712:. The Indian migrants that passed through the island have left a distinct mark on the Mauritian society. In 1835, a year after the Great Experiment was implemented, Indians constituted less than four percent of Mauritius's population. However, the steady trickle of labourers changed the demographic face of the colony so that, by 1860, Indians made up more than 66 percent of the population. The colony received such a high proportion of the Indian diaspora that historians have noted the dramatic way the local demography had been altered over such a short period of time, more than in any other sugar-producing British territories. No other indentured migration has so definitely shaped the future of a nation as the movement of Indian workers to Mauritius, with the result of around half a million Indians settling on the island. Today, up to 1.22 million Mauritians, or 68 percent of the national population, have Indian ancestry, called Indo-Mauritians. This Indian heritage, however, had been extant even before the indentured system began, with merchants from the subcontinent, together with Chinese counterparts, settling on the island. In 1806, when Mauritius was still under the French administration, official statistics showed that there were already 6,162 Indians living on the island, in the eastern suburb of Port Louis, known as Camp des Malabars. Beginning in the 1840s, the emancipated labourers, or those with concluded contracts, were able to save money and buy their own lands, mostly outside the rural sugar estates, permanently settling in Mauritius. The increasing number of these freed labourers preferring to stay in the colony gave rise to a new class of rural Indian peasantry. Their limited skills meant that they engaged in small-scale crop cultivation to earn a living, while others were able to work as traders or hawkers. The class of rural Indians gained in importance as the
493:
area was chosen as the core of a planned structural complex that would become the permanent depot for immigration. The
Immigration Depot, as it came to be known, was continuously enlarged in response to the high number of migrants. This lasted until 1857, when all the available land had been occupied. The adequate space allowed the facility to deal with as much as 1,000 prospective laborers at any one time. Further modifications, for the purpose of service convenience, hygiene and transport, were continuously done. However, the competition from beet sugar caught up with Mauritius's sugar cane estates. The spread of a malaria epidemic in the 1860s further drove shipping away from the colony, leading to a decline of indentured immigration, culminating in 1923, when it had completely ceased. By then, an estimated 450,000 indentured labourers from India had passed through the Immigration Depot throughout its existence.
477:
578:
502:
607:
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contingent of indentured labourers, reaching nearly half a million Indian immigrants. In total, 1.2 million Indian migrants were handled by emigration depots worldwide, becoming the global working class of the
British Empire. On a larger picture, the migration of indentured labourers is but a small portion of the Indian diaspora, which has continued through the 20th century to contemporary times. It is estimated that up to 20 million Indians have emigrated from their homeland, making it the largest diaspora in modern times.
536:
document finds and discoveries, as well as to safeguard the existing artifacts. The objective of the conservation efforts is for the site to regain its appearance in the 1860s. The site's name was officially changed to
Aapravasi Ghat that same year. The name change was not without controversy. Although it was meant to reflect the Hindu Indian majority of indentured labourers, the use of the Hindi translation swept away the myriad of other ethnic and religious populations that also passed through the Immigration Depot.
136:
630:. By the 18th century, it has been estimated that over half of the population of white immigrants in the British colonies of North America may have been indentured servants. However, the scale of the system that was put into operation in Mauritius was unprecedented. It immediately spread throughout the colonies of the British Empire, and was imitated by other European powers, while the Indian labor force was also employed beyond the sugarcane fields, in such workplaces as mines and even railways.
739:, also known as Ganga Talao, located in the center of the island has become an object of sacred pilgrimage by the Indo-Mauritians professing their Hindu faith. The Mauritian style of architecture, using lime mortar, consisting of a mixture of yogurt, egg white, butter and sesame oil, as a binding material for stone structures, also has an Indian origin. This same method of construction is being utilized by the Aapravasi Ghat Trust Fund to conserve the remnants of the Immigration Depot complex.
412:
365:
619:
163:
221:
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mono-crop agricultural industry and the abolition of the indentured labor system have made the
Mauritian economy vulnerable, which culminated in labour unrests in 1937. World War II further aggravated the situation. Hence, economic reforms were carried out to diversify agricultural production and develop other industries beginning in 1945. In the mid-1990s, the agricultural sector only accounted for one-eighth of the country's
36:
408:, at a time when the British Empire was expanding its influence in the Indian Ocean region. British commercial interest led to the rise in the production of sugar, which became the most valuable commodity in European trade beginning in the mid-18th century throughout the empire in general, leading to the development of infrastructure for Port Louis as a free port in particular.
531:
archaeological approach have called into question the site's historic authenticity. 2001 was a landmark year for the site. The
Aapravasi Ghat Trust Fund was established to manage the site directly. Its responsibilities include overseeing the excavations and implementing corrective actions on restorations that were haphazardly done since the 1990s. Among the previous
143:
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known, called for these prospective labourers, under a contract labour scheme, to be transported to plantations across the empire to supply the necessary agricultural manpower. This was a system whereby the prospective labourers agreed to work for a determined period of time in return for their cost of passage, basic accommodation and a small
680:, has recognized the 1,640 m site of the Immigration Depot for its outstanding universal importance. It was proclaimed as a World Heritage Site in 2006, citing the buildings as among the earliest explicit manifestations of what was to become a global economic system and one of the greatest migrations in history.
548:
Immigrants arriving via the "coolie ships" on the wharf of Trou
Fanfaron were led to the Immigration Depot via a series of 14 stone steps, which are presently intact. The walls protecting the wharf along the waterfront are made from a mosaic of dressed stones, as a result of continuous reconstruction
372:
The
Immigration Depot was built on the east side of the sheltered bay of Trou Fanfaron in Port Louis, the Mauritian capital. The historic complex currently consists of the partial remains of three stone buildings dating back to the 1860s, built on the spot of an earlier depot site. It consists of the
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The indentured system also left a sizeable documentary heritage. A comprehensive record was kept of immigrants, from the contracts signed, their photographs, the transportation cost, the accommodation spending and the final destination of labourers. These registers are currently being managed by the
585:
Mauritius's local sugar plantations, economically devastated by the emancipation of the slaves, were given a new lifeline with the establishment of the
Immigration Depot. The high number of indentured labourers passing through the facility, to be transported to the various territories of the British
544:
The uncontrolled urban development after the abolition of the indentured system and the late initiative to conserve the site in late 20th century meant that only the partial remains of the place have survived. From the complex founded in 1849, experts estimate that only about 15% still authentically
460:
Mauritius became the focus of the Great
Experiment, as its plantation economy was still in a state of expansion, hence with room for agricultural flexibility, in contrast to those of the West Indies, which were considered exhausted. The long term planning needed in agriculture meant that plantations
447:
which devastated the northern part of the subcontinent. The hard-working but indigent
Indians seemed suited to agricultural labour on the plantations, able to work hard for low wages, providing a potentially massive source of cheap labour. The 'Great Experiment', as the indentured program came to be
355:
The prominent use of the Hindi language in Mauritian naming conventions is based on social and ethnic demographics; over half the national population is of Indian ancestry, a direct result of the Indian labour diaspora that passed through the Immigration Depot. In Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, from where
728:
Beyond politics, the settlement of Indian migrants on the island resulted in a melting pot of culture, intermixing with African, Chinese, Creole, and European influences. The celebration of Hindu festivals has become part of the Mauritian calendar. A religious Hindu ceremony is held annually on the
724:
Meanwhile, the second-generation Indian immigrants, who were exposed to the cultures of foreign land and were more attuned to British policies, were able to work beyond the agricultural sector. These Western-educated skilled professionals were employed by the British in the Colonial Service. In the
720:
By the 1920s, the properties of Indo-Mauritians had already accounted for 40 percent of Mauritius's arable lands. They eventually took control of a substantial part of the agricultural economy, leading to the growth of rural villages and giving rise to a bourgeoisie that would continue to influence
633:
The global system of indentured labourers was abolished in 1918, although in Mauritius, the Immigration Depot still continued operating until 1923. By then, the Great Experiment had seen the transportation of an estimated two million people throughout the world, with Mauritius welcoming the largest
589:
The pool of labour proved to be so large that, for the next 67 years, indentured contracts were limited to only one year. This sugar revolution led to an increase in volume production, making Mauritius the most important sugar-producing British colony, its sugar export accounting for 7.4 percent of
556:
The still standing stone-arched gateway, also constructed in 1865, greeted the migrants when they entered the complex. Adjoining the structure is a hospital building, consisting of seven rooms that accommodated the staff, including a guard's room, kitchen, surgery room and staff privies. Of these,
492:
of indentured labourers began, no fixed depot had been established to accommodate the immigrants arriving in Port Louis. The thousands of migrants arriving annually put a stress on the lack of a specialized facility. In 1849, a building dating back to the French administration in the Trou Fanfaron
637:
Thus, the Immigration Depot is considered to be the site where the modern, large-scale indentured labour diaspora began—the system didn't only sustain the plantation economies of the British Empire, but also resulted in the transplantation of cultures and shaping of the national identity of
552:
Beyond the stone steps is the building complex, which was centred on a yard. The buildings had characteristic French clay tile roofing, the better to provide insulation and ventilation, and bitumen flooring. Continuous site improvements to accommodate the high number of migrants were carried out,
530:
in 1970. This led to the protection of the complex's remains as a national monument in 1987, through the national heritage legislation. A landscape project over a part of the site and a series of restoration works were initiated in the 1990s. The lack of a formal conservation plan or a methodical
397:, which took possession of Mauritius in 1721. Slaves were imported from Africa, India and Madagascar to construct defensive walls and a hospital during the early phase of settlement. By the mid-18th century, sugar plantations had been developed on the Island of Mauritius, utilizing slave labour.
347:
translation of "Immigration Depot". Aapravasi is the Hindi word for "immigrant", while ghat literally means "interface"—factually reflecting the structure's position between the land and sea, and symbolically marking a transition between the old life and the new for the arriving indentured
593:
Mauritius's dependence on its sugar estates to sustain its economy continued into the early 20th century. The economy prospered during World War I, when supply shortages led to the rise in the market price of sugar. The eventual fall in the price of sugar in the 1930s due to the Depression, the
560:
The migrants also had an immigration shed, where they stayed for up to three days after arrival before being distributed to the respective local sugar estates or being transported to other colonies. The quarter includes a kitchen, while the immigrants' privies are located on a separate service
649:
It is in this intersection of migratory experiences that the ghat derives its particularity: it should promote the symbolical values of the indentured, to open it to the profound experience of migrations, which will always be a constant movement of this Earth, whether it be freely accepted or
535:
works that are being reversed are the landscape project, the hospital building's roof installation, which unfortunately used modern materials, the use of native lime mortar technique in the reconstruction and maintenance of the remaining stone walls, and devising an archaeological strategy to
519:
The end of indentured immigration meant that the Immigration Depot had served its purpose. After 1923, the buildings were put to other uses. The structures remained extant until the 1970s, when the construction of a bus station and a corresponding motorway led to the demolition of some of the
557:
only the gatekeeper's office and surgery room have survived, while archaeological remains of the kitchen and privies have been found. The remnant of the hospital building received a new roof installation in 2000. The use of modern materials however has been questioned by preservation groups.
419:
The abolition of slavery in European colonies in 1834, however, posed a problem for sugar plantations as their operations were highly dependent on slave labour. There was a demand for cheaper intensive labour, as the now emancipated slaves were negotiating for higher wages and better living
549:
over a long period of time. Land reclamations carried out over time to develop the Trou Fanfaron harbor have rendered the historic wharf unusable. The stone steps' direct access to the sea, the first parts of the Immigration Depot seen by arriving migrants, has become part of history.
716:
moved into the 20th century. The struggling sugar barons sold portions of their properties to the Indian merchants in what became known as the Great Morcellement Movement. Thus, the Indians, or Indo-Mauritians, became the first non-whites to own lands in the colony.
645:, in exploring the mosaic of cultures brought about by the indentured labourers, coined the term "coolitude," re-defining the migration of laborers not just as part of the historical past, but the entanglement of experiences and mosaic imaginaries:
689:
553:
including the installation of planked walls as room dividers by the late 1850s. By 1865, transportation needs led to the construction of a railway, cutting the Immigration Depot into two. Walls were constructed along the track.
725:
British territories bordering the Indian Ocean, they took up a large share of the clerical positions in the bureaucracy. Slowly making their way up, many had achieved respectable positions by the beginning of the 20th century.
626:
Mauritius was not the pioneering site for the use of indentured labour. In the 17th century, substantial numbers of indentured servants, of European origin, arrived in America, in what were then the
424:
conceived of a plan to replace the emancipated Africans with labourers from other parts of the world. The first wave of new plantation workers were labourers from the Portuguese island of
476:
436:. Even though the ethnicity of the plantation workers had changed, the poor working conditions and low living standards remained. These labourers, in the end, could not withstand the
473:
became economic liabilities, while thousands of their contracted workers and slaves were left to wallow. In addition, the island's proximity to India was also an advantage.
1468:
545:
exists today. However, records of the building plan and photographs, as well as recent archaeological evidence, allow for the precise reconstruction of the complex.
1473:
1453:
758:
577:
202:
198:
954:"Speech By Hon. V. K. Bunwaree, Minister of Education, Culture & Human Resources: 174th Anniversary of Arrival of Indentured Labourers 2nd November2008"
1448:
1438:
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The majority of Indian workers arriving at the Immigration Depot came from the northern part of the subcontinent, corresponding to the present states of
232:
in the mid-20th century means that only the partial remains of three stone buildings from the entire complex have survived. These are now protected as a
1332:
1374:
135:
606:
598:, although sugar production still generates one-third of Mauritius's export earnings, and occupies about 80 percent of the total arable land.
1463:
1203:
1175:
252:
efforts are underway to restore the fragile buildings to their 1860s state. It is one of two World Heritage Sites in Mauritius, along with
953:
501:
833:
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quarter, together with the bathing area. A standing stone wall provides the only mute testimony to the existence of the immigrant shed.
470:
1109:
729:
second day of November, a national holiday to commemorate the arrival of indentured laborers at the Immigration Depot to honor the
586:
Empire, proved to be an endless supply stream of cheap labour. In the period of 1834–60, 290,000 Indian labourers arrived.
421:
666:
638:
former colonies. Countries from the Caribbean to southern Africa to the Pacific currently have substantial Indian populations.
43:
376:
Subsequent land reclamations as a result of urban development have moved the Immigration Depot's location further inland. The
1417:
1355:
98:
91:
1236:
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majority of these Indian Labourers where brought,"Ghat" is referred to River Bank which is used for Docking of Boats.
185:
to receive indentured, or contracted, labour workforce from many countries. From 1849 to 1923, half a million Indian
1443:
25:
1277:
1076:
394:
1458:
704:. The region was then in turmoil following the Indian Rebellion of 1857. Smaller numbers of migrants came from
444:
249:
83:
1328:
524:
373:
entrance gateway and a hospital block, remnants of immigration sheds, and vestiges of the service quarters.
1099:
348:
immigrants. Alluding to its function as a pit stop to prospective plantation workers, alternatively called
595:
523:
A renewed interest on the site's importance in the 1980s was sparked by the visit to the site by the late
506:
405:
807:
532:
1378:
618:
1307:
753:
748:
368:
The Aapravasi Ghat is situated near the Caudan Waterfront, a shopping and leisure area in Port Louis.
214:
210:
201:
left an indelible mark on the societies of many former British colonies, with Indians constituting a
411:
1044:
763:
672:
UNESCO, the international organization responsible for the preservation and protection the world's
611:
304:
269:
245:
59:
48:
1125:
364:
443:
At the time, India had been experiencing a depressed economy. This was further aggravated by the
433:
308:
957:
162:
415:
Activities during the Indian Rebellion of 1857 mostly took place in the northern part of India.
1199:
1171:
1105:
673:
627:
393:
The area where the building complex is situated, Trou Fanfaron, was the landing point for the
377:
324:
233:
186:
840:
677:
273:
253:
220:
1137:
489:
401:
287:
1406:
35:
713:
642:
571:
280:
237:
229:
206:
194:
182:
1432:
1423:
1191:
810:. Global People of Indian Origin (GOPIO) Souvenir Magazine, July 2007. Archived from
701:
527:
380:, a marina developed as an economic and tourist centre, is situated beyond the site.
316:
312:
236:, under the Mauritian national heritage legislation. The Immigration Depot's role in
1412:
875:
1359:
1424:
En ce cinquième anniversare du Ghat, une belle expérience de l'humanisme du Divers
669:, an educational institution established in Mauritius, in cooperation with India.
917:
484:, which also received a substantial number of indentured labourers, in the 1850s.
352:, the Immigration Depot has also been known by an older name, the 'Coolie Ghat'.
736:
705:
328:
709:
481:
466:
462:
429:
332:
190:
174:
113:
100:
1240:
688:
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in 2006. The site is under the management of the Aapravasi Ghat Trust Fund.
209:. The Immigration Depot has thus become an important reference point in the
178:
52:
461:
were generally unable to respond to the sudden market changes. When the
1281:
768:
437:
425:
343:
The name Aapravasi Ghat, which has been in use since 1987, is a direct
205:. In Mauritius alone, 68 percent of the current total population is of
1401:
1072:
323:, such bathing or cremation place along the banks of a river or pond,
72:
349:
241:
1239:. ORIGINS : Creative Tracks of Indian Diaspora. Archived from
665:
Indian Immigration Archives, which is directly administered by the
622:
Newly arrived Indian labourers in the Caribbean island of Trinidad.
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687:
617:
605:
576:
500:
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410:
363:
344:
320:
219:
161:
735:(Hindi for "ship-mates", or "ship-brother") spirits. The lake of
512:
449:
265:
1045:"ICOMOS Evaluation of Aapravasi Ghat World Heritage Nomination"
811:
1170:. USA: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 1995. pp. 958–959.
692:
Population estimate of Indian migrants by country as of 2008.
1329:"The curse of Cromwell: A Short History of Northern Ireland"
319:; or the series of steps leading down to a body of water or
808:"An Overview of Indentured Labour Immigration in Mauritius"
404:, Mauritius passed to British control, as confirmed in the
189:
passed through the Immigration Depot, to be transported to
331:
or Aapravasi Ghat. Roads passing through ghats are called
839:. High Level Committee on Indian Diaspora. Archived from
1280:. The Alternate History Travel Guides. Archived from
465:
proved to be a viable and cheaper alternative to the
203:
substantial proportion of their national populations
1168:
The New Encyclopædia Britannica Micropædia Volume 7
876:"Coolitude and the symbolism of the Aapravasi ghat"
307:, depending on the context could either refer to a
90:
78:
68:
58:
42:
24:
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1268:
1266:
1264:
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1413:Coolitude and the symbolism of the Aapravasi ghat
610:A gathering of Indian coolies in a plantation in
759:Non-resident Indian and Person of Indian Origin
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286:(side of a mountain, dam, ridge, causeway) and
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1126:Discover sublime India: handbook for tourists
1124:Sunithi L. Narayan, Revathy Nagaswami, 1992,
1104:. Jain Publishing Company. pp. 523–538.
8:
1409:UNESCO Collection on Google Arts and Culture
1198:. London: Chatto & Windus. p. 510.
505:Cooking bowls on display at Aapravasi Ghat:
19:
1067:
1065:
869:
867:
865:
863:
861:
730:
590:the world's total production by the 1850s.
1356:"Indentured Servitude in Colonial America"
801:
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797:
795:
793:
791:
789:
787:
785:
783:
471:sugar plantations throughout the Caribbean
34:
18:
1469:1849 establishments in the British Empire
1237:"Indendutred Systems of labour Migration"
16:Building complex in Port Louis, Mauritius
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602:The global system of indentured laborers
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151:Location of Aapravasi Ghat in Mauritius
1474:Buildings and structures in Port Louis
1454:Government buildings completed in 1849
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581:First indentured Indian workers (1834)
199:large-scale migration of the labourers
142:
993:
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989:
987:
985:
983:
981:
979:
977:
975:
430:freed African-Americans from the U.S.
77:
67:
57:
41:
7:
1377:. Montgomery College. Archived from
1358:. Frontier Resources. Archived from
918:"Mauritius: History and Remembrance"
721:to island's post-colonial politics.
497:State of preservation and protection
480:A sugar plantation on the island of
952:Bunwaree, V. K. (2 November 2008).
874:Torabully, Khal (2 November 2007).
1402:Aapravasi Ghat World Heritage Site
488:From 1834 to 1849, when the first
14:
1449:Government buildings in Mauritius
1439:World Heritage Sites in Mauritius
1308:"The British Empire: Plantations"
173:is a building complex located in
1354:Barker, Deanna (10 March 2004).
1219:World history: a new perspective
1196:World history: a new perspective
456:Indentured laborers in Mauritius
434:Chinese seeking greener pastures
141:
134:
1335:from the original on 2010-05-25
1079:from the original on 2012-11-06
641:The Mauritian and French poet
569:
1:
440:and subsistence cultivation.
420:conditions. As a result, the
1464:Indian diaspora in Mauritius
1098:Jaini, Padmanabh S. (2003).
920:. allAfrica. 2 November 2004
659:, Mauritius, 2 November 2007
230:infrastructural development
1492:
1101:Jainism and Early Buddhism
27:UNESCO World Heritage Site
1075:. World Heritage Centre.
395:French East India Company
268:is explained by numerous
224:"First footprints" plaque
129:
33:
667:Mahatma Gandhi Institute
657:La Pointe aux Canonniers
445:Indian Rebellion of 1857
1140:, Cambridge dictionary.
1050:. World Heritage Centre
244:when it was declared a
114:20.158611°S 57.503056°E
806:Deerpalsingh, Saloni.
731:
693:
662:
623:
615:
596:gross national product
582:
516:
485:
416:
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225:
167:
1373:Hofstadter, Richard.
1278:"The Indian Diaspora"
691:
684:The Mauritian society
621:
609:
580:
525:Indian Prime Minister
504:
479:
414:
367:
309:range of stepped-hill
303:, a term used in the
223:
171:The Immigration Depot
165:
119:-20.158611; 57.503056
754:Culture of Mauritius
749:History of Mauritius
400:In 1810, during the
187:indentured labourers
764:Indentured servants
612:Trinidad and Tobago
305:Indian subcontinent
297:(dam, embankment).
246:World Heritage Site
110: /
64:Cultural: (vi)
49:Port Louis District
21:
1418:The aapravasi ghat
1306:Stephen Luscombe.
694:
624:
616:
583:
517:
486:
469:, the established
422:British government
417:
370:
240:was recognized by
226:
168:
1444:British Mauritius
1375:"White Servitude"
1205:978-0-7011-6834-6
1177:978-0-85229-605-9
628:Thirteen Colonies
432:and impoverished
378:Caudan Waterfront
325:Ghats in Varanasi
279:(mountain range)
234:national monument
215:cultural identity
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1303:
1294:
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1289:
1284:on April 7, 2009
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1243:on 10 April 2009
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1135:
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1073:"Aapravasi Ghat"
1069:
1060:
1059:
1057:
1055:
1049:
1041:
970:
969:
967:
965:
956:. Archived from
949:
930:
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927:
925:
914:
887:
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851:
845:
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824:
823:
821:
819:
803:
734:
678:natural heritage
660:
655:Khal Torabully,
272:etymons such as
254:Le Morne Brabant
145:
144:
138:
125:
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103:
38:
28:
22:
1491:
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1478:
1459:Human migration
1429:
1428:
1398:
1393:
1384:
1382:
1372:
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732:jehaji bhai
706:Maharashtra
520:buildings.
438:manioc root
329:Dhoby Ghaut
191:plantations
117: /
92:Coordinates
82:2006 (30th
79:Inscription
1433:Categories
1385:2009-09-15
1339:24 October
924:4 November
775:References
710:Tamil Nadu
540:Facilities
515:and récho.
490:migrations
467:sugar cane
463:sugar beet
389:Background
333:Ghat Roads
228:Unchecked
175:Port Louis
105:57°30′11″E
102:20°09′31″S
1128:, Page 5.
270:Dravidian
264:The word
260:Etymology
179:Mauritius
69:Reference
53:Mauritius
1333:Archived
1194:(2000).
1077:Archived
743:See also
674:cultural
653:—
360:Location
311:such as
166:Exterior
60:Criteria
44:Location
1331:. BBC.
769:Coolies
650:forced.
508:marmite
482:Réunion
426:Madeira
384:History
350:coolies
274:Kannada
211:history
84:Session
1202:
1174:
1108:
565:Legacy
288:Telugu
242:UNESCO
197:. The
1048:(PDF)
844:(PDF)
837:(PDF)
698:Bihar
345:Hindi
321:wharf
295:gattu
291:katta
284:kattu
281:Tamil
277:gatta
1341:2007
1315:2009
1290:2009
1249:2009
1200:ISBN
1172:ISBN
1106:ISBN
1085:2009
1056:2009
966:2009
926:2004
883:2009
852:2009
820:2009
708:and
700:and
676:and
513:tava
450:wage
339:Name
315:and
301:Ghat
293:and
266:ghat
213:and
73:1227
1435::
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