:
2897:
2870:(5): 420–426.
2854:
2805:
2786:(3): 203–210.
2770:
2716:
2695:(2): 308–320.
2675:
2648:
2621:(3): 197–203.
2605:
2578:(5): 394–403.
2562:
2541:(6): 721–728.
2521:
2503:
2474:(1): 397–407.
2454:
2425:(3): 352–355.
2405:
2394:www.abc.net.au
2380:
2372:on 2008-10-22.
2344:
2293:
2267:
2210:
2173:(8): 582–590.
2153:
2104:
2069:
2042:(6): 479–491.
2022:
1962:
1925:(4): 260–265.
1905:
1876:(2): 101–108.
1856:
1827:(2): 188–196.
1807:
1779:
1752:
1693:
1654:
1599:
1580:(3): 221–231.
1564:
1523:
1516:
1496:
1466:
1415:
1402:
1382:"Autoimmunity"
1372:
1351:"Autoimmunity"
1340:
1338:
1335:
1334:
1333:
1328:
1323:
1316:
1313:
1312:
1311:
1310:
1309:
1297:
1296:
1295:
1294:
1277:
1276:
1275:
1274:
1270:
1256:
1255:
1254:
1253:
1226:natural killer
1210:
1207:
1138:
1135:
1131:Autoantibodies
1121:autoantibodies
1108:
1105:
1092:
1091:
1090:
1089:
1073:Neurological:
1071:
1063:Haematologic:
1061:
1053:Dermatologic:
1051:
1045:
1025:
970:
969:Classification
967:
951:
950:
935:
917:
899:
884:
878:are antigenic
869:
848:
842:
836:
833:super-antigens
811:
808:
796:citrullination
780:
777:
771:activation of
765:super-antigens
729:
726:
724:
721:
643:
642:
639:
633:
632:
629:
623:
622:
619:
613:
612:
609:
603:
602:
599:
592:
591:
588:
582:
581:
578:
572:
571:
559:
556:
524:
523:
512:
493:
469:
468:
461:
456:
445:
442:
438:IgA deficiency
379:
376:
367:
366:
353:
343:
342:
337:, proposed by
332:
327:, proposed by
322:
317:, proposed by
284:Ernst Witebsky
275:
272:
217:
214:
206:immune systems
186:
183:
104:celiac disease
74:
73:
68:
62:
61:
57:
56:
48:
47:
39:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4559:
4548:
4545:
4543:
4540:
4539:
4537:
4518:
4515:
4513:
4510:
4506:
4503:
4501:
4498:
4497:
4496:
4493:
4491:
4488:
4486:
4483:
4482:
4480:
4476:
4470:
4467:
4464:
4463:Latex allergy
4461:
4457:
4454:
4453:
4452:
4449:
4448:
4446:
4442:
4439:
4433:
4423:
4420:
4419:
4417:
4415:
4411:
4405:
4402:
4400:
4397:
4395:
4392:
4390:
4387:
4385:
4382:
4380:
4377:
4375:
4372:
4371:
4369:
4365:
4359:
4356:
4354:
4351:
4350:
4348:
4344:
4341:
4338:
4333:
4332:cell-mediated
4329:
4325:
4315:
4312:
4310:
4307:
4305:
4302:
4301:
4299:
4295:
4289:
4286:
4284:
4281:
4279:
4276:
4274:
4271:
4269:
4266:
4264:
4263:Farmer's lung
4261:
4259:
4256:
4255:
4253:
4249:
4246:
4243:
4238:
4234:
4220:
4217:
4215:
4212:
4210:
4207:
4206:
4204:
4202:
4198:
4193:
4187:
4184:
4182:
4179:
4177:
4174:
4172:
4169:
4167:
4164:
4162:
4159:
4157:
4154:
4153:
4151:
4149:
4145:
4142:
4138:
4133:
4130:
4128:
4124:
4121:
4115:
4112:
4110:
4107:
4106:
4105:
4104:
4102:
4098:
4094:
4084:
4081:
4079:
4076:
4075:
4073:
4069:
4063:
4060:
4056:
4053:
4051:
4048:
4046:
4043:
4041:
4038:
4036:
4033:
4031:
4028:
4026:
4022:
4021:
4020:
4017:
4015:
4012:
4010:
4007:
4004:
4001:
3999:
3996:
3994:
3991:
3990:
3988:
3984:
3981:
3978:
3973:
3969:
3965:
3961:
3957:
3953:
3946:
3941:
3939:
3934:
3932:
3927:
3926:
3923:
3911:
3908:
3906:
3903:
3901:
3898:
3897:
3895:
3891:
3885:
3882:
3878:
3875:
3874:
3873:
3870:
3866:
3863:
3862:
3861:
3858:
3857:
3855:
3853:
3849:
3839:
3835:
3832:
3830:
3827:
3825:
3822:
3820:
3817:
3813:
3810:
3808:
3805:
3804:
3803:
3800:
3799:
3797:
3795:
3791:
3785:
3782:
3780:
3777:
3773:
3770:
3768:
3765:
3763:
3762:Clonal anergy
3760:
3758:
3755:
3753:
3750:
3749:
3748:
3744:
3743:
3740:
3737:
3735:
3732:
3730:
3727:
3725:
3722:
3720:
3717:
3715:
3712:
3710:
3707:
3705:
3701:
3700:
3698:
3692:
3686:
3683:
3681:
3678:
3677:
3674:
3671:
3669:
3666:
3664:
3661:
3659:
3656:
3652:
3651:Microantibody
3649:
3647:
3644:
3642:
3639:
3637:
3634:
3633:
3632:
3629:
3628:
3626:
3622:
3616:
3613:
3611:
3608:
3606:
3603:
3601:
3597:
3593:
3590:
3589:
3586:
3583:
3579:
3576:
3574:
3571:
3570:
3569:
3566:
3565:
3562:
3559:
3555:
3552:
3550:
3547:
3545:
3542:
3541:
3540:
3537:
3536:
3534:
3530:
3527:
3523:
3519:
3515:
3512:
3505:
3500:
3498:
3493:
3491:
3486:
3485:
3482:
3475:
3472:
3469:
3466:
3463:
3460:
3458:
3455:
3453:
3450:
3449:
3439:
3435:
3434:
3430:
3428:
3424:
3423:
3419:
3417:
3413:
3412:
3408:
3406:
3402:
3401:
3397:
3395:
3391:
3390:
3386:
3382:
3381:
3378:
3373:
3369:
3362:
3354:
3350:
3345:
3340:
3336:
3332:
3328:
3321:
3318:
3313:
3309:
3304:
3299:
3295:
3291:
3287:
3280:
3277:
3272:
3268:
3264:
3260:
3256:
3252:
3248:
3244:
3240:
3239:Simopoulos AP
3234:
3232:
3228:
3223:
3219:
3215:
3211:
3207:
3203:
3199:
3195:
3188:
3186:
3184:
3180:
3175:
3171:
3166:
3161:
3156:
3151:
3147:
3143:
3139:
3132:
3130:
3128:
3126:
3122:
3117:
3113:
3108:
3103:
3099:
3095:
3091:
3087:
3083:
3076:
3074:
3072:
3070:
3068:
3064:
3059:
3055:
3050:
3045:
3041:
3037:
3033:
3026:
3023:
3018:
3014:
3010:
3006:
3002:
2998:
2994:
2990:
2983:
2980:
2975:
2971:
2966:
2961:
2957:
2953:
2949:
2942:
2939:
2934:
2930:
2925:
2920:
2916:
2912:
2908:
2901:
2898:
2893:
2889:
2885:
2881:
2877:
2873:
2869:
2865:
2858:
2855:
2850:
2846:
2841:
2836:
2832:
2828:
2824:
2820:
2816:
2809:
2806:
2801:
2797:
2793:
2789:
2785:
2781:
2774:
2771:
2766:
2762:
2757:
2752:
2747:
2742:
2738:
2734:
2733:PLOS Medicine
2730:
2723:
2721:
2717:
2712:
2708:
2703:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2686:
2679:
2676:
2671:
2667:
2663:
2659:
2652:
2649:
2644:
2640:
2636:
2632:
2628:
2624:
2620:
2616:
2609:
2606:
2601:
2597:
2593:
2589:
2585:
2581:
2577:
2573:
2566:
2563:
2558:
2554:
2549:
2544:
2540:
2536:
2532:
2525:
2522:
2517:
2513:
2507:
2504:
2499:
2495:
2490:
2485:
2481:
2477:
2473:
2469:
2465:
2458:
2455:
2450:
2446:
2441:
2436:
2432:
2428:
2424:
2420:
2416:
2409:
2406:
2395:
2391:
2384:
2381:
2377:
2370:
2365:
2361:
2360:
2359:New Scientist
2355:
2348:
2345:
2340:
2336:
2331:
2326:
2321:
2316:
2312:
2308:
2304:
2297:
2294:
2289:
2282:
2280:
2278:
2276:
2274:
2272:
2268:
2263:
2259:
2254:
2249:
2245:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2230:(1): 83–119.
2229:
2225:
2221:
2214:
2211:
2206:
2202:
2197:
2192:
2188:
2184:
2180:
2176:
2172:
2168:
2164:
2157:
2154:
2149:
2145:
2140:
2135:
2131:
2127:
2123:
2119:
2115:
2108:
2105:
2100:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2084:
2080:
2073:
2070:
2065:
2061:
2057:
2053:
2049:
2045:
2041:
2037:
2033:
2026:
2023:
2018:
2014:
2009:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1991:
1986:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1966:
1963:
1958:
1954:
1949:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1909:
1906:
1901:
1897:
1892:
1887:
1883:
1879:
1875:
1871:
1867:
1860:
1857:
1852:
1848:
1843:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1822:
1818:
1811:
1808:
1797:on 2011-01-01
1796:
1792:
1786:
1784:
1780:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1756:
1753:
1748:
1744:
1739:
1734:
1729:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1697:
1694:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1677:
1673:
1669:
1665:
1658:
1655:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1614:
1610:
1603:
1600:
1595:
1591:
1587:
1583:
1579:
1575:
1568:
1565:
1560:
1556:
1551:
1546:
1542:
1538:
1534:
1527:
1524:
1519:
1513:
1509:
1508:
1500:
1497:
1485:
1481:
1477:
1470:
1467:
1462:
1458:
1453:
1448:
1443:
1438:
1434:
1430:
1426:
1419:
1416:
1405:
1399:
1395:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1376:
1373:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1345:
1342:
1336:
1332:
1329:
1327:
1324:
1322:
1319:
1318:
1314:
1306:
1305:
1304:
1303:
1302:
1301:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1283:
1282:
1281:
1280:
1271:
1268:
1263:
1262:
1261:
1260:
1259:
1251:
1247:
1246:Polymorphisms
1243:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1218:
1217:
1216:
1215:
1214:
1208:
1206:
1204:
1200:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1186:
1184:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1136:
1134:
1132:
1128:
1126:
1122:
1117:
1115:
1106:
1104:
1100:
1098:
1088:
1087:gluten ataxia
1084:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1060:
1056:
1052:
1050:
1046:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1031:
1029:
1026:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1003:
999:
995:
991:
987:
986:
982:
981:
980:
976:
968:
966:
964:
960:
956:
947:
943:
939:
936:
933:
929:
925:
924:epitope drift
921:
918:
915:
911:
907:
903:
900:
897:
892:
888:
885:
881:
877:
873:
870:
867:
863:
858:
854:
853:
849:
846:
843:
840:
837:
834:
829:
825:
821:
820:T-cell bypass
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4019:Food allergy
3729:Inflammation
3714:Alloimmunity
3709:Autoimmunity
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3694:Immunity vs.
3646:Autoantibody
3544:Superantigen
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2369:the original
2363:
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1795:the original
1765:
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1385:
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1363:. Retrieved
1354:
1344:
1300:Antioxidants
1298:
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1157:is used for
1140:
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1022:autoantigens
1018:polymyositis
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866:streptococci
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701:sex steroids
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392:
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372:
368:
359:
355:
349:
344:
334:
324:
314:
309:
304:
277:
256:cytochrome c
248:CD4+ T cells
238:MHC class II
227:
219:
210:alloimmunity
203:
199:
194:
191:Paul Ehrlich
188:
179:self-protein
168:
152:polymyositis
84:autoimmunity
83:
77:
46:Autoimmunity
33:Autoimmunity
32:
4009:Anaphylaxis
4005:(Hay fever)
3852:Lymphocytes
3511:Lymphocytic
3462:Nobel Prize
2739:(8): e297.
2124:: 363–391.
1543:(1): 9–14.
1236:, and
1179:tocilizumab
1165:. Specific
1002:scleroderma
926:– when the
914:lymphocytes
713:scleroderma
650:sex-related
474:lymphocytes
4542:Immunology
4536:Categories
4478:Autoimmune
4367:Autoimmune
4297:Autoimmune
4140:Autoimmune
4071:Autoimmune
3893:Substances
3757:Peripheral
3745:Inaction:
3624:Antibodies
3605:Macrophage
3518:complement
3422:DiseasesDB
2399:2023-01-03
1821:Immunology
1801:2007-03-19
1490:2021-01-05
1409:2021-01-06
1337:References
1171:etanercept
1151:palliative
1137:Treatments
973:See also:
963:γδ T-cells
912:to active
800:antibodies
769:polyclonal
486:narcolepsy
401:, rashes,
171:antibodies
80:immunology
71:Immunology
4148:Cytotoxic
3910:Cytolysin
3900:Cytokines
3747:Tolerance
3696:tolerance
3615:Immunogen
3433:SNOMED CT
2244:0732-0582
2187:0891-6934
2056:0143-5221
1999:1710-1492
1983:(1): 75.
1939:1945-8924
1559:2767-1410
1365:5 January
1197:hookworms
1193:nematodes
1183:abatacept
1175:rituximab
1107:Diagnosis
959:NKT cells
891:Cytokines
876:Idiotypes
693:psoriasis
567:incidence
280:Noel Rose
234:pathogens
66:Specialty
35:(journal)
4437:multiple
4435:Unknown/
4237:Type III
4201:receptor
4050:Tree nut
3860:Cellular
3704:Immunity
3702:Action:
3685:Paratope
3673:Idiotype
3663:Allotype
3631:Antibody
3585:Mimotope
3549:Allergen
3532:Antigens
3525:Lymphoid
3353:18689383
3312:17311978
3271:16733569
3263:12480795
3222:13265245
3214:23238772
3174:28163705
3116:23359064
3058:15585788
3017:32598886
3009:15771680
2974:15039389
2933:18209076
2892:24659866
2884:15864275
2849:16965287
2800:18782028
2765:16942393
2711:17681821
2689:Immunity
2670:12747753
2643:34998016
2635:15814330
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2557:15899926
2498:17043101
2449:18157513
2339:21208397
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2262:24364806
2205:18075792
2148:19302045
2099:10984567
2017:37641141
2008:10463351
1957:23883805
1900:22177735
1851:10447731
1641:12459785
1594:22884694
1461:24910822
1359:Archived
1315:See also
1291:L. casei
1220:on
1059:vitiligo
988:include
910:antigens
908:present
880:epitopes
804:peptides
241:antibody
230:antigens
164:steroids
4444:Foreign
4346:Foreign
4337:T cells
4328:Type IV
4251:Foreign
4126:Foreign
4097:Type II
4040:Seafood
3986:Foreign
3968:allergy
3905:Opsonin
3884:NK cell
3872:Humoral
3752:Central
3719:Allergy
3668:Isotype
3568:Epitope
3539:Antigen
3438:4301008
3416:D001327
3165:5247472
3148:: 697.
3107:6047889
2840:1618732
2756:1564298
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2139:2992886
2064:9497784
1948:3901442
1891:3278563
1842:2326840
1774:4142565
1747:6804951
1715:Bibcode
1688:9077556
1621:Bibcode
1452:4046616
1232:,
1222:T cells
932:epitope
857:antigen
828:T cells
824:B cells
292:Doniach
254:pigeon
252:antigen
185:History
175:T cells
96:tissues
4465:(I+IV)
4197:Type V
4035:Peanut
3964:Type I
3877:B cell
3865:T cell
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329:Nossal
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315:theory
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3013:S2CID
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2639:S2CID
2596:S2CID
1645:S2CID
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1028:Local
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4414:GVHD
4101:ADCC
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3516:and
3411:MeSH
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3170:PMID
3112:PMID
3054:PMID
3005:PMID
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2013:PMID
1995:ISSN
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1766:125C
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1684:PMID
1637:PMID
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