Avret Pazarları - Knowledge (XXG)

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is disposed to sell the whole or part, he gives up with them their teskerai, which transfers the property to the purchaser in perpetuity. Forty-one thousand teskerais were granted in this way for Sciote slaves up to the 1st of May, of which five thousand had been taken out for those proceeding to Constantinople alone, and generally by fellows in the lowest grade of society. The usual place where Circassian slaves are sold is the Aurut Bazaar, or Women's Market, in the vicinity of the Burnt Column. Here decorum is no further violated than in the act of sale. It consists of a quadrangular building, with an open court in the middle. Round this arc raised platforms, on which black slaves sit: behind is latticed windows lighting apartments, where the white and more costly women are shut up till they are sold, and there is a certain decency and propriety observed in the purchase. But the glut of unfortunate Sciotes were as such, that they were exhibited for sale in any public place, even the streets. The most usual was the Baluk Bazaar, or Fish Market. Here, the first exposure was a number of poor girls, of the age of twelve or fourteen, who were sold like cattle at an English fair. Several of them were without trousers, or the necessary articles of dress. Terror and anxiety had so affected them, that they exhibited the most deplorable picture of human suffering I ever beheld, and such as cannot be described; yet they were treated by the Turks with contemptuous freedom as if they did not think they ought to show them the courtesies of decorum which a sense of modesty generally induces a Turk to show to any other female. They were taken and handled with the roughness of butchers examining young cattle, and generally sold at the rate of one hundred piastres, or 3/. a head. Five hundred were disposed of here in this way, and Turkish men and women were everywhere seen leading young Christian slaves to their houses.

2740:(1862 – 1936) was considered progressive for her time, viewing sexual slavery (along with polytheism) as forms of exploitation, Zeynep Direk argues that Aliye's response is insufficient from a feminist perspective. This is because Aliye focuses on defending Ottomanism and Islamism, downplaying the coercion, servitude, oppression, and sexual exploitation aspects of female slavery. She portrays female slavery in idyllic and romantic terms and does not advocate for the abolition of the institution of slavery, despite its legal abolition before Fatma Aliye's birth in 1847, though it was still practiced. However, the boundaries of female slavery in Aliye's novels are fluid. For example, in the novel Muhadarat, a non-slave woman, married to a wealthy man, sells herself into slavery to escape her husband. In another novel, the Enin family wants their son to marry their female slave, but the son, in love with someone else, refuses to marry the female slave. In yet another novel, Dar'ul Muallimat, the character Refet, the daughter of a poor female slave, attends school (Dar'ul Muallimat) to become a teacher. 1871: 2733:'s 1888 novel Sergüzeşt ("Life Story" or "Adventure"), the slave girl named Dilber is bought and resold from one family to another. Over time, Dilber transforms from a weak young girl into an attractive young woman. Aksit notes that, ironically, while Dilber's initial vulnerability protects her from both wanted and unwanted advances, her beauty and transition to womanhood become a fatal combination with her enslavement. In one owner's house, where she arrives as an attractive young woman, a young man initially ignores and mocks her, but eventually begins painting her picture, treating her like a mere object. Dilber revolts and cries, prompting him to recognize her humanity. They later fall in love. However, the lady of the house, his mother, sells Dilber in the market to prevent the love between a slave and a nobleman, leading Dilber to contemplate suicide due to her unrequited love. 2366:...My mother was a Circassian by birth, who in early youth had been torn away from her home. Her father had been a farmer, and she had always lived peacefully with her parents and her little brother and sister. War broke out suddenly, and the country was overrun by marauding bands; on their approach, the family fled into an underground place, as my mother called it — she probably meant a cellar, which is not known in Zanzibar. Their place of refuge was, however, invaded by a merciless horde, the parents were slain, and the children were carried off by three mounted Arnauts. One of these, with her elder brother, soon disappeared out of sight; the other two, with my mother and her little sister, three years old, crying bitterly for her mother, kept together until evening, when they too parted, and my mother never heard any more of the lost ones as long as she lived. 2722:'s first novel, İntibah (Awakening) (1876), a woman named Fatma purchases a slave girl named Dilaşub to divert her son Ali's attention from another woman, Mahpeyker. However, when Dilaşub fulfills her duty of distraction, Fatma, the owner, resells her at the slightest suspicion of her showing interest in another man. Aksit notes that Dilaşub is portrayed as inherently good but weak and submissive, bearing the consequences of others' weaknesses. Fatma manipulates both her son's and the slave girl's lives by buying and selling them according to her convenience. Aksit argues that early Ottoman male novelists often sympathized with slave girls, depicting their lives from childhood to womanhood, as seen in Ahmet Mithat's portrayal of his protagonist, Rakım, who educates his slave girl, Canan, and eventually marries her. Similarly, author 4652:.. Female slaves .. were legally vulnerable to involuntary sexual use. .. Their second disadvantage as sexual beings were uniquely theirs .. from the moment of capture were legally subject to the disposition of male captors... (p.p.197-198)..female slaves were personal property of their masters. Unlike males, however, every female slave of whatever age or provenance by whatever label was also her master's sexual property. Women had no right of refusal or appeal with regard to their sexuality, although the law forbade owners to use women for outright prostitution. The notional, if not the legal, line between prostitution and the selling of a female slave to another male, who might sell her to yet another was whisper thin. ..p205 1846: 2346:"..There they are examined and stripped...the private parts of men and women are handled and openly shown before everyone. Naked, they are compelled to go before everyone, to run, walk, and jump, so that it may be plainly apparent whether they are sick or healthy, male or female, old or young, virgin or corrupt"... "There the son is sold while the grieving mother looks on. There the mother is brought to the confusion and humiliation of the son. There the wife is mocked as a harlot and is handed over to another man, while her husband blushes. There is a little one snatched from the bosom of his mother while she is sold off, with every deep emotion shaken." 2523:"...this woman had come over to Chesme, and bargained with the Turk for her liberation. He asked the sum of twelve hundred piastres; they could scarcely raise twelve;—but they applied to the Franks who had come to Chesm £, and through their subscriptions, added to those of the captain and officers of the English brig-of-war, the " Jasper," and what I gave, they collected eight hundred piastres, which, at the intercession of my friend, Mr. W-, the Turk agreed to take. The poor Sciote had just received the liberating paper, signed and sealed by the Mollah and her old master, and had come to thank me for the part I had taken in restoring her to the blessings of freedom ..." 2554:, ...In the markets they are lodged in separate apartments, carefully secluded, where in the hour of business between nine and twelve they may be visited by aspirants for possessing such delicate ware. I need not draw a veil over what follows. decorum prevails. The would-be purchaser may fix his eyes on the lady's face, and his hands may receive evidence of her bust. The waltz allows nearly as much liberty before hundreds of eyes. Of course merchant gives his warranty, on which, and the preceding data, the bargain is closed. the common price for a tolerable-looking girl is 100/. some fetch hundreds...such are generally singled out by Kislar Aga. A coarser article from 2563:

suffices The girl gets up off the ground, gathers her coarse cloth round her loins, bids her companions adieu, and trips gaily, barefooted and bare-headed, after her new mistress, who immediately dresses her la Turque and hides her ebony with white veils. (price of one is about 16/. Males are sold in a different place always young. Boys fetch a much higher price than girls for evident reasons: in the east, unhappily, they are also subservient to pleasures, and when grown up are farther useful in many ways, if clever may arrive at higher employments; whereas a woman is only a toy with orientals, and like a toy when discarded, useless."

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testifying as witnesses against Muslims. The loss of a slave's virginity was not a matter for herself but rather for her owner, unlike physical injuries to a woman slave by a non-owner, for example, to the arm, leg, eye, or other part of the body. For instance, in the winter of 1817 AD, a female slave owner received compensation through the courts from a man who had raped her slave because the woman's virginity had been compromised, and it would no longer be possible for her owner to sell her as a highly priced virgin.

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society, yet law is inherently influenced by society, and Islamic law and culture contain provisions for enslaved individuals, aiding their integration into society over time. However, despite variations in application and practice, those in positions of power often impose legal systems to secure significant advantages for themselves. From the perspective of marginalized slaves, it's plausible to view the imposition of a legal system from outside as encroaching upon the micro-society of the enslaved.

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and the most attractive reserved for royal males or the Sultan himself. Slaves who bore a male child for the Sultan received extra privileges, but if they did not convert to Islam, they would be separated from their child, who would be raised as a Muslim. Only a rare few concubines had the chance to become an official wife of the Sultan, and even fewer became beloved wives. Among them, those whose child was selected as Sultan would receive the highest honor as the "Walide" (Mother) of the Sultan.

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about their normal business as civilians, despite any sign of hostility. The women were captured from various African, Asian, and European territories and sold in Istanbul markets. Like male slaves, female slaves were considered the personal property of their owners. Although using female slaves for prostitution was technically illegal, selling a slave woman to another man for sex was permissible, and slave women had no legal protection over their sexuality. While slaves could seek recourse from

2499:"...The first news of these events was brought to Constantinople by the caiquegees, hummals, and other adventurers of the rabble, who returned with boats full of plunder and slaves. The Oriental manner of making slaves, and securing a property in them, is this. Any fellows who join an expedition as volunteers for plunder of this kind enter a house, and after setting fire to it, and killing generally the adult males, they carry off the property, with the females and boys. 2226: 2432:

and the children. In the charter, Marcali expressed his intention to return to Crete for Margaret and the children. Darvasio transferred Margaret and their daughters to Venice to facilitate their travel to Hungary. There, he handed them over to Margaret's alleged brother-in-law, John of Redel, and covered her travel expenses. Margaret was finally able to return to Hungary after many years and settled in

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Circassian female author named Karden D. expressed her hope for the emancipation of Circassian women from being viewed as commodities, sold at the highest price. Following this, Kanuko Cemil authored a poem in the same magazine in 1976, illustrating the prevalent themes of forced marriages and human trafficking in the periodicals published by Circassian diaspora nationalists during the 1970s.

2542:"Occasionally, I will not deny, heart rending scenes occur, in the case of captives of war, or victims of revolt, wrenched suddenly from all that is dear, but these are rare occurrences. The Circassians and Georgians, who form the trade supply, are only victims of custom, willing victims; being brought up by their mercenary parents for the merchants....they look for the moment of going to 2793:(Magnificent Century) are exported to various Muslim countries, predominantly highlighting the elite aspect of Ottoman slavery. As a result, the new generation audience remains unaware of pre-20th-century Islamic sexual slavery forms. Despite approval from Islamic clergy, conservative audiences advocate for sanitized versions that omit any depiction of slave women in Ottoman times and life. 2083:, covering Ottoman legal commentaries, is full of discussions about past, present, and future access to female slaves' sexuality. Queries were asked and answered about disputed paternity, prostitution, adultery, joint ownership of slaves, childbirth, marriage, violation of woman slaves by those other than the owner, and sexual relations with a wife's slave woman without the wife's consent. 2679: 2127:

in marriage contracts to ensure that legally wedded wives could dispose of their husbands' slave women and concubines as they pleased, thereby eliminating potential competition. While Ottoman women didn't resort to this tactic as frequently, they still faced familial jealousies and the risk of being discarded by their husbands if a slave woman or concubine gained greater favor.

2359:'s account of the kidnapping and enslavement of her mother, Jilfidan, is one of the few available testimonies about a captive female slave. Before being sold to Ruete's father, Jilfidan was a common non-elite slave, but upon being purchased by Ruete's father, she became an elite slave, specifically a concubine. Ruete documented her mother Jilfidan's captivity in her writings. 1902: 1914: 2062:(the "esirci seyhi"). He was elected by the members of the guild and appointed by the Sultan's decree. Apart from Muslims, Jews were also involved in the slave market, but it is not known whether they were organized in guilds. According to the memoir of Elviya Celebi, the slave traders' guild "esirci esnafi" had around 2000 members, and their shops had slave rooms. 2111:, while overlooking their agency, voices, resistance, and diversity. Zhigunova and Tlostanova argue that unlike Western slavery, Ottoman slavery did not completely strip slaves of their rights and humanity. Slaves were better absorbed and integrated into society, with opportunities for status change, particularly for women through marriage possibilities. 1965:, which typically had a male-female ratio of 2:1 or 3:1, the Ottoman slave trade often exhibited a higher proportion of females to males, suggesting a prevailing preference for female slaves. The incentive for importing (often European) female slaves lay in concubinage and reproduction, although many were also brought in primarily to perform 2428:. Margaret became a slave mistress of a wealthy citizen named Giorgio Darvasio, from a Venetian merchant family. She had two daughters with him, Marieta and Iacoba, who were still minors in 1405 and even in 1408. Despite being well-treated by Darvasio during her captivity, Margaret never gave up on her intention to return to Hungary. 2135:

Western notion of slavery. Conversely, elite harem women slaves might have shared wealth and power in some cases, but still experienced significant limitations on their freedoms. In contrast, non-elite, or menial slaves, faced the most severe legal disabilities and reduced life chances associated with traditional slavery.

2177:, meeting the demands of the Ottoman Empire and beyond. The slave trade, enslavement, and ransoming became important sources of tax revenue for both the Crimean Khanate and the Ottoman Empire. While Islamic tradition often led to the religious manumission of many slaves, it also fueled continued demand for new slaves. 1925:(modern-day Istanbul) became the capital of the Ottoman Empire. Throughout the centuries, it evolved into a hub for captive slaves, particularly women. From the 15th to the 18th centuries, a significant number of female captives were transported to Constantinople from various warfronts, including regions such as 2444:

In the 1460s, Ilona from Garai, the wife of Tamas, was taken captive. She managed to escape at an opportune moment, but was recaptured and eventually resold by Serbs five times before successfully escaping again. Similarly, in 1471, Anna Nagy also escaped from captivity, although these instances were

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We are now in the square, the sun shines, rush mats are spread over under the green trees, and there sit and lie Asia's daughters. A young mother gives the breast to her child, and they will separate these two. On the stairs leading to the gallery sits a young negress not more than fourteen years of

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They then proceed to the next custom house, and having paid twenty piasters, or about ten shillings, they take out a teskerai, or a ticket, which certifies the slavery, and then the persons of the unfortunate family become the property of the captors forever, with all their posterity! If any of them

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On July 1, 1405, a charter was issued on Crete regarding Margaret. Darvasio agreed to release her without any ransom and provided an escort for her return to Hungary. Initially, he wanted one of their daughters to remain in Crete, but eventually agreed to occasional visits to Hungary to see Margaret

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Similarly, Jewish slave traders had their own religious restrictions; once a slave owner had sexual relations with a female slave, he was required to either sell the slave or manumit them, thereby contributing to the demand for new slaves. This Ottoman practice sometimes led to population increases,

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According to Kate Fleet, female slaves in the Ottoman Empire had a greater chance of accessing public spaces compared to non-slave Muslim women. Elite women often had to be accompanied by their female slaves in public if no male relative was present. Female slaves sometimes gained a degree of agency

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Slaves typically did not appear in written records unless reported by their masters, usually for absconding. Therefore, while knowing the exact number and composition of slaves remains difficult, an analysis of 16th-century absconders from Ottoman records indicates that some were captured in Ottoman

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focuses on empowerment even from slavery. The approaches of the first three authors indicate a choice to depict tragic and caricatured situations to create a strong emotional appeal to the prevailing change in public opinion. A 1877 novel 'Aşk-ı Vatan' (Love of Country), discussing the homesickness

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In Ottoman society, any agency achieved by a slave woman often came at the expense of other women's agency. Whether governed by law or Sharia, the capacity for slaves to show initiative and gain agency remained limited. For instance, the mechanism of "tedbir" could be risky for achieving meaningful

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Suraiya Faroqhi contrasts the agency of Ottoman slaves with that of contemporary slaves in the Mughal Empire of South Asia. In the Ottoman Empire, slave women had better prospects for agency if they encountered elite masters. On the other hand, in the Mughal Empire, elites often included conditions

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For instance, if an enslaved woman bore a child by her owner, she could not be easily resold, and her children were considered free. If the owner acknowledged them as his children, they had inheritance rights similar to those of children from a legitimate marriage. Consequently, several generations

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courts for any other physical injury, the sexuality of women slaves was not their own to lose. As a result, they were unable to appeal to the courts or to the Sultans. Under systemic biases introduced under the Ottoman judicial system, enslaved women, most of whom were non-Muslims, were barred from

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According to Seteney Nil Dogan, the second generation of nationalist Circassian diaspora in the 1970s explored and criticized Circassians and Turks for human trafficking, arranged marriages, and involuntary unions through their periodicals and activism. In 1975, in the Circassian magazine Yamçı, a

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and Ali Pasha of Jannina and Albanian Muslims. Despo, the wife of Souliote chieftain Tzavellas, is celebrated in these songs for her act of honor suicide along with other women, rather than facing capture and enslavement. In one poignant scene, when women and children find themselves besieged in a

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is exposed publicly on platforms, beneath verandahs, before the cribs of white china. A more white-toothed, plump cheeked, ... with a smile and gibe for everyone, and often an audible 'buy me'. they are sold easily and without trouble. Ladies are usual purchasers for domestics. a slight inspection

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Toledano's research indicates that the trafficking of Circassian women was prevalent by the nineteenth century, especially after the mass expulsion of Circassians by the Russians from the 1850s onwards. Seeking refuge with the Ottomans often meant becoming slaves. When demand for white slave women

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Female slaves had limited opportunities, often based on physical attractiveness and talents for pleasing and entertaining male counterparts with flattering words and gestures. Elite men would select some as slaves or concubines, with a few chosen for the Imperial harem, others gifted to elite men,

2277:'s rebellion of 1807. It appears that the "Aurat-Bazar" mentioned by Hobhouse, which was reportedly burned down before 1810, was reconstructed on the same site. This bazaar is described as standing "near the burnt column". The reference to the Column of Arcadius is evident from an earlier work by 2146:

However, access to public spaces for female slaves was often undignified. The visibility of a female slave was fluid, as she could transition quickly from being a protected possession to an exposed commodity. Female slaves had no control over the levels of visibility to which they were subjected;

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The slave market was supervised and taxed by the Ottoman state. Control of the slave market was the authority of an official called the "esirci emini." A standard fee, set at 1/40th of the value of the slave, was imposed as a tax. A guild of slave merchants existed (known as the "esirci esnafi"),

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Bon goes on to say that slave girls in Istanbul were bought and sold like animals – ascertaining their country of origin, plus examining their bodies all over thoroughly to confirm that their buyer did not feel swindled. Virgin and beautiful girls received higher prices, and traders could be held

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Instead of framing Ottoman slaves within a binary classification of being slaves or not, some scholars place them along a broader spectrum. For instance, elite male slaves who advanced in military or administrative careers, enjoying a life filled with freedoms, wealth, and power, may not fit the

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However, Zhigunova also highlights instances of women being subjected to abuse. For example, on June 30, 1854, a Circassian slave woman named Shemsigul, from a poor background, testified to Cairo police about her ordeal. She was trafficked from her village in Circassia to Istanbul, where she was

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Regarding the Ottoman legal system's treatment of slavery, individual rights to choice and consent were significantly restricted. Abuse and constraints were common, and female slaves were often regarded as mere possessions, listed in inheritance records alongside household items or livestock, or

2070:

Although women slaves were mainly taken from war zones, referring to them as captives or prisoners of war was blatantly incorrect. It is significant to note that the women's religion was not the same as that of their captors, and most of them were not active combatants but were taken while going

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and then sold to the Ottoman Empire to serve in harems. They were the most expensive, fetching prices of up to 500 pounds sterling, and were highly sought after by Turks. Syrian girls, with dark eyes, dark hair, and light brown skin, were the second most popular. They mainly hailed from coastal

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Farhat Yasa's study of fatwas from the 16th to 18th centuries suggests that under certain circumstances, slave owners could kill their slaves without fear of punishment in the afterlife, highlighting the limited agency available to most female slaves. While some female slaves may have exhibited

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Women were captured from diverse African, Asian, and European regions and traded in Istanbul markets. In contrast to male slaves, women were often subject to sexual exploitation, with their sexuality considered the personal property of their owners. Female slaves were frequently valued based on

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liberation upon the owner's death, as the owner couldn't dispose of two-thirds of their property, which would be inherited by others. Inheritors could argue that the value of the slave was too high for the owner to dispose of completely, allowing them to retain ownership rights over the slave.

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While some intellectuals debate whether individuals labeled as slaves would fit the Western understanding of slavery, scholars assert that there were instances where enslaved women faced abuse and lacked legal protections and rights. Some historians challenge the notion of contrasting law and

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The Ottoman slave trade with South Asia operated bidirectionally, albeit to a lesser extent compared to the Uzbek slave trade in the region. While it addressed the demand for white female slaves in elite South Asian harems, South Asian markets predominantly supplied non-Muslim female slaves.

2575:"...Not far from great bazaar, we come to place surrounded by wooden buildings, forming an open gallery; the jutting roof is supported by rough beams; inside along the gallery, are small chambers where trader stow their goods, and these goods are human beings, black and white female slaves. 2046:

While Turkish free women, i.e., Muslim women, could not be enslaved and Muslim Turkish women had some level of legal prerogative against sexual exploitation, the same protections were not extended to non-Muslim foreigners. Sexual exploitation of female slaves could not be punished legally.

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described in physical terms in court. Nineteenth-century European women visitors observed that slave women in harems enjoyed considerable leisure time and freedom of speech and action. They perceived the lives of these slaves as more desirable than those of domestic servants in the West.

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sexually assaulted by a slave trader named Deli Mehmet. Despite becoming pregnant from him, she was sold multiple times, even while pregnant, and faced attempts to induce abortion. Despite the illegal nature of reselling a slave mother, Deli Mehmet was eventually convicted.

2648:'s collection of Greek folk songs, published in 1824–25, several songs mention Greek slaves of the Turks or the peril of falling into slavery and fighting to resist it. These songs depict events predating the revolution (before 1821), particularly the conflicts between the 2139:

agency within narrow limits, others served merely as facades, with their owners using them to deflect punishment for their own crimes. Therefore, discussing agency among helpless female victims of slavery within the same spectrum may not be relevant.

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Avret Pazary had become fully established by the 16th century. It is estimated that the number of women captured and enslaved by the Ottoman Empire exceeded a thousand per year. The demand for enslaved women was met through the capture of women by

2213:. Nubian girls were the least expensive and least popular, selling for up to 20 pounds sterling. Sex roles and symbolism in Ottoman society served as expressions of power, with the palace harem segregating enslaved women from the rest of society. 2480:"...A man who had not seen this market, had not seen anything in this world. A mother is severed from her son and daughter there, a son from his father and brother, and they are sold amongst lamentations, cries of help, weeping and sorrow..." 2115:

of slaves were gradually integrated into society. Additionally, female slaves could gain freedom upon their owner's death through a declaration known as "tedbir," wherein the owner promised manumission prior to death to earn religious merit.

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The next day, June the 16th, was Sunday, and a slave market was established in Pera Street, leading to our palace. A number of captives had been brought up the day before, and some of them exposed for sale in that place,..." (caiquegees =

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named Avrat Pazarı. It runs parallel to İnönü Street, just north of the Old Municipality and Şıra Inn. The street starts across from the west-facing door of Kemikli Bedestens and opens onto Şıhcan Street. Other Ottoman cities, such as

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According to Lidia Zhigunova, women in the Caucasus faced multiple colonizing influences during the Ottoman era. Western and Russian narratives often fixated on stereotypes of beauty and sexuality, particularly focusing on elite

2726:, in his novel Sefile (The Miserable) (1886–1887), describes an adventurous slave girl named Mazlume (feminine for 'Oppressed') who is sold and resold to both good and bad people but fails to escape her fate as a slave girl. 1803:

Slaves were sold to both commoners and the elite, including members of the Imperial Palace. Turkish media often overlooks non-elite or commoner women in slavery, instead focusing more on relatively privileged slaves in the

2476:(1611–1682) was a 17th-century Ottoman traveler who participated in some raids and took captives. He writes about his travels from the Crimean Khanate, one of the largest slave captivators and suppliers to the Ottomans. 3577:(2). translated from the Russian by Maria Teresa Dellacasa, in Miscellanea di studi storici, vol. 1, (Genoa: Fratelli Bozzi, 1969), pp. 7–98. (Also mentioned in Natho, Kadir I. (2009-12-03). Circassian History.: 41. 3703: 2860:

their mobility and sexuality became subject to significant social control to prevent adultery and preserve male lineage rights and patriarchal honor. Since the 20th century, in modern Turkish, the use of the term

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Constantinople in 1828: A Residence of Sixteen Months in the Turkish Capital and Provinces: with an Account of the Present State of the Naval and Military Power, and of the Resources of the Ottoman Empire

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exceptions. Several women who were taken captive could not be found again, despite efforts by their families or the state to arrange for ransom. In most cases, the women were unable to afford ransom.

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resulting in economic pressure and occasional revolts that were subsequently suppressed. Many manumitted slaves ended up begging or returning to slavery due to the lack of alternative options.

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Do not veil the beautiful white women, thou hideous old wretch; it is these we wish to see; drive them not into the cage; we shall not, as thou thinkest, abash them with bold eyes.

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around 1600, depicted on a political map. It's noteworthy that the areas marked as Poland and especially Muscovy were claimed rather than administered and were thinly populated.

1412: 784: 521: 4547:"Slaves sold to the Turk; How the vile traffic is still carried on in the East. Sights our correspondent saw for twenty dollars--in the house of a grand old Turk of a dealer" 1148: 789: 4826:

Kizilov, Mikhail B. "The Black Sea and the Slave Trade: The Role of Crimean Maritime Towns in the Trade in Slaves and Captives in the Fifteenth to Eighteenth Centuries1".

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girls have come; he will see them dance, hear them sing, and then choose and buy! He could give us a description of the slave market, such as we are not able to offer..."

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Dogan and Toledano note that the discourse among descendants of slavery post-2000 emphasizes assimilation into Turkish identity while allowing for cultural diversity.

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in Istanbul from roughly 1820 to 1827. During this time, he witnessed and described the condition of the newly enslaved residents of Sciote (Chios) following the 1822

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Many Russian, Ukrainian, and Polish folk songs from the Ottoman Empire era reflect the impact of raids on common people in Eastern Europe and the Black Sea regions.

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Holy War and Human Bondage: Tales of Christian-Muslim Slavery in the Early-Modern Mediterranean: Tales of Christian-Muslim Slavery in the Early-Modern Mediterranean

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was abducted and enslaved by Ottoman marauders at the turn of the 14th and 15th centuries. She later became a slave mistress of a wealthy Venetian citizen of

2281:. Moreover, this same text explicitly identifies the "Aurut Bazaar" as "he usual place where Circassian slaves are sold". In her 1837 visit, English novelist 4926:

Powell, Eve Troutt. Tell This in My Memory: Stories of Enslavement from Egypt, Sudan, and the Ottoman Empire. United States, Stanford University Press, 2012.

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used to hold special authority as religious opinion givers, given that the interface between a slave's condition and the domestic household was problematic.

1532: 2269:, with the adjoining street named Isa Kapoussi Sokaki. The journey described by Hobhouse occurred in 1809–10, and the "last rebellion" likely refers to the 863: 2785:

Turkish television dramas typically overlook slavery among non-elite commoner women and instead concentrate on privileged female slavery within the elite

1845: 1609: 361: 3573:. Miscellanea di studi storici, 2. (Collana Storica di Fonti e Studi, 38.) Genoa: Istituto di Medievistica, Università di Genova, 1983. Paper. Pp. 266. 2285:

described the Istanbul slave market as a square court surrounded by low stone rooms or cells on three sides, with a projecting wooden peristyle beyond.

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Faroqhi, Suraiya (11 May 2020). "Slave agencies compared: to The Ottoman and Mughal Empires". In Conermann, Stephan; Ağcagül, Sevgi; Şen, Gül (eds.).

3245:"From Harem To Feminocracy: De-orientalizing The Circassian National Imaginary In Literature And Art From The Early Modern To The Post-soviet Periods" 811: 5231: 2147:

they could be openly handled naked by customers in slave markets or transformed from household servants to prostitutes at the whim of their owners.

1582: 1402: 575: 2054:, wife of a British ambassador to Istanbul, reported in her later published letter that the women slave market of Istanbul was somewhat dwindling. 1740: 4635: 5221: 5146: 846: 264: 4983: 4955: 4921: 4903: 4882: 4850: 4787: 4754: 4677: 4645: 4624: 4603: 4524: 4503: 4480: 4433: 4389: 4299: 4272: 4253: 4234: 4178: 4157: 4136: 4086: 4067: 4018: 3947: 3821: 3590: 3549: 1878:

The Ottoman Empire adopted practices akin to those of other slave societies, particularly preceding Islamic states such as the Caliphates of

1424: 1101: 873: 4009:

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1616: 1577: 1220: 4573:

A Residence at Constantinople: During a Period Including the Commencement, Progress, and Termination of the Greek and Turkish Revolutions

5211: 3705:

Records of Travels, in Turkey Greece & c., And of cruise in the Black sea, with the captain Pasha, in the years 1829, 1830, and 1831

2817:

book uses the term "Kızlarağası Hanı" (which means something like "Girls' Master Lodge"), but a place known as "Kızlarağası Hanı" is in

1658: 1295: 955: 806: 602: 511: 3681: 2579:

age; she is almost naked; an old Turk regards her. He has taken one of her legs in hand; she laughs and shows her shining white teeth.

2405: 2032:

in which an open auction each Wednesday female slaves of every sort are bought and sold, and everybody freely goes there to buy them...

5048: 4330:

Kuran, T.; Lustig, S. (2012). "Judicial biases in Ottoman Istanbul: Islamic justice and its compatibility with modern economic life".

1678: 1372: 1126: 1808:. However, descriptions of Ottoman times do mention slaves owned by commoners in contemporary slave narratives, travelers' accounts, 5196: 5156: 5001: 4938: 4805: 4772: 4205: 1500: 1377: 801: 570: 437: 5120: 3906:"From national humiliation to difference: The image of the Circassian beauty in the discourses of Circassian diaspora nationalists" 1347: 43: 4516:

Shifting Patterns Of Ottoman Enslavement in Early Modern Period (The Ottoman Middle East: studies in honor of Amnon Cohen Editors)

2694:

Literary depiction of female slavery issues as such begins in 19th-century Ottoman Turkish novels. According to Elif Aksit, while

5170: 2381:'s possession when quite a child, probably at the tender age of seven or eight years, as she cast her first tooth in our house... 1631: 841: 826: 772: 457: 447: 442: 271: 127: 1867:. In history as well as in conventional scholarship on Ottoman historiography, non-elite slaves and women are underrepresented. 5201: 4464:

An English Translation of Georgius de Hungaria's Treatise on the Customs, Living Conditions, and Wickedness of the Turks (1481)

1766: 1626: 1397: 203: 3996: 1537: 4495: 1096: 1084: 664: 476: 122: 5041: 3409: 2683: 2469:, who represent something like slave mine, whom they take to Constantinople like cattle and sell them in auctions..." 2331: 1860: 1836: 1668: 1451: 312: 4379: 2270: 1792:), operating from the mid-15th century to the early 20th century. Many households owned female slaves, employing them as 5226: 5216: 1673: 1517: 1387: 1048: 816: 796: 356: 324: 4869: 4614: 4591: 4031:

Description of a view of Constantinople with its European and Asiatic suburbs and a great extent of surrounding country

1800:

physical attributes like beauty and entertaining skills, especially when chosen by elite men as slaves or concubines.

5236: 5125: 2484: 2278: 1733: 1683: 1407: 1325: 452: 233: 53: 1863:

were women; every substantial household and many less substantial households owned female slaves, including many as

5078: 3652: 2723: 2703: 1592: 1444: 1429: 1320: 516: 186: 4290:

Kovács, Péter E (2009). "Egy magyar rabszolganő Krétán a 15. században ". In Neumann, Tibor; Rácz, György (eds.).

4029: 5206: 4542: 2585:

See! a young Turk with fiery looks; four slaves follow him; two old Jewesses are trading with him. Some charming

2051: 1688: 1587: 1118: 1106: 696: 669: 174: 3928:"Consuming Halal Turkish Television in Indonesia: A Closer Look at the Social Responses Towards Muhteşem Yüzyıl" 3280: 2024:

Ottaviano Bon, an early 17th-century Italian ambassador, made observations about the "Avret Pizary" in Istanbul:

5083: 3217: 2841: 1757: 1468: 1337: 890: 679: 164: 65: 2790: 1898:, in particular, played a central role in the households of early modern Ottoman imperial and elite families. 344: 4976:

Politics of Honor in Ottoman Anatolia: Sexual Violence and Socio-Legal Surveillance in the Eighteenth Century

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Kumorovitz, L. Bernát (1983). "I. Lajos királyunk 1375. évi havasalföldi hadjárata (és "török") háborúja ".

3905: 2866: 2814: 2810: 2595: 2568: 2252: 2242: 1653: 1392: 1342: 1270: 1043: 821: 765: 748: 179: 941: 5241: 5151: 4043: 2786: 2645: 2487:, a writer of Irish descent who, in his later career, campaigned against slavery, was the chaplain to the 2108: 1958: 1805: 1726: 1695: 1200: 853: 701: 425: 391: 386: 4546: 2173:

played a significant role in conducting raids, capturing, and exporting East European slaves through the

1874:

William Allan (1782–1850) - The Slave Market in Constantinople - NG 2400 - National Galleries of Scotland

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Gürsel, Burcu (2023). "Dissolving into the Nile, Ottoman Reformism and Maternal Slavery in Sergüzeşt".

2730: 2695: 2274: 3616:"Slave Trade in the Early Modern Crimea From the Perspective of Christian, Muslim, and Jewish Sources" 1849:

The Aurut Bazaar, also known as the Slave Market, depicted by Walsh Robert & Allom Thomas in 1836.

5064: 3851: 2527: 1962: 1700: 1604: 1567: 1495: 1439: 1308: 1265: 1079: 1009: 684: 464: 366: 250: 157: 2852:

denoted more respected women. During Ottoman times, unmarried adolescent girls were referred to as

2408:, Margaret was abducted from her family seat, the village of Egerszeg in Temes County (now part of 2174: 2104: 1188: 1168: 1053: 1038: 907: 878: 868: 758: 706: 674: 471: 329: 297: 292: 245: 102: 4820: 3244: 4724: 4554: 4355: 4347: 3961: 3927: 3879: 3827: 3758: 2516: 2454: 2421: 2156: 1434: 1280: 1255: 1245: 1210: 1205: 1173: 1138: 1131: 1072: 1065: 922: 741: 736: 726: 496: 349: 307: 302: 255: 223: 213: 150: 4226:

The Extremes of Visibility: Slave Women in Ottoman Public Space (Ottoman Women in Public Space)

2856:

They enjoyed greater mobility and autonomy until marriage, but upon marriage and being labeled

4997: 4979: 4951: 4934: 4917: 4899: 4878: 4856: 4846: 4801: 4783: 4768: 4750: 4673: 4641: 4620: 4599: 4571: 4530: 4520: 4499: 4476: 4439: 4429: 4385: 4318: 4295: 4278: 4268: 4249: 4230: 4211: 4201: 4184: 4174: 4153: 4132: 4113: 4092: 4082: 4063: 4014: 3953: 3943: 3871: 3817: 3596: 3586: 3545: 3288: 2737: 2707: 2531: 2495:, which was carried out by Ottomans from the nearby Greek majority island. In 1829, he wrote: 2425: 2398: 2323: 2260: 2234: 2225: 2160: 1946: 1934: 1522: 1240: 1235: 1178: 1163: 1143: 965: 960: 895: 858: 691: 657: 486: 339: 228: 107: 4519:. Cohen, Amnon, 1936-,Editors: Ginio, Eyal; Podeh, Elie. Leiden: Brill. pp. 201 to 220. 3985: 1796:. The Ottoman state regulated the slave market and imposed taxes on every slave transaction. 5020: 4831: 4816: 4714: 4691: 4339: 4126: 4055: 4051: 3935: 3863: 3809: 3750: 3578: 2687: 2473: 1938: 1883: 1712: 1290: 1285: 1275: 1250: 1215: 1183: 1153: 1026: 1014: 992: 970: 917: 753: 721: 23: 4471:

Toledano, Ehud R. (1993). "Shemsigul: A Circassian Slave in Mid-Nineteenth-Century Cairo".

2416:). By 1405, Margaret was found and had two underage children. Before 1405, she was sold in 3567:"Ricerche sulla storia delle colonie genovesi nel Caucaso occidentale nei secoli XIII-XV)" 2614: 2488: 2378: 2265: 2238: 2210: 2170: 1990: 1974: 1966: 1906: 1864: 1793: 1621: 1512: 1507: 1260: 1230: 1225: 948: 912: 711: 629: 334: 80: 4452: 4128:

Ransom Slavery Along the Ottoman Borders: (Early Fifteenth - Early Eighteenth Centuries)

2355:

There is a lack of non-elite slave narratives or folk literature from Circassian women.

2334:

captured and sold into slavery when the Ottoman Turks invaded the town of Mühlbach (now

4843:

Mediterranean Slavery and World Literature: Captivity Genres Form Cervantes to Rousseau

4583:"Catch and Release: Piracy, Slavery, and Law in the Early Modern Ottoman Mediterranean" 3934:. Kaptan, Yeșim,, Algan, Ece. Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 245–265. 2719: 2712: 2492: 2394: 2230: 2201: 2043:

responsible if an enslaved woman did not turn out to be a virgin as they had promised.

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Conquered Populations in Early Islam: Non-Arabs, Slaves and the Sons of Slave Mothers

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Akşit, Elif (2016). "Being a Girl in Ottoman Novels". In Fortna, Benjamin C. (ed.).

2657:. The original Greek text with a French translation can be found in Fauriel's work. 1901: 2699: 2535: 2401:, with whom she had two daughters. Margaret was able to return to Hungary in 1405. 2339: 2282: 1887: 1828: 1648: 1485: 1461: 1367: 1360: 1091: 619: 592: 555: 533: 420: 137: 117: 95: 85: 75: 70: 60: 4200:. Ottoman studies (Göttingen, Germany). Vol. 7. Gottingen: V&R Unipress. 900: 4945: 4893: 4667: 4514: 4414: 4368: 4224: 4147: 3939: 3777: 2184:

In the Ottoman Empire, the primary races of females sold as sex slaves (known as

5164: 2618: 2586: 2534:(1804 – 13 November 1877) was a British admiral who served as an admiral in the 2466: 2356: 2189: 1954: 1490: 1478: 831: 634: 624: 582: 396: 5009:"Slavery, Freedom Suits, and Legal Praxis in the Ottoman Empire, Ca. 1590–1710" 4695: 3566: 5025: 5008: 4860: 4835: 4719: 4702: 4381:

Byzantine Constantinople: The Walls of the City and Adjoining Historical Sites

4282: 4215: 4096: 4059: 3957: 3711:. Vol. II. Conduit street, London: Saunders and Otley. pp. 242, 243. 3582: 2678: 2654: 1809: 1638: 935: 639: 506: 4534: 4322: 4117: 3875: 3600: 3292: 2263:. Adjacent to the Avret Bazaar lies a small mosque to the west, known as the 2123:

decreased, black slave women were abandoned, leading to further destitution.

4443: 4292:

Honoris causa. Tanulmányok Engel Pál tiszteletére (Analecta mediaevalia III)

4188: 3051: 2294: 2018: 1950: 1942: 1895: 883: 548: 410: 4798:

A Monument to Medieval Syrian Book Culture: The Library of Ibn ʹAbd El-Hādī

3867: 2508: 2409: 2200:. Circassian girls, described as fair-skinned, were frequently enslaved by 1913: 565: 3813: 3754: 4616:

Women in the Ottoman Empire: Middle Eastern Women in the Early Modern Era

4168: 4004:(MA thesis). Oklahoma State University – via shareok.org/bitstream. 2649: 2559: 2551: 2335: 2303: 2299: 2206: 2164: 2014: 2006: 1994: 1781: 1473: 1031: 975: 927: 587: 432: 287: 193: 4967:

As If Silent and Absent: Bonds of Enslavement in the Islamic Middle East

5033: 4592:"Slavery, Manumission and freedom suits in early modern Ottoman Empire" 4011:

The Legacy of Jihad : Islamic Holy War and the Fate of Non-Muslims

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Women and Slavery in the Late Ottoman Empire: The Design of Difference

4351: 3738: 4037:. London: T. Brettell (Printer), Rupert Street, Haymarket. p. 5. 2307: 2185: 2072: 2059: 2002: 1986: 1982: 1926: 1891: 1789: 1158: 980: 560: 543: 405: 240: 208: 3722:

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2404:

During one of the first Ottoman incursions at the borderland of the

4343: 4294:(in Hungarian). PPKE Történettudományi Intézete. pp. 105–123. 4104:

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3726:. Hurd and Houghton, Cambridge: Riverside Press. pp. 231, 232. 3615: 1981:

war campaigns in the Balkans, while many others were captured from

4914:

A Spectrum of Unfreedom: Captives and Slaves in the Ottoman Empire

4416:

The city of the sultan; and domestic manners of the Turks, in 1836

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Policing Egyptian Women: Sex, Law, and Medicine in Khedival Egypt

4811:

King, Charles (2008-03-20), "Chapter 1 Empires and boundaries",

2715:, is supposed to be the first novel by a Turkish female writer. 2547: 2433: 282: 112: 5037: 4765:

Concubines and Courtesans: Women and Slavery in Islamic History

4426:

The Imperial Harem: Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire

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Women and Gender in Islam: Historical Roots of a Modern Debate

4173:. Forster, E. S. (Edward Seymour), 1879-1950. London: Eland. 4048:

Why Concepts Matter: Translating Social and Political Thought

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into those regions. Among absconding slaves, 39 percent were

1890:, slavery was governed by a common legal framework rooted in 1771: 4690:, New Haven: Yale University Press, 2021, pp. 102–124. 4077:

Conermann, Stephan; Ağcagül, Sevgi; Şen, Gül (11 May 2020).

3776:

Fauriel, Claude Charles (1824). ""Guerres de Soulotes, 8"".

3509: 3507: 3121: 3119: 2848:

was typically used for common married or adult women, while

1853:

The general slave trade of men and women was referred to as

4747:

Women in the Ottoman Empire: A Social and Political History

3175: 3173: 3171: 3169: 3167: 2813:

description matches for Istanbul but Turkish translator of

3446: 3444: 3442: 3031: 3029: 3027: 3025: 3023: 3021: 3019: 2971: 2969: 2967: 2965: 2963: 2961: 2959: 2338:) in 1438. George managed to escape and converted back to 2028:

For such a purpose, there is an enclosed public market in

1953:. These captives were enslaved, many of them ending up in 4931:

Beyond the Exotic: Women's Histories in Islamic Societies

2653:

small fortress with no hope of escape, Despo ignites the

4895:

Ukrainian Epic and Historical Song: Folklore in Context

4666:

A ́goston, Ga ́bor; Masters, Bruce Alan (21 May 2010).

3218:"Slavery in the Ottoman Empire | Merryn Allingham" 2772:~ Kanuko Cemil' 1976 poem in Circassian magazine Yamçı 1812:, late Ottoman Turkish novels, and 20th-century poems. 3154: 3152: 3150: 3148: 3146: 2706:

elaborate on the tragic lives of passive slave girls,

4898:. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. p. 114. 3739:"Andreiomeni: The Female Warrior in Greek Folk Songs" 1854: 3635: 3633: 1413:

Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery

5139: 5113: 5097: 5071: 4576:. Vol. 2. London: F. Westley & A.H. Davis. 3137: 2994: 2992: 2990: 2988: 2986: 2984: 2910: 2908: 2906: 2904: 2902: 2900: 2763:

The foreigner takes the girl, he is sixty years old

2259:The Avret Pazari of Istanbul was situated near the 4265:The Arab lands under Ottoman rule : 1516-1800 3998:Slavery and the Ottoman-Crimean Khanate Connection 1859:. A sizable majority of the slaves traded in the 16:Non-elite-commoner-women slavery in Ottoman times 4492:Slavery and abolition in the Ottoman Middle East 4112:(4). AETAS Könyv- és Lapkiadó Egyesület: 78–90. 2632:Our village is burnt and our property plundered. 2251:, in the southwestern part of the city near the 1528:13th Amendment to the United States Constitution 4813:The Ghost of Freedom: A History of the Caucasus 4473:Struggle and survival in the modern Middle East 4457:. New York: D. Appleton and Company. p. 6. 3311: 2746: 2659: 2625: 2573: 2540: 2521: 2497: 2478: 2459: 2344: 2026: 4267:(Second ed.). Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. 3806:Childhood in the Late Ottoman Empire and After 2751:Circassian girl is in the arm of the foreigner 5049: 4738:Slaves and Slave Agency in the Ottoman Empire 4596:Slaves and Slave Agency in the Ottoman Empire 4198:Slaves and slave agency in the Ottoman Empire 4079:Slaves and slave agency in the Ottoman Empire 3852:"Fatma Aliye Hanım: Gender Debates in Turkey" 2221:Avret Pazari of Istanbul at Forum of Arcadius 1817:Disestablishment of the Istanbul Slave Market 1734: 8: 4763:Gordon, Matthew S; Hain, Kathryn A. (eds.). 4707:International Journal of Middle East Studies 2233:(Pre-Ottoman). It shows the location of the 1533:Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom 4815:, Oxford University Press, pp. 42–63, 4780:Narratives of Dislocation in the Arab World 4736:Argit, Ipsirli; Betül; et al. (2020). 3203: 2571:visited Istanbul in April 1841 and penned: 1833:Crimean–Nogai slave raids in Eastern Europe 1780:, was a market of female slaves located in 5056: 5042: 5034: 5013:Comparative Studies in Society and History 4916:. Central European University Press, 2021 4686:Ahmed, Leila. "Chapter 6 Medieval Islam". 4384:. Cambridge University Press. p. 22. 4373:. Vol. 1. London: Saunders and Otley. 4317:(5). Magyar Történelmi Társulat: 919–982. 3667: 3513: 3450: 3359: 3010: 2519:provided a description of Constantinople. 1741: 1727: 18: 5024: 4821:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195177756.003.0004 4749:. United Kingdom: Bloomsbury Publishing. 4718: 4590:White, Joshua M.; Şen, Gül (2020-05-11). 4081:. Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. 3654:The Edinburgh Review, Or Critical Journal 3498: 3486: 3462: 3347: 2314:Captures, retrievals, escapes and flights 2009:, and the remaining 19 percent were from 4969:. United Kingdom: Yale University Press. 4830:. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2017. 4246:Essays on Turkish literature and history 3267: 3230: 3110: 3098: 3074: 2926: 2224: 1912: 1869: 1844: 1538:Abolition of slave trade in Persian gulf 1403:Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery 1383:Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90 4378:Millingen, Alexander Van (2010-10-31). 3565:E. S. Zevakin, A. Penčko (April 1986). 3335: 3158: 2975: 2938: 2896: 2833: 2802: 2662:... 'O come, my children, come with me, 2628:The fires are burning behind the river— 30: 5147:History of slavery in the Muslim world 3926:Rakhmani Inaya, Zakiab Adinda (2020). 3856:Asiatische Studien - Études Asiatiques 3845: 3843: 3841: 3657:. Longmans, Green & Company. 1837. 3525: 3395: 3323: 3125: 2668:— Engulfing flames consumed them all. 2664:We shall not live as slaves of Turks.' 2630:The Tatars are dividing their captives 1977:, Tartars, and various slave dealers. 4868:Kozma, Liat (6 September 2011). "3". 4428:. New York: Oxford University Press. 3984:Allom, Thomas; Walsh, Robert (1839). 3899: 3897: 3895: 3893: 3799: 3797: 3795: 3793: 3791: 3789: 3779:Chants populaires de la Grèce moderne 3639: 3474: 3433: 3383: 3371: 3191: 3179: 3086: 3046: 3044: 3035: 2998: 2950: 2914: 2769:The master is on the mirror of shame. 2666:She touched the powder with the torch 2342:, later documenting his experiences. 2241:, situated at the corner between the 1425:Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention 1102:Human trafficking in Papua New Guinea 7: 4996:. Edinburgh University Press, 2020. 4013:. Amherst: Prometheus. p. 568. 2767:It is sad but its reflection is true 2636:And my dear is taken into captivity. 2151:Geographies, locations and economics 1815:It was officially closed during the 1761: 1617:Slave marriages in the United States 1221:Human trafficking in the Middle East 4933:. Syracuse University Press, 2021. 4892:Kononenko, Natalie (6 March 2019). 4828:Critical Readings on Global Slavery 4800:. Edinburgh University Press, 2020 4167:De Busbecq, Ogier Ghislain (2005). 2686:in the Ottoman Empire, depicted by 2209:and could fetch prices of up to 30 956:Human trafficking in Southeast Asia 4669:Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire 3904:Doğan, Setenay Nil (Spring 2010). 3737:Constantinides, Elizabeth (1983). 2079:The literature on slavery-related 1610:last survivors of American slavery 14: 4767:. Oxford University Press, 2017. 4740:. Germany: Bonn University Press. 3995:Broyles, Shawn Christian (2010). 3138:Conermann, Ağcagül & Şen 2020 2711:of a female slave and written by 1933:, the northeastern shores of the 571:Field slaves in the United States 438:Slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate 5171:Slavery in 21st-century Islamism 4125:Dávid, Géza; Fodor, Pál (2007). 448:Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate 443:Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate 272:Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate 42: 5232:Wartime sexual violence in Asia 4929:Sonbol, Amira El-Azhary (ed.). 4146:Davis, Robert C. (2009-07-01). 3743:Journal of Modern Greek Studies 2759:Circassian girl is 19 years old 2453:In 1592, Lorenzo Bernardo, the 2245:and the southern branch of the 1961:of Ottoman sultans. Unlike the 1398:Committee of Experts on Slavery 949:East, Southeast, and South Asia 4640:. Cambridge University Press. 4634:Zilfi, Madeline (2010-03-22). 4598:. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. 4496:University of Washington Press 4454:Memoirs of an Arabian Princess 4407:] (in Greek). Vol. 1. 4248:. Leiden: Brill. p. 362. 3538:Natho, Kadir I. (2009-12-03). 2879:derived from the Persian word 2639: ~ A Ukrainian folk song 1097:Slave raiding in Easter Island 1: 5222:Slavery in the Ottoman Empire 4877:. Syracuse University Press. 2461:"...Turkey is bordering with 2327: 2066:Limitations of enslaved women 1837:Slavery in the Ottoman Empire 4701:Ali, Kecia (February 2017). 4581:White, Joshua (2012-01-01). 4413:Pardoe, Julia S. H. (1845). 4367:MacFarlane, Charles (1829). 4332:Journal of Law and Economics 3940:10.1007/978-3-030-46051-8_13 3850:Direk, Zeynep (2018-09-01). 3281:"The persistence of history" 2749:" ...Far away... In the East 2550:whence they are shipped for 2420:, an overseas colony of the 1772: 1388:Temporary Slavery Commission 1049:Slavery in the Mongol Empire 4947:The Rough Guide to Istanbul 4944:Rough Guides (1 May 2015). 4613:Zilfi, Madeline C. (1997). 2448: 1855: 1408:Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery 453:Volga Bulgarian slave trade 5258: 5212:History of women in Turkey 4965:Toledano, Ehud R. (2007). 4696:10.12987/9780300258172-009 4513:Toledano, Ehud R. (2014). 4490:Toledano, Ehud R. (1998). 4244:Flemming, Barbara (2018). 4223:Fleet, Kate (2016-05-09). 3913:New Perspectives on Turkey 2761:When she is sold viciously 2612: 2310:, also had slave markets. 2154: 1917:Contemporary Black Sea map 1826: 1593:Great Dismal Swamp maroons 1430:Anti-Slavery International 1195:North Africa and West Asia 5026:10.1017/S001041752300004X 4836:10.1163/9789004346611_032 4745:Faroqhi, Suraiya (2023). 4720:10.1017/S0020743816001203 4703:"Concubinage and Consent" 4462:Stevenson, David (2016). 4424:Peirce, Leslie P (1993). 4060:10.1163/9789004194908_009 3583:10.1017/s0038713400118718 3243:Zhigunova, Lidia (2016). 2757:In the spring of her life 2511:-men, hummals = porters ) 2393:The Hungarian noblewoman 2052:Lady Mary Wortley Montagu 1989:by the incursions of the 1905:Slaves imported from the 1689:Emancipation Proclamation 1361:Opposition and resistance 1119:Sex trafficking in Europe 1107:Blackbirding in Polynesia 670:Trans-Saharan slave trade 5197:Human commodity auctions 5007:White, Joshua M (2023). 4399:Sarris, Neoklis (1990). 4028:Burford, Robert (1846). 3702:Slade, Adolphus (1833). 3680:Archives, The National. 3614:Mikhail Kizilov (2007). 2609:Reflection in folk songs 2271:Ottoman coups of 1807–08 2143:as informants or spies. 1469:Compensated emancipation 680:Indian Ocean slave trade 4672:. Infobase Publishing. 4475:. London: I.B. Tauris. 4401:Οσμανική πραγματικότητα 4263:Hathaway, Jane (2020). 4044:"Translating the Turks" 3682:"The Discovery Service" 3544:. Xlibris Corporation. 3204:Kuran & Lustig 2012 2815:Hans Christian Andersen 2811:Hans Christian Andersen 2596:Hans Christian Andersen 2569:Hans Christian Andersen 2449:Travelers' descriptions 1393:1926 Slavery Convention 1149:Germany in World War II 766:North and South America 288:Contract of manumission 5202:Violence against women 5152:Christian abolitionism 4978:. Netherlands: Brill. 4570:Walsh, Robert (1836). 4419:. Vol. I. Clarke. 3868:10.1515/asia-2017-0075 3451:Dávid & Fodor 2007 3360:Allom & Walsh 1839 3249:Tulane Digital Library 2875:is the plural form of 2775: 2691: 2671: 2642: 2601: 2565: 2525: 2513: 2482: 2471: 2348: 2256: 2109:Circassian slave trade 2040: 1918: 1910: 1875: 1850: 1806:Ottoman Imperial Harem 874:British Virgin Islands 426:Circassian slave trade 392:Safavid imperial harem 387:Ottoman Imperial Harem 4543:Von Schierbrand, Wolf 4451:Ruete, Emily (1888). 4042:Burke, Peter (2012). 3990:. Fisher, Son and Co. 3814:10.26530/OAPEN_613397 3755:10.1353/mgs.2010.0076 2789:palaces. Series like 2681: 2634:Old mother is sabred 2293:There is a street in 2228: 1945:, such as modern-day 1916: 1904: 1873: 1848: 1841:Black Sea slave trade 1113:Europe and North Asia 1073:Australia and Oceania 773:Pre-Columbian America 345:Slave raid of Suðuroy 277:Slavery in al-Andalus 199:Black Sea slave trade 128:21st-century jihadism 5065:Slavery and religion 4054:. pp. 141–152. 3932:Television in Turkey 3312:Von Schierbrand 1886 3231:White & Şen 2020 2865:has been limited to 2724:Halid Ziya Uşaklıgil 2243:Walls of Constantine 1963:Atlantic slave trade 1568:Indentured servitude 1496:Underground Railroad 1296:United Arab Emirates 685:Zanzibar slave trade 652:By country or region 465:Atlantic slave trade 367:Ma malakat aymanukum 251:Venetian slave trade 5227:Ottoman slave trade 5217:History of Istanbul 4974:Tuğ, Başak (2017). 4950:. Rough Guides UK. 4796:Hirschler, Konrad. 3436:, pp. 141–152. 3216:Allingham, Merryn. 3206:, pp. 631–666. 3182:, pp. 128–149. 3128:, pp. 336–337. 3052:"The Ottoman Harem" 3038:, pp. 189–209. 2867:intimate body parts 2736:While the novelist 2604:Cultural depictions 2530:Sir Adolphus Slade 2457:Ambassador, wrote: 2436:with her children. 2175:Crimean slave trade 2105:Circassian beauties 1941:lying north of the 1861:Ottoman slave trade 1823:History and context 1778:female slave bazaar 1654:Slave Route Project 785:Americas indigenous 675:Red Sea slave trade 665:Contemporary Africa 528:Topics and practice 298:Crimean slave trade 293:Bukhara slave trade 246:Genoese slave trade 123:Contemporary Africa 103:Forced prostitution 5237:Ottoman war crimes 4992:Urban, Elizabeth. 4555:The New York Times 4545:(March 28, 1886). 3541:Circassian History 3414:yenicizgihaber.com 2731:Samipaşazade Sezai 2696:Samipaşazade Sezai 2692: 2517:Charles Macfarlane 2422:Republic of Venice 2406:Kingdom of Hungary 2330:1422–1502) was an 2257: 2169:The East European 2157:Column of Arcadius 2107:" involved in the 2005:, 11 percent were 1997:, 31 percent were 1919: 1911: 1876: 1851: 1435:Blockade of Africa 742:Somali slave trade 658:Sub-Saharan Africa 350:Turkish Abductions 308:Khivan slave trade 303:Khazar slave trade 256:Balkan slave trade 214:Prague slave trade 5179: 5178: 4985:978-90-04-33865-4 4957:978-0-241-21762-7 4922:978-963-386-400-5 4905:978-1-4875-0263-8 4884:978-0-8156-5134-5 4852:978-1-351-96758-7 4789:978-1-003-30177-6 4756:978-0-7556-3827-7 4679:978-1-4381-1025-7 4647:978-0-521-51583-2 4626:978-90-04-10804-2 4605:978-3-8470-1037-1 4526:978-90-04-26296-6 4505:978-0-295-97642-6 4482:978-1-85043-607-2 4435:978-0-19-507673-8 4391:978-1-108-01456-4 4301:978-963-9627-25-3 4274:978-1-003-01507-9 4255:978-90-04-29310-6 4236:978-90-04-31662-1 4180:978-0-907871-69-9 4159:978-0-313-06540-8 4138:978-90-04-15704-0 4088:978-3-8470-1037-1 4069:978-90-04-19490-8 4020:978-1-61592-017-4 3949:978-3-030-46051-8 3823:978-90-04-30580-9 3620:Oxford University 3592:978-1-4653-1699-8 3551:978-1-4653-1699-8 3270:, pp. 59–74. 3101:, pp. 13–14. 2978:, pp. 55–85. 2842:(Ottoman) Turkish 2828:Linguistics notes 2594:A Poet's Bazaar. 2426:Kingdom of Candia 2324:George of Hungary 2319:George of Hungary 2261:Forum of Arcadius 2235:Forum of Arcadius 2229:Map of Byzantine 2161:Forum of Arcadius 1935:Mediterranean Sea 1886:. Across various 1865:domestic servants 1794:domestic servants 1770: 1751: 1750: 1701:Freedmen's Bureau 1523:Third Servile War 1518:International law 1085:Human trafficking 847:Human trafficking 522:Thirteen colonies 340:Sack of Baltimore 108:Human trafficking 5249: 5207:Slave concubines 5072:Views on slavery 5058: 5051: 5044: 5035: 5030: 5028: 4989: 4970: 4961: 4909: 4888: 4876: 4864: 4845:. New York, NY. 4823: 4793: 4760: 4741: 4732: 4722: 4683: 4654: 4630: 4609: 4586: 4577: 4566: 4564: 4562: 4551: 4538: 4509: 4486: 4467: 4458: 4447: 4420: 4408: 4395: 4374: 4363: 4326: 4313:(in Hungarian). 4305: 4286: 4259: 4240: 4219: 4192: 4163: 4142: 4121: 4108:(in Hungarian). 4100: 4073: 4052:Brill Publishers 4038: 4036: 4024: 4005: 4003: 3991: 3970: 3969: 3923: 3917: 3916: 3910: 3901: 3888: 3887: 3847: 3836: 3835: 3801: 3784: 3783: 3773: 3767: 3766: 3734: 3728: 3727: 3719: 3713: 3712: 3710: 3699: 3693: 3692: 3690: 3688: 3677: 3671: 3665: 3659: 3658: 3649: 3643: 3637: 3628: 3627: 3611: 3605: 3604: 3562: 3556: 3555: 3535: 3529: 3523: 3517: 3511: 3502: 3496: 3490: 3484: 3478: 3472: 3466: 3460: 3454: 3448: 3437: 3431: 3425: 3424: 3422: 3421: 3405: 3399: 3393: 3387: 3381: 3375: 3369: 3363: 3357: 3351: 3345: 3339: 3333: 3327: 3321: 3315: 3309: 3303: 3302: 3300: 3299: 3277: 3271: 3265: 3259: 3258: 3256: 3255: 3240: 3234: 3228: 3222: 3221: 3213: 3207: 3201: 3195: 3189: 3183: 3177: 3162: 3156: 3141: 3135: 3129: 3123: 3114: 3108: 3102: 3096: 3090: 3084: 3078: 3072: 3066: 3065: 3063: 3062: 3056:All About Turkey 3048: 3039: 3033: 3014: 3008: 3002: 2996: 2979: 2973: 2954: 2948: 2942: 2936: 2930: 2924: 2918: 2912: 2884: 2838: 2821: 2807: 2787:Ottoman imperial 2688:Leopold Loeffler 2682:The return from 2599: 2329: 2038: 1939:Southeast Europe 1888:Muslim societies 1884:Mamluk Sultanate 1858: 1775: 1765: 1763: 1743: 1736: 1729: 1713:Emancipation Day 1546: 1513:Slave Trade Acts 204:Byzantine Empire 46: 19: 5257: 5256: 5252: 5251: 5250: 5248: 5247: 5246: 5182: 5181: 5180: 5175: 5135: 5109: 5098:Religious texts 5093: 5067: 5062: 5006: 4986: 4973: 4964: 4958: 4943: 4912:Peirce, Leslie 4906: 4891: 4885: 4874: 4867: 4853: 4841:Klarer, Mario. 4840: 4810: 4790: 4777: 4757: 4744: 4735: 4700: 4680: 4665: 4662: 4660:Further reading 4657: 4648: 4633: 4627: 4612: 4606: 4589: 4580: 4569: 4560: 4558: 4549: 4541: 4527: 4512: 4506: 4489: 4483: 4470: 4461: 4450: 4436: 4423: 4412: 4405:Osmanic reality 4398: 4392: 4377: 4366: 4329: 4308: 4302: 4289: 4275: 4262: 4256: 4243: 4237: 4222: 4208: 4195: 4181: 4170:Turkish letters 4166: 4160: 4145: 4139: 4124: 4103: 4089: 4076: 4070: 4041: 4034: 4027: 4021: 4008: 4001: 3994: 3983: 3979: 3974: 3973: 3950: 3925: 3924: 3920: 3908: 3903: 3902: 3891: 3849: 3848: 3839: 3824: 3803: 3802: 3787: 3775: 3774: 3770: 3736: 3735: 3731: 3724:A Poet's Bazaar 3721: 3720: 3716: 3708: 3701: 3700: 3696: 3686: 3684: 3679: 3678: 3674: 3668:MacFarlane 1829 3666: 3662: 3651: 3650: 3646: 3638: 3631: 3613: 3612: 3608: 3593: 3564: 3563: 3559: 3552: 3537: 3536: 3532: 3524: 3520: 3514:Kumorovitz 1983 3512: 3505: 3497: 3493: 3485: 3481: 3473: 3469: 3461: 3457: 3449: 3440: 3432: 3428: 3419: 3417: 3407: 3406: 3402: 3394: 3390: 3382: 3378: 3370: 3366: 3358: 3354: 3346: 3342: 3334: 3330: 3322: 3318: 3310: 3306: 3297: 3295: 3279: 3278: 3274: 3266: 3262: 3253: 3251: 3242: 3241: 3237: 3229: 3225: 3215: 3214: 3210: 3202: 3198: 3190: 3186: 3178: 3165: 3157: 3144: 3136: 3132: 3124: 3117: 3109: 3105: 3097: 3093: 3085: 3081: 3073: 3069: 3060: 3058: 3050: 3049: 3042: 3034: 3017: 3011:De Busbecq 2005 3009: 3005: 2997: 2982: 2974: 2957: 2949: 2945: 2937: 2933: 2925: 2921: 2913: 2898: 2893: 2888: 2887: 2883:meaning market. 2870: 2839: 2835: 2830: 2825: 2824: 2808: 2804: 2799: 2791:Muhteşem Yüzyıl 2783: 2774: 2771: 2770: 2768: 2766: 2764: 2762: 2760: 2758: 2756: 2754: 2752: 2750: 2676: 2670: 2667: 2665: 2663: 2641: 2638: 2637: 2635: 2633: 2631: 2629: 2621: 2615:Souliotic songs 2611: 2606: 2600: 2593: 2489:British Embassy 2451: 2442: 2391: 2353: 2321: 2316: 2291: 2289:Other locations 2275:Kabakçı Mustafa 2273:, specifically 2266:Ese Kapi Mosque 2239:Ese Kapi Mosque 2223: 2211:pounds sterling 2171:Crimean Khanate 2167: 2153: 2068: 2039: 2036: 1991:Crimean Khanate 1967:household tasks 1937:, and parts of 1907:Crimean Khanate 1843: 1825: 1773:Avret Pazarları 1758:Ottoman Turkish 1754:Avret Pazarları 1747: 1718: 1717: 1622:Slave narrative 1578:Fugitive slaves 1558: 1550: 1549: 1540: 1508:Slave rebellion 1363: 1353: 1352: 1311: 1301: 1300: 1123:United Kingdom 1059:Yankee princess 653: 645: 644: 372:Avret Pazarları 318:Avret Pazarları 187:Medieval Europe 153: 143: 142: 81:Forced marriage 56: 17: 12: 11: 5: 5255: 5253: 5245: 5244: 5239: 5234: 5229: 5224: 5219: 5214: 5209: 5204: 5199: 5194: 5192:Sexual slavery 5184: 5183: 5177: 5176: 5174: 5173: 5168: 5161: 5160: 5159: 5149: 5143: 5141: 5137: 5136: 5134: 5133: 5128: 5123: 5117: 5115: 5111: 5110: 5108: 5107: 5101: 5099: 5095: 5094: 5092: 5091: 5086: 5081: 5075: 5073: 5069: 5068: 5063: 5061: 5060: 5053: 5046: 5038: 5032: 5031: 5019:(3): 526–556. 5004: 4990: 4984: 4971: 4962: 4956: 4941: 4927: 4924: 4910: 4904: 4889: 4883: 4865: 4851: 4838: 4824: 4808: 4794: 4788: 4775: 4761: 4755: 4742: 4733: 4713:(1): 148–152. 4698: 4684: 4678: 4661: 4658: 4656: 4655: 4646: 4631: 4625: 4610: 4604: 4587: 4578: 4567: 4539: 4525: 4510: 4504: 4487: 4481: 4468: 4459: 4448: 4434: 4421: 4410: 4396: 4390: 4375: 4364: 4344:10.1086/665537 4338:(2): 631–666. 4327: 4306: 4300: 4287: 4273: 4260: 4254: 4241: 4235: 4220: 4206: 4193: 4179: 4164: 4158: 4143: 4137: 4122: 4101: 4087: 4074: 4068: 4039: 4025: 4019: 4006: 3992: 3980: 3978: 3975: 3972: 3971: 3948: 3918: 3889: 3862:(3): 693–716. 3837: 3822: 3785: 3768: 3729: 3714: 3694: 3672: 3660: 3644: 3629: 3606: 3591: 3557: 3550: 3530: 3528:, p. 105. 3518: 3516:, p. 944. 3503: 3499:Csukovits 2005 3491: 3487:Csukovits 2005 3479: 3467: 3463:Stevenson 2016 3455: 3438: 3426: 3410:"Fevzi Günenç" 3400: 3398:, p. 111. 3388: 3376: 3374:, p. 353. 3364: 3352: 3348:Millingen 2010 3340: 3328: 3316: 3304: 3287:. 2015-08-22. 3272: 3260: 3235: 3233:, p. 298. 3223: 3208: 3196: 3194:, p. 205. 3184: 3163: 3142: 3130: 3115: 3103: 3091: 3079: 3067: 3040: 3015: 3003: 2980: 2955: 2943: 2941:, p. 568. 2931: 2929:, p. 362. 2919: 2895: 2894: 2892: 2889: 2886: 2885: 2832: 2831: 2829: 2826: 2823: 2822: 2801: 2800: 2798: 2795: 2782: 2779: 2747: 2675: 2672: 2660: 2646:Claude Fauriel 2626: 2610: 2607: 2605: 2602: 2591: 2567:Danish author 2493:Chios massacre 2450: 2447: 2441: 2440:Other examples 2438: 2395:Margaret Himfi 2390: 2389:Margaret Himfi 2387: 2386: 2385: 2384: 2383: 2377:She came into 2371: 2370: 2369: 2368: 2352: 2349: 2320: 2317: 2315: 2312: 2290: 2287: 2231:Constantinople 2222: 2219: 2202:Crimean Tatars 2152: 2149: 2067: 2064: 2034: 2030:Constantinople 1959:Imperial harem 1923:Constantinople 1824: 1821: 1786:Ottoman Empire 1749: 1748: 1746: 1745: 1738: 1731: 1723: 1720: 1719: 1716: 1715: 1710: 1709: 1708: 1703: 1698: 1693: 1692: 1691: 1681: 1676: 1671: 1666: 1661: 1651: 1646: 1641: 1636: 1635: 1634: 1629: 1619: 1614: 1613: 1612: 1607: 1600:List of slaves 1597: 1596: 1595: 1590: 1585: 1575: 1570: 1565: 1559: 1556: 1555: 1552: 1551: 1548: 1547: 1535: 1530: 1525: 1520: 1515: 1510: 1505: 1504: 1503: 1493: 1488: 1483: 1482: 1481: 1471: 1466: 1465: 1464: 1459: 1449: 1448: 1447: 1442: 1432: 1427: 1422: 1421: 1420: 1415: 1410: 1405: 1400: 1395: 1390: 1385: 1380: 1375: 1364: 1359: 1358: 1355: 1354: 1351: 1350: 1345: 1340: 1335: 1334: 1333: 1328: 1318: 1312: 1307: 1306: 1303: 1302: 1299: 1298: 1293: 1288: 1283: 1278: 1273: 1268: 1263: 1258: 1253: 1248: 1243: 1238: 1233: 1228: 1223: 1218: 1213: 1208: 1203: 1197: 1196: 1192: 1191: 1186: 1181: 1176: 1171: 1166: 1161: 1156: 1151: 1146: 1144:Dutch Republic 1141: 1136: 1135: 1134: 1129: 1121: 1115: 1114: 1110: 1109: 1104: 1099: 1094: 1089: 1088: 1087: 1076: 1075: 1069: 1068: 1063: 1062: 1061: 1051: 1046: 1041: 1036: 1035: 1034: 1024: 1023: 1022: 1012: 1007: 1006: 1005: 1000: 990: 989: 988: 983: 978: 968: 963: 958: 952: 951: 945: 944: 939: 932: 931: 930: 925: 915: 910: 905: 904: 903: 893: 888: 887: 886: 881: 876: 871: 861: 856: 851: 850: 849: 844: 839: 834: 829: 824: 819: 814: 809: 804: 794: 793: 792: 782: 781: 780: 769: 768: 762: 761: 756: 751: 746: 745: 744: 734: 729: 724: 719: 714: 709: 704: 699: 694: 689: 688: 687: 677: 672: 667: 661: 660: 654: 651: 650: 647: 646: 643: 642: 637: 632: 627: 622: 616: 615: 611: 610: 605: 603:Child soldiers 600: 595: 590: 585: 580: 579: 578: 568: 563: 558: 553: 552: 551: 546: 541: 530: 529: 525: 524: 519: 514: 512:Spanish Empire 509: 504: 499: 494: 492:Middle Passage 489: 484: 479: 474: 468: 467: 461: 460: 455: 450: 445: 440: 435: 430: 429: 428: 423: 418: 413: 408: 399: 394: 389: 384: 379: 374: 369: 364: 354: 353: 352: 347: 342: 337: 332: 322: 321: 320: 313:Ottoman Empire 310: 305: 300: 295: 290: 285: 280: 274: 268: 267: 261: 260: 259: 258: 248: 243: 238: 237: 236: 231: 226: 216: 211: 206: 201: 196: 190: 189: 183: 182: 177: 172: 167: 161: 160: 154: 149: 148: 145: 144: 141: 140: 135: 133:Sexual slavery 130: 125: 120: 115: 110: 105: 100: 99: 98: 93: 91:Child marriage 88: 78: 73: 68: 66:Child soldiers 63: 57: 52: 51: 48: 47: 39: 38: 28: 27: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5254: 5243: 5242:Slave markets 5240: 5238: 5235: 5233: 5230: 5228: 5225: 5223: 5220: 5218: 5215: 5213: 5210: 5208: 5205: 5203: 5200: 5198: 5195: 5193: 5190: 5189: 5187: 5172: 5169: 5167: 5166: 5162: 5158: 5155: 5154: 5153: 5150: 5148: 5145: 5144: 5142: 5138: 5132: 5129: 5127: 5124: 5122: 5119: 5118: 5116: 5112: 5106: 5103: 5102: 5100: 5096: 5090: 5087: 5085: 5082: 5080: 5077: 5076: 5074: 5070: 5066: 5059: 5054: 5052: 5047: 5045: 5040: 5039: 5036: 5027: 5022: 5018: 5014: 5010: 5005: 5003: 5002:9781474423229 4999: 4995: 4991: 4987: 4981: 4977: 4972: 4968: 4963: 4959: 4953: 4949: 4948: 4942: 4940: 4939:9780815655435 4936: 4932: 4928: 4925: 4923: 4919: 4915: 4911: 4907: 4901: 4897: 4896: 4890: 4886: 4880: 4873: 4872: 4866: 4862: 4858: 4854: 4848: 4844: 4839: 4837: 4833: 4829: 4825: 4822: 4818: 4814: 4809: 4807: 4806:9781474451581 4803: 4799: 4795: 4791: 4785: 4782:. Routledge. 4781: 4776: 4774: 4773:9780190622190 4770: 4766: 4762: 4758: 4752: 4748: 4743: 4739: 4734: 4730: 4726: 4721: 4716: 4712: 4708: 4704: 4699: 4697: 4693: 4689: 4685: 4681: 4675: 4671: 4670: 4664: 4663: 4659: 4653: 4649: 4643: 4639: 4638: 4632: 4628: 4622: 4618: 4617: 4611: 4607: 4601: 4597: 4593: 4588: 4584: 4579: 4575: 4574: 4568: 4557: 4556: 4548: 4544: 4540: 4536: 4532: 4528: 4522: 4518: 4517: 4511: 4507: 4501: 4497: 4493: 4488: 4484: 4478: 4474: 4469: 4465: 4460: 4456: 4455: 4449: 4445: 4441: 4437: 4431: 4427: 4422: 4418: 4417: 4411: 4406: 4402: 4397: 4393: 4387: 4383: 4382: 4376: 4372: 4371: 4365: 4361: 4357: 4353: 4349: 4345: 4341: 4337: 4333: 4328: 4324: 4320: 4316: 4312: 4307: 4303: 4297: 4293: 4288: 4284: 4280: 4276: 4270: 4266: 4261: 4257: 4251: 4247: 4242: 4238: 4232: 4228: 4227: 4221: 4217: 4213: 4209: 4207:9783847010371 4203: 4199: 4194: 4190: 4186: 4182: 4176: 4172: 4171: 4165: 4161: 4155: 4151: 4150: 4144: 4140: 4134: 4130: 4129: 4123: 4119: 4115: 4111: 4107: 4102: 4098: 4094: 4090: 4084: 4080: 4075: 4071: 4065: 4061: 4057: 4053: 4049: 4045: 4040: 4033: 4032: 4026: 4022: 4016: 4012: 4007: 4000: 3999: 3993: 3989: 3988: 3982: 3981: 3976: 3967: 3963: 3959: 3955: 3951: 3945: 3941: 3937: 3933: 3929: 3922: 3919: 3914: 3907: 3900: 3898: 3896: 3894: 3890: 3885: 3881: 3877: 3873: 3869: 3865: 3861: 3858:(in German). 3857: 3853: 3846: 3844: 3842: 3838: 3833: 3829: 3825: 3819: 3815: 3811: 3807: 3800: 3798: 3796: 3794: 3792: 3790: 3786: 3781: 3780: 3772: 3769: 3764: 3760: 3756: 3752: 3748: 3744: 3740: 3733: 3730: 3725: 3718: 3715: 3707: 3706: 3698: 3695: 3683: 3676: 3673: 3670:, p. 74. 3669: 3664: 3661: 3656: 3655: 3648: 3645: 3641: 3636: 3634: 3630: 3625: 3621: 3617: 3610: 3607: 3602: 3598: 3594: 3588: 3584: 3580: 3576: 3572: 3568: 3561: 3558: 3553: 3547: 3543: 3542: 3534: 3531: 3527: 3522: 3519: 3515: 3510: 3508: 3504: 3501:, p. 81. 3500: 3495: 3492: 3489:, p. 80. 3488: 3483: 3480: 3476: 3471: 3468: 3465:, p. 20. 3464: 3459: 3456: 3452: 3447: 3445: 3443: 3439: 3435: 3430: 3427: 3415: 3411: 3408:Çizgi, Yeni. 3404: 3401: 3397: 3392: 3389: 3385: 3380: 3377: 3373: 3368: 3365: 3361: 3356: 3353: 3350:, p. 22. 3349: 3344: 3341: 3337: 3332: 3329: 3325: 3320: 3317: 3313: 3308: 3305: 3294: 3290: 3286: 3285:The Economist 3282: 3276: 3273: 3269: 3268:Toledano 1993 3264: 3261: 3250: 3246: 3239: 3236: 3232: 3227: 3224: 3219: 3212: 3209: 3205: 3200: 3197: 3193: 3188: 3185: 3181: 3176: 3174: 3172: 3170: 3168: 3164: 3160: 3155: 3153: 3151: 3149: 3147: 3143: 3139: 3134: 3131: 3127: 3122: 3120: 3116: 3112: 3111:Toledano 2014 3107: 3104: 3100: 3099:Toledano 1998 3095: 3092: 3088: 3083: 3080: 3077:, p. 21. 3076: 3075:Hathaway 2020 3071: 3068: 3057: 3053: 3047: 3045: 3041: 3037: 3032: 3030: 3028: 3026: 3024: 3022: 3020: 3016: 3012: 3007: 3004: 3000: 2995: 2993: 2991: 2989: 2987: 2985: 2981: 2977: 2972: 2970: 2968: 2966: 2964: 2962: 2960: 2956: 2952: 2947: 2944: 2940: 2935: 2932: 2928: 2927:Flemming 2018 2923: 2920: 2916: 2911: 2909: 2907: 2905: 2903: 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