Aboriginal title - Knowledge

1770:"All infidels are in law perpetui inimici, perpetual enemies (for the law presumes not that they will be converted, that being remota potentia, a remote possibility) for between them, as with the devils, whose subjects they be, and the Christian, there is perpetual hostility, and can be no peace; . . . And upon this ground there is a diversity between a conquest of a kingdom of a Christian King, and the conquest of a kingdom of an infidel; for if a King come to a Christian kingdom by conquest, . . . he may at his pleasure alter and change the laws of that kingdom: but until he doth make an alteration of those laws the ancient laws of that kingdom remain. But if a Christian King should conquer a kingdom of an infidel, and bring them under his subjection, there ipso facto the laws of the infidel are abrogated, for that they be not only against Christianity, but against the law of God and of nature, contained in the decalogue; and in that case, until certain laws be established amongst them, the King by himself, and such Judges as he shall appoint, shall judge them and their causes according to natural equity." 2475:"Stripped to essentials, an boriginal claimant must prove a modern practice, tradition or custom that has a reasonable degree of continuity with the practices, traditions or customs that existed prior to contact. The practice, custom or tradition must have been "integral to the distinctive culture" of the boriginal peoples, in the sense that it distinguished or characterized their traditional culture and lay at the core of the peoples' identity. It must be a "defining feature" of the Aboriginal society, such that the culture would be "fundamentally altered" without it. It must be a feature of "central significance" to the peoples' culture, one that "truly made the society what it was" (Van der Peet, supra, at paras. 54–59). This excludes practices, traditions and customs that are only marginal or incidental to the Aboriginal society's cultural identity, and emphasizes practices, traditions and customs that are vital to the life, culture and identity of the aboriginal society in question." (Paragraph 12) 832:) before its courts acknowledged the independent existence of common law aboriginal title. Native Customary Rights (NCR) and Native Customary Land (NCL) are provided for under section 4(2) of the National Land Code 1965, the Sarawak Land Code 1957, the respective provisions of the National Land Code (Penang and Malacca Titles) Act 1963, and the Customary Tenure Enactment (FMS). Rajah's Order IX of 1875 recognized aboriginal title by providing for its extinguishment where cleared land was abandoned. Rajah's Order VIII of 1920 ("Land Order 1920") divided "State Lands" into four categories, one of them being "native holdings", and provided for the registration of customary holdings. The Aboriginal People's Act 1954 creates aboriginal areas and reserves, also providing for state acquisition of land without compensation. Article 160 of the Federal Constitution declares that custom has the force of law. 1251: 800:. Rejecting the government's claim that Aboriginal title applied only to villages and fishing sites, it instead agreed with the First Nation that Aboriginal title extends to the entire traditional territory of an indigenous group, even if that group was semi-nomadic and did not create settlements on that territory. It also stated that governments must have consent from First Nations which hold Aboriginal title in order to approve developments on that land, and governments can override the First Nation's wishes only in exceptional circumstances. The court reaffirmed, however, that areas under Aboriginal title are not outside the jurisdiction of the provinces, and provincial law still applies. 151: 787:(1997) laid down the essentials of the current test to prove Aboriginal title: "in order to make out a claim for boriginal title, the boriginal group asserting title must satisfy the following criteria: (i) the land must have been occupied prior to sovereignty, (ii) if present occupation is relied on as proof of occupation pre-sovereignty, there must be a continuity between present and pre-sovereignty occupation, and (iii) at sovereignty, that occupation must have been exclusive." 1182: 5768: 1465: 910: 33: 609:, filed a representative action on behalf of all the Maya communities of the Toledo District, and on 28 June 2010, CJ Conteh ruled in favor of the claimants, declaring that Maya customary land tenure exists in all the Maya villages of the Toledo District, and gives rise to collective and individual property rights under sections 3(d) and 17 of the 2265: 302:. Especially in Australia, the content of aboriginal title varies with the degree to which claimants are able to satisfy the standard of proof for recognition. In particular, the content of aboriginal title may be tied to the traditions and customs of the indigenous peoples, and only accommodate growth and change to a limited extent. 178:. The Act of State doctrine held that the Crown could confiscate or extinguish real or personal property rights in the process of conquering, without scrutiny from any British court, but could not perpetrate an Act of State against its own subjects. The Doctrine of Continuity presumed that the Crown did not intend to extinguish 2262: 1022:

Land was also lost under other legislation. The Counties Act 1886 s.245 said that tracks, "over any Crown lands or Native lands, and generally used without obstruction as roads, shall, for the purposes of this section, be deemed to be public roads, not exceeding sixty-six feet in width, and under the

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overturned the judgement in 1985, without reversing the doctrine of aboriginal title, holding that the specific claimants had not proved that they were native. The Extinction of Customary Land Right Order 1987, which purported to extinguish Barabaig customary rights, was declared null and void that

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The Court of Appeal delivered a decision in 1994 that sided with the aboriginal title claimant on nearly all issues, but ultimately ruled against them, holding that the Constitution (Consequential, Transitional and Temporary Provisions) Act, 1984—which rendered the constitutional right to property

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state. The requirements of proof for the recognition of aboriginal title, the content of aboriginal title, the methods of extinguishing aboriginal title, and the availability of compensation in the case of extinguishment vary significantly by jurisdiction. Nearly all jurisdictions are in agreement

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Aboriginal title can be extinguished by the general government, but again, the requirement to do this varies by country. Some require the legislature to be explicit when it does this, others hold that extinguishment can be inferred from the government's treatment of the land. In Canada, the Crown

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declared 18,000 square kilometres (6,900 sq mi), about half of Taiwan's land area (mostly in the east of the island), to be "traditional territory"; about 90 percent is public land that indigenous people can claim, and to whose development they can consent or not; the rest is privately

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which was regarded as the motivation for Crown settlement of the sea fisheries claims (1992). Subsequent cases began meanwhile—and apart from the common law doctrine—to rehabilitate the Treaty of Waitangi, declaring it the "fabric of New Zealand society" and thus relevant even to legislation of

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laid the basis for several elements of the modern aboriginal title doctrine, upholding a customary land claim and urging the need to "study of the history of the particular community and its usages in each case." Subsequently, the Privy Council issued many opinions confirming the existence of

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directly and expressly challenged a state taking of their land. The opinion held that: "the aborigines' common law rights include, inter alia, the right to live on their land as their forefathers had lived." The case was upheld on appeal, but the Federal Court did not write an opinion.

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The case ultimately did not lead to the inclusion of the Aboriginal title in South African doctrine. Legal scholars allege that this is because the application of terms like 'indigenous' and 'Aboriginal' in a South African context would lead to a number of contradictions.

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Unlike Australia, Canada, and New Zealand, the United States allows aboriginal title to be created post-sovereignty; rather than existing since pre-sovereignty, aboriginal title need only have existed for a "long time" (as little as 30 years) to be compensable.

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extinguished those rights before any lower court could hear a claim to either territorial customary title (the Maori Land Court) or non-territorial customary rights (the High Court's inherent common law jurisdiction). That legislation has been condemned by the

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did not prevail because the seventh justice, Pigeon J, found that the Court did not have jurisdiction to make a declaration in favour of the Nisga'a in the absence of a fiat of the Lieutenant-Governor of B.C. permitting suit against the provincial government.

893:, stating that "the proposition of law as enunciated in these two cases reflected the common law position with regard to native titles throughout the Commonwealth." The High Court of Kuching held in 2010, for the first time, that NCL may be transferred for 182:

upon acquiring sovereignty, and thus that pre-existing interests were enforceable under British law. Its mirror was the Recognition Doctrine, which held that private property rights were presumed to be extinguished in the absence of explicit recognition.

1448:. On the strength of this precedent, claimants in the Court of Federal Claims have been denied interest—which otherwise would be payable under Fifth Amendment jurisprudence—totalling billions of dollars ($ 9 billion alone, as estimated by a footnote in 790:

Subsequent decisions have drawn on the fiduciary duty to limit the ways in which the Crown can extinguish Aboriginal title, and to require prior consultation where the government has knowledge of a credible, but yet unproven, claim to Aboriginal title.

1397:, whose content was limited only by "their own discretion", inalienable except to the federal government, and extinguishable only by the federal government. Early state court decisions also presumed the existence of some form of aboriginal title. 261:

The requirements for establishing an aboriginal title to the land vary across countries, but generally speaking, the aboriginal claimant must establish (exclusive) occupation (or possession) from a long time ago, generally before the assertion of

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Later cases established that aboriginal title could be terminated only by the "clear and plain intention" of the federal government, a test that has been adopted by most other jurisdictions. The federal government was found to owe a

1223:, but held that the aboriginal title had been extinguished. Whether the precedent will be the start of further land rights claims by indigenous peoples is an open question, given the cut-off date of 1913 in the Restitution Act. 651:. The court described the right as a "right to use and occupy the lands" rather than a right of ownership. The government has interpreted the ruling very narrowly and has allowed only a small number of San to re-enter the CKGR. 2223: 234:

Some tribes are so low in the scale of social organization that their usages and conceptions of rights and duties are not to be reconciled with the institutions or the legal ideas of civilized society. Such a gulf cannot be

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It is common ground among the relevant jurisdictions that aboriginal title is inalienable, in the sense that it cannot be transferred except to the general government (known, in many of the relevant jurisdictions, as

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and Santa Cruz, citing the IACHR judgement and key precedents from other common law jurisdictions. The government entered into negotiations with the Maya communities, but ultimately refused to enforce the judgement.

852:. The High Court cited the Federal Constitution and the Aboriginal Peoples Act, as well as decisions from the Privy Council, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and the United States. That case was the first time where 1320:. From then, indigenous people's access to traditional lands was limited, as the ROC built cities, railroads, national parks, mines and tourist attractions. In 2005 the Basic Law for Indigenous Peoples was passed. 587:(IACHR), which sided with the Maya in 2004 and stated that the failure of the government of Belize to demarcate and title the Maya cultural lands was a violation of the right to property in Article XXIII of the 125:

were not a party. Significant aboriginal title litigation resulting in victories for indigenous peoples did not arise until recent decades. The majority of court cases have been litigated in Australia, Canada,

1344:. The wheat program would later become the National Agricultural and Food Corporation (NAFCO). NAFCO would lose a different suit to the Mulbadaw Village Council in 1981, which upheld customary land rights. The 311:

cannot extinguish aboriginal title without the explicit prior informed consent of the proper aboriginal title holders. New Zealand formerly required consent, but today requires only a justification, akin to a

542:(2002), an appeal from the first native title claim to go to trial since the Native Title Act, adopted strict requirements of continuity of traditional laws and customs for native title claims to succeed. 1117:, declaring that Māori could bring claims to the foreshore in Land Court. The Court also indicated that customary aboriginal title interests (non-territorial) might also remain around the coastline. The 1030:

Favorable court decisions turned aboriginal title litigation towards the lake beds, but the Māori were unsuccessful in claiming the rivers the beaches, and customary fishing rights on the foreshore. The

1264: 839:. In the 1970s, aboriginal rights were declared to be property rights, as protected by the Federal Constitution. Decisions in the 1970s and 1980s blocked state-sanctioned logging on customary land. 955:

went farther than any judge—before or since—in declaring that aboriginal title "cannot be extinguished (at least in times of peace) otherwise than by the free consent of the Native occupiers".

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at the pleasure of the Queen. This case did not involve indigenous parties, but rather was a lumber dispute between the provincial government of Ontario and the federal government of Canada.

2147: 707:). It allowed provinces to abrogate treaties (until 1951), and, from 1927, made it a federal crime to prosecute First Nation claims in court, raise money, or organize to pursue such claims. 447: 568:

during the gap between Spanish and British sovereignty. This decision did not involve indigenous peoples, but was an important example of the key doctrines that underlie aboriginal title.

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in 1774. The two doctrines were reconciled, with the Doctrine of Continuity prevailing in nearly all situations (except, for example, public property of the predecessor state) in

2220: 1123: 493:, held that native title exists (6–1) and is extinguishable by the sovereign (7–0), without compensation (4–3). In the wake of the decision, the Australian Parliament passed the 3209: 1071:

and indicated that whilst the Treaty of Waitangi confirmed those property rights, their legal foundation was the common law principle of continuity. The Crown did not appeal

215:, was litigated from 1705 to 1773, with the Privy Council affirming without opinion the judgement of a non-judicial tribunal. Other important Privy Council decisions include 286:, i.e. a right to use, although in practice this may mean anything from a right to use land for specific, enumerated purposes, or a general right to use which approximates 739:("British North America Act 1867") gives the federal government exclusive jurisdiction over First Nations, and thus the exclusive ability to extinguish Aboriginal title. 1445: 740: 1127: 1027:

in 1894. A series of Acts, beginning a year after the Treaty of Waitangi with the Land Claims Ordinance 1841, allowed the government to take and sell 'Waste Lands'.

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Jurisdictions differ on whether the state is required to pay compensation upon extinguishing aboriginal title. Theories for the payment of compensation include the

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aboriginal title, and upholding customary land claims; many of these arose in African colonies. Modern decisions have heaped criticism upon the views expressed in

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Superintendent of Lands & Surveys Miri Division & Anor v Madeli bin Salleh (suing as the administrator of the estate of the deceased, Salleh bin Kilong)

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Supreme Court Claim No. 366 of 2008 – The Maya Leaders Alliance and the Toledo Alcaldes et al v The Attorney General of Belize et al and Francis Johnston et al

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Madeli bin Salleh (Suing as Administrator of the Estate of the Deceased, Salleh bin Kilong) v Superintendent of Lands & Surveys (Miri Division) and Ors

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The identity of the indigenous groups in South Africa is not self-evident. The adoption of a strict definition, including only communities descended from

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Tolain, Tapalau, Tomaret, Towarunga, and Other Villagers of Latlat Village v Administration of the Territory of Papua and New Guinea; In re Vulcan Land

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challenged their eviction from the Hanang District of the Manyara Region, due to the government's decision to grow wheat in the region, funded by the

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declared aboriginal title unenforceable against the Crown. Eventually, the Privy Council acquiesced to the view that the Treaty was non-justiciable.

5865: 1097:, less than 5% of New Zealand was held as Māori customary land. In 2002, the Privy Council confirmed that the Maori Land Court, which does not have 401: 1238:

people, would entail the exclusion of black African communities, an approach deemed detrimental to the spirit of national unity. The legacy of the

941:. In 1847, in a decision that was not appealed to the Privy Council, the Supreme Court of the colony of New Zealand recognized aboriginal title in 3152: 3105: 3081: 3054: 2193: 1944: 1635: 1409: 670: 557: 409: 163: 1553:

in a line of decisions, originating with the proprietary claims of the former rulers of the Princely states, as well as their heirs and assigns.

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In 1996, the Toledo Maya Cultural Council (TMCC) and the Toledo Alcaldes Association (TAA) filed a claim against the government of Belize in the

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showing traditional territories of indigenous highland peoples. Alternate spellings or names: Pazih (Pazeh); Taroko (Truku, Seediq); Yami (Tao).

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toward the Māori. This cleared the way for a variety of Treaty-based non-land Māori customary rights. By this time the Waitangi Tribunal in its

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New Zealand was the second jurisdiction in the world to recognize aboriginal title, but a slew of extinguishing legislation (beginning with the

1545: 1390: 196:(1608) that the laws of all non-Christians would be abrogated upon their conquest. Coke's view was not put into practice, but was rejected by 1425: 1374: 1266: 99: 3926: 1265: 5387: 1436: 1413: 1258: 1204: 980: 864:. However, the ability for indigenous peoples to bring such suits was seriously limited by a 2005 ruling that claims must be brought under 1261: 1257: 1101:

jurisdiction, was the exclusive forum for territorial aboriginal title claims (i.e. those equivalent to a customary title claim) In 2003,

1154: 5367: 5010: 675: 2246: 1799:"'Mohegan Indians v. Connecticut'(1705–1773) and the Legal Status of Aboriginal Customary Laws and Government in British North America" 5810: 4047: 4039: 1090:(1988) was describing Treaty-based and common law aboriginal title derived rights as complementary and having an 'aura' of their own. 4350:

Native Title and Pastoral Leases, in Mabo: A Judicial Revolution—The Aboriginal Land Rights Decision and Its Impact on Australian Law

1267: 5471: 4282: 2693: 1262: 1159: 419: 3220: 524:(the "Ten Point Plan"), extinguishing a variety of Aboriginal land rights and giving state governments the ability to follow suit. 4208:

Richard A. Epstein, Property Rights Claims of Indigenous Populations: The View from the Common Law, 31 U. Toledo L. Rev. 1 (1999).

1801: 881: 5835: 5782: 5341: 4905: 4759: 4014: 2638: 1195: 1166: 1094: 664: 4509:

Gray, S. "Skeletal Principles in Malaysia's Common Law Cupboard: the Future of Indigenous Native Title in Malaysian Common Law"

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Ramy Bulan. "Native Title as a Proprietary Right under the Constitution in Peninsula Malaysia: A Step in the Right Direction?"

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In 2019, Japan fully recognised the Ainu people as the indigenous people of Japan and gave them some land rights if requested.

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Cavanagh, Edward (June 2013). "The History of Dispossession at Orania and the Politics of Land Restitution in South Africa".

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never took hold in India. Sales of land from indigenous persons to both British subjects and aliens were widely upheld. The

1434:(1946) was the first ever judicial compensation for a taking of Indian lands unrecognized by a specific treaty obligation. 5362: 4779: 3712:

Patterson, S., "The Foundations of Aboriginal Title in South Africa? The Richtersveld Community v Alexkor Ltd Decisions,"

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Administration of the Territory of Papua and New Guinea v Blasius Tirupia and Others (In Re Vunapaladig and Japalik Land)

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In a 1924 appeal from India, the Privy Council issued an opinion that largely corresponded to the Continuity Doctrine:

5637: 5079: 4952: 1935: 1345: 1301: 1148: 1109: 1068: 1044: 414: 115: 76: 3942:, Civil Appeal No 53 of 1998, unreported, (1999) 2 CHRLD 416 (Court of Appeal of Tanzania at Arusha) (Nyalali, C.J.). 4498:

Bulan, Ramy. "Native Title in Malaysia: A 'Complementary' Sui Generis Right Protected by the Federal Constitution",

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Lekengere Faru Parutu Kamunyu and 52 Others v. Minister for Tourism, Natural Resources and Environment and 3 Others

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were void. A variety of non-land rights cases, anchored on the Constitution Act 1982, have also been influential.

5805: 5210: 1528:(1757), a joint opinion of England's Attorney-General and Solicitor-General, declared that land purchases by the 1500:

were uninhabited for hundreds of years prior to colonization, although they had previously been inhabited by the

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of South Africa talked frankly about Aboriginal title. The Land Claims Court had dismissed the complaint of the

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Hill, R. "Politicising the past: Indigenous scholarship and crown—Maori reparations processes in New Zealand."

3803: 3530: 3506: 3482: 3148: 3101: 3077: 3050: 2189: 2156: 2130: 2121: 2104: 2080: 2040: 2031: 2014: 2005: 1906: 1899: 1891: 1883: 1876: 1869: 1853: 1840: 1824: 1683: 1667: 1631: 1417: 970:(New Zealanders of European descent). That court created the "1840 rule", which converted Māori interests into 528: 516: 479: 462: 4613:

McHugh, Paul G. 1984. "Aboriginal title in New Zealand courts", 2 University of Canterbury Law Review 235–265.

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Johnson, Ralph W. (1991). "Fragile Gains: two centuries of Canadian and United States policy toward Indians".

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were awarded monetary compensation and alternative land by the Court of Appeal due to their eviction from the

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and other international case law, and based the right on the San's occupation of their traditional lands from

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under Spanish rule with limited property rights, were enforceable against the Crown, and had been upgraded to

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in the United States - 227,000 square kilometres (88,000 sq mi) (2.308% of the country's land area)

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The Impact of the American Doctrine of Discovery on Native Land Rights in Australia, Canada, and New Zealand

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JCA of the Jahore High Court became the first Malaysian judge to acknowledge common law aboriginal title in

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people) became more politically active, after being included in the Australian citizenry as a result of the

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Bisi ak Jinggot @ Hilarion Bisi ak Jenggut v Superintendent of Lands and Surveys Kuching Division & Ors

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to the holders of aboriginal title, but such duty did not become enforceable until the late-20th century.

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casino commemorates the site of the world's first common-law indigenous land rights case, decided in 1773.

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Bartlett, R.. "The Content and Proof of Native Title: Delgamuukw v Queen in right of British Columbia",

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The New Zealand Parliament responded with the Native Lands Act 1862, the Native Rights Act 1865 and the

869: 775:(1929) which had held that Aboriginal peoples had no capacity to enter into treaties, and thus that the 494: 393: 298:")—although Malaysia allows aboriginal title to be sold between indigenous peoples, unless contrary to 1007:, and other rulings, but courts in New Zealand continued to hand down decisions materially similar to 727:. Six of the judges split 3–3 on the question of whether Aboriginal title had been extinguished. The 362:

in Colombia - 1,141,748 square kilometres (440,831 sq mi) (31.5% of the country's land area)

5855: 5613: 4947: 4809: 3068: 1469: 1358: 1282: 1063:(1986) was the first modern case to recognize an aboriginal title claim in a New Zealand court since 952: 596: 588: 572: 338:

in Australia - 1,228,373 square kilometres (474,277 sq mi) (16% of the country's land area)

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Leane, G. "Fighting them on the Benches: the Struggle for Native Title Recognition in New Zealand."

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Gilling, Bryan D. "By whose Custom? The Operation of the Native Land Court in the Chatham Islands."

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Gilling, Bryan D. "Engine of Destruction? An Introduction to the History of the Maori Land Court."

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also means that few communities retain relationships with the land of which they held before 1913.

963: 843: 771: 610: 4227:"...Never Drink from the Same Cup": Proceedings of the conference on indigenous peoples in Africa. 1537: 1181: 356:

in Brazil - 1,105,258 square kilometres (426,742 sq mi) (13% of the country's land area)

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in Canada - 28,000 square kilometres (11,000 sq mi) (0.2804% of the country's land area)

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Shaharuddin bin Ali & Anor v Superintendent of Lands and Surveys, Kuching Division & Anor

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Report Nº 40/04, Case 12.053, Merits, Maya Indigenous Communities of the Toledo District, Belize

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in Bolivia - 168,000 square kilometres (65,000 sq mi) (15% of the country's land area)

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Lehmann, Karin (7 April 2017). "Aboriginal Title, Indigenous Rights and the Right to Culture".

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Amit bin Salleh & Ors v The Superintendent, Land & Survey Department, Bintulu & Ors

1619: 5772: 5496: 5481: 5101: 4967: 4917: 4912: 4278: 3930:

TZCA 1; 2 LRC 399 (Court of Appeal of Tanzania, Civil Appeal No. 31 of 1994) (Nyalali, C.J.).

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Dorsett, S., "Making Amends for Past Injustice: Restitution of Land Rights in South Africa,"

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Sapiah binti Mahmud (F) v Superintendent of Lands and Surveys, Samarahan Division & 2 Ors

5673: 5665: 5593: 5230: 4983: 4869: 4859: 4844: 4814: 4697:. Human & People's Rights Monograph Series No. 8, Institute of Southern African Studies. 4385:

Unsettling: land dispossession and the Guatemalan and Belizean frontier colonization process

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Conquest by Law: How the Discovery of America Dispossessed Indigenous Peoples of Their Lands

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land rights litigation has yielded little result. Most Adivasi live in state-owned forests.

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Aboriginal title arose at the intersection of three common law doctrines articulated by the

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Land, power, and custom: Controversies generated by South Africa's Communal Land Rights Act

3786:"Taiwan's indigenous are still seeking justice on the democratic side of the Taiwan Strait" 3526: 3502: 3478: 3450: 2152: 2126: 2100: 2076: 2036: 2010: 1960: 1679: 1663: 1643: 1203:, lawyers gathered case law from settler jurisdictions around the world, and judges of the 43:, which extinguished claims to aboriginal title to the foreshore and seabeds in New Zealand 5716: 5538: 5528: 5504: 5441: 5307: 5263: 5164: 4864: 4849: 3454: 2269: 2250: 2227: 1805: 1627: 1337: 1305: 1098: 648: 580: 451: 131: 4413:

Let Right Be Done: Aboriginal title, the Calder case, and the future of indigenous rights

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decision handed down after the Constitution Act 1982, declared that Aboriginal title was

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Aboriginal title was first acknowledged in the early 19th century, in decisions in which

3916:, High Court of Tanzania at Arusha, Civil Appeal No. 27 of 1985 (Unreported) (Chua, J.). 3144: 3120: 2625:"Indigenous World 2020: Japan - IWGIA - International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs" 5621: 5392: 5375: 5312: 5268: 4957: 4890: 4854: 4834: 4749: 2497: 1798: 1533: 1477: 1441: 1402: 1290: 1083: 760: 592: 511: 341: 323: 312: 275: 197: 134:, with many cases being cited as persuasive authority across jurisdictions. Legislated 111: 110:, influencing and influenced by non-land issues, such as whether the government owes a 59: 1067:, granting non-exclusive customary fishing rights. The Court cited the writings of Dr 5799: 5711: 5678: 5476: 5456: 5407: 5084: 5064: 5005: 4922: 4819: 3752: 3645: 2377: 1380: 1354: 994: 898: 897:

between members of the same community, as long as such transfers are not contrary to

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agreed that the claimed Aboriginal title existed, and did not solely depend upon the

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Mulbadaw Village Council and 67 Others v. National Agricultural and Food Corporation

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in 1982). These bodies have no authority to title land, only to pay compensation.

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National Agricultural and Food Corporation v. Mulbadaw Village Council and Others

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Keepa v. Inspector of Fisheries; consolidated with Wiki v. Inspector of Fisheries

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control of the Council". Opposition to such confiscation was met by force, as at

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Supreme Court Claims Nos. 171 and 172 of 2007 (Consolidated) re Maya land rights

1509: 1481: 1464: 943: 835:

Malaysian court decisions from the 1950s on have held that customary lands were

809: 755: 263: 187: 155: 63: 4371:

Land Rights of the Indigenous Peoples of the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh

4203:

Native Title Claims in Canada and Australia: Delgamuukw and Miriuwung Gajerrong

1142:, which had appellate jurisdiction before 1975, recognized aboriginal title in 1051:

to issue non-binding decisions, concerning alleged breaches of the Treaty, and

909: 130:, New Zealand, and the United States. Aboriginal title is an important area of 118:, it has been codified nationally by legislation, treaties, and constitutions. 5744: 5631: 5248: 4829: 4220:

Unfinished constitutional business?: rethinking indigenous self-determination

3767:"The First Nations of Taiwan: A Special Report on Taiwan's indigenous peoples" 1362: 1309: 1231: 971: 930: 853: 728: 688: 632: 565: 287: 51: 32: 4599:

Mikaere, Ani and Milroy, Stephanie. "Treaty of Waitangi and Maori Land Law",

879:

wrote an opinion endorsing common law aboriginal title for the first time in

27:

Concept in common law of indigenous land rights persisting after colonization

5645: 5446: 5397: 5380: 5318: 5300: 5074: 4988: 934: 860:

Later High Court and Court of Appeal decisions built upon the foundation of

295: 3883:, High Court of Tanzania at Arusha, Civil Case No. 10 of 1981 (Unreported). 2684: 1383:, became the first jurisdiction in the world to judicially acknowledge (in 442:, established a statutory procedure that returned approximately 40% of the 388:

Australia did not experience native title litigation until the 1970s, when

2896:

Superintendent of Lands & Surveys, Bintulu v Nor Anak Nyawai & Ors

2659:"Japan's 'vanishing' Ainu will finally be recognized as indigenous people" 1440:(1955) established that the extinguishment of aboriginal title was not a " 974:

if they were sufficiently in existence in 1840, or else disregarded them.

514:, which cover nearly half of Australia, do not extinguish native title in 5533: 5466: 5402: 5285: 5215: 5193: 5089: 5037: 4795: 4542:

Boast, Richard, Andrew Erueti, Doug McPhail & Norman F. Smith. 1999.

1505: 1493: 1394: 1235: 823: 680: 622: 605: 560:

held that the property rights of British subjects who had been living in

427: 283: 127: 536:, which may be extinguished one by one, for example, by a mining lease. 507:

upheld the NTA and struck down a conflicting Western Australia statute.

5486: 5280: 5273: 5138: 4934: 4157:

Vinod Kumar Shantilal Gosalia v. Gangadhar Narsingdas Agarwal & Ors

1554: 669:

Aboriginal title has been recognized in Common Law in Canada since the

643:(CKGR), which was violated by their 2001 eviction. The decision quoted 636: 4556:

Erueti, A. "Translating Maori Customary Title into Common Law Title."

4290:

Ancestral lands, alien laws: judicial perspectives on aboriginal title

4102:, 28 Fed Cl 95 (1993); order modified by 2000 WL 1013532 (unreported). 2574:"Landmark Supreme Court ruling grants land title to B.C. First Nation" 826:

recognised various statutory rights related to native customary laws (

282:

in any jurisdiction. Instead, its content is generally described as a

5461: 5413: 5182: 4688:

Law and Justice in Tanzania: Quarter a Century of the Court of Appeal

4646:

Land Between Two Laws: Early European land acquisitions in New Guinea

4268:

Emerging Justice? essays on indigenous rights in Canada and Australia

1501: 1286: 1271: 1043:

prevented the enforcement of customary tenure against the Crown. The

561: 4348:

Reynolds, Henry. M.A. Stephenson & Suri Ratnapala (eds.). 1993.

3595:

Madaha Resena and Others v The Independent State of Papua New Guinea

2947:

Mohamad Rambli bin Kawi v Superintendent of Lands Kuching & Anor

2836:

Nor anak Nyawai & Ors v Borneo Pulp Plantation Sdn Bhd & Ors

1615:

Several earlier cases tangentially involved issues of native title:

1412:

barred the enforcement of aboriginal title until the passage of the

322:, as protected by constitutional or common law, and the breach of a 186:

In 1608, the same year in which the Doctrine of Continuity emerged,

5550: 5146: 3840:"Taiwan's indigenous people take land rights fight to the capital" 3822:"Taiwan - IWGIA - International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs" 3821: 2908:

Hamit bin Matusin & Ors v Penguasa Tanah dan Survei & Anor

2523:

Bartlett, R., "The Different Approach to Native Title in Canada,"

1463: 1385: 1249: 1180: 908: 700: 149: 31: 2561:

Mikisew Cree First Nation v. Canada (Minister of Canada Heritage)

1520:

Unlike most jurisdictions, the doctrine that aboriginal title is

794:

In 2014 the Supreme Court ruled unanimously for the plaintiff in

114:

to indigenous peoples. While the judge-made doctrine arises from

4254:

Aboriginal Title: The Modern Jurisprudence of Tribal Land Rights

3701:

Law Against Law: Indigenous Rights and the Richtersveld Decision

1488:

There is no possibility for aboriginal title litigation in some

828: 812:. However, land rights were not given for another eleven years. 4768: 4169:

Sardar Govindrao & Ors v. State of Madhya Pradesh & Ors

1881:

Bakare Ajakaiye v Lieutenant Governor of the Southern Provinces

1480:, hundreds of years after archaeologists estimate the original 230:

The former rejected a claim for aboriginal title, noting that:

106:(in New Zealand). Aboriginal title jurisprudence is related to 5523: 3399:

Ngai Tahu Maori Trust Board v Director-General of Conservation

2860:

Kerajaan Negeri Selangor & Ors v Sagong Bin Tasi & Ors

2848:

Sagong bin Tasi & Ors v Kerajaan Negeri Selangor & Ors

1408:

Although the property right itself is not created by statute,

1312:

Republic of China was established on Taiwan in 1949 after the

1300:

and indigenous rights to land were extinguished. In 1945, the

4531:"Our land they took": San land rights under threat in Namibia 3671:

Richtersveld Community & Ors v Alexkor Limited & Anor

2600:"Supreme Court expands land-title rights in unanimous ruling" 691:(1876), which laid out an assimilationist policy towards the 3387:

Te Runanganui o Te Ika Whenua Inc Society v Attorney-General

209:

The first Indigenous land rights case under the common law,

4764: 2824:

Kerajaan Negri Johor & Anor v Adong bin Kuwau & Ors

1039:

for aboriginal title claims (6 years for damages), and the

438:

on behalf of all Aborigines claiming all of Australia. The

3804:"Taiwan's first settlers camp out in city for land rights" 3583:

Toare Karakara v The Independent State of Papua New Guinea

2728:

Sat Anak Akum & Anor v RAndong Anak Charanak Charereng

2148:

Members of the Yorta Yorta Aboriginal Community v Victoria

1992:

Anangu Pitjantjatjara Yankunytjatjara Land Rights Act 1981

1173:, and 97% of the land in the country remains unalienated. 448:

Anangu Pitjantjatjara Yankunytjatjara Land Rights Act 1981

4133:

Vaje Singji Jorava Ssingji v Secretary of State for India

3859:, High Court Sessional Case No. 168 of 1976 (Unreported). 1546:

Vaje Singji Jorava Ssingji v Secretary of State for India

1289:'s population; the rest of the population is composed of 5600:

The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State

4625:"Te Kooti tango whenua": the Native Land Court 1864–1909 4411:

Foster, Hamar, Heather Raven & Jeremy Webber. 2007.

4357:

Compromised Jurisprudence: Native Title Cases Since Mabo

4297:

Trouble with tradition: native title and cultural change

3141:

Hoani Te Heuheu Tukino v Aotea District Maori Land Board

1365:

farm. The government has yet to comply with the ruling.

1293:

who colonised the island from the 17th century onward.

4441:

The damned: the plight of the Akawaio Indians of Guyana

2281:

Sesana and Others v Attorney General (52/2002) BWHC 1.

1754:

Witrong v. Blany (1674) 3 Keb. 401 (conquest of Wales).

1353:

enforceable in court—was not retroactive. In 1999, the

743:

explicitly recognized and preserved aboriginal rights.

4681:

Human Rights in Tanzania: Selected Cases and Materials

4145:

Virendra Singh & Ors v. The State of Uttar Pradesh

2549:

Haida Nation v. British Columbia (Minister of Forests)

2216: 2214: 1379:

The United States, under the tenure of Chief Justice

1211:

peoples, whose land was seized by a government owned

1126:. The 2004 Act was repealed with the passage of the 1124:

Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination

4399:

Recovering Canada: the resurgence of Indigenous law

4201:

Bartlett, Richard H., and Jill Milroy (eds.). 1999.

3914:

Tito Saturo and 7 Others v. Matiya Seneya and Others

3319:

Huakina Development Trust v Waikato Valley Authority

1978:

Aboriginal Land Rights (Northern Territory) Act 1976

1082:

held that the government owed a duty analogous to a

998:

and declaring the Treaty of Waitangi unenforceable.

5559: 5361: 5241: 5127: 4976: 4933: 4878: 4802: 4181:

R.C. Poudyal & Anr. v. Union of India & Ors

3475:

Administration of Papua and New Guinea v Daera Guba

2776:

Selangor Pilot Association v Government of Malaysia

1155:

Administration of Papua and New Guinea v Daera Guba

962:which established the Native Land Court (today the 497:(NTA), codifying the doctrine and establishing the 4686:Peter, Chris Maina, and Helen Kijo-Bisimba. 2007. 4338:. Report No. 31. Parliamentary Paper No. 136/1986. 3210:"Some Government Breaches of Te Tiriti o Waitangi" 1158:(1973) (the "Newtown case"), and other cases. The 4469:Land, ecology, and resistance in Kenya, 1880–1952 4100:Alabama-Coushatta Tribe of Texas v. United States 2930: 2928: 2788:Keruntum Sdn Bhd v. Minister of Resource Planning 1839:Amodu Tijani v. Southern Nigeria (Secretary), 2 1788:Oyekan & Ors v Adele 2 All ER 785 (Nigeria). 741:Section Thirty-five of the Constitution Act, 1982 3456: 2182:Attorney-General for British Honduras v Bristowe 1649: 1215:. The Supreme Court of Appeal disagreed, citing 1128:Marine and Coastal Area (Takutai Moana) Act 2011 575:, but the Court failed to act on the claim. The 3118:Hohepa Wi Neera v Wallis (Bishop of Wellington) 1676:Wade v New South Wales Rutile Mining Co Pty Ltd 1253: 947:. The decision was based on common law and the 808:In 2008, Japan gave partial recognition to the 603:In 2008, The TMCC and TAA, and many individual 3619: 3617: 3615: 3609:ZACC 18; 2004 (5) SA 460; 2003 (12) BCLR 1301. 2957: 2955: 1590:For modern litigation over the same land, see 434:(1979), attempted (unsuccessfully) to bring a 4780: 4455:Land administration and practice in Hong Kong 3927:Attorney-General v. Lohay Akonaay and Another 3904:Government Notice No. 88 of 13 February 1987. 3659:Richtersveld Community v Alexkor Ltd and Anor 2326:Calder v. British Columbia (Attorney General) 716:Calder v. British Columbia (Attorney General) 8: 4569:Victoria University of Wellington Law Review 4336:The recognition of Aboriginal customary laws 3355:New Zealand Maori Council v Attorney-General 3331:New Zealand Maori Council v Attorney-General 2800:Koperasi Kijang Mas v. Kerajaan Negeri Perak 1549:. This line of reasoning was adopted by the 1079:New Zealand Maori Council v Attorney-General 882:Superintendent of Lands v. Madeli bin Salleh 224:Amodu Tijani v. Southern Nigeria (Secretary) 4439:Bennett, Gordon & Audrey Colson. 1978. 3810:. 11 June 2018 – via www.reuters.com. 3726: 3724: 3722: 3375:Tainui Maori Trust Board v Attorney-General 467:by striking down a State statute under the 5131: 4787: 4773: 4765: 4658:Claasens, Aninka & Ben Cousins. 2008. 4608:Maori land laws of New Zealand: two essays 4088:Fort Berthold Reservation v. United States 3499:Custodian of Expropriated Property v Tedep 3094:Wallis v Solicitor-General for New Zealand 1146:—decades before it did so in Australia—in 713:was more or less the prevailing law until 631:(2006), a case brought by named plaintiff 625:High Court recognized aboriginal title in 595:ruled in favor of the Maya communities of 4064:United States v. Alcea Band of Tillamooks 2740:Galau & Ors v Penghuluimang & Ors 2683: 2320: 2318: 2240:Inter-American Commission on Human Rights 1904:Nalukuya (Rata Taito) v Director of Lands 1896:Stool of Abinabina v. Chief Kojo Enyimadu 1431:United States v. Alcea Band of Tillamooks 585:Inter-American Commission on Human Rights 2812:Adong bin Kuwau v. Kerajaan Negeri Johor 2716:Sumbang Anak Sekam v Engkarong Anak Ajah 2675:Defining Native Customary Rights to Land 2355:1 D.L.R. 307 (Nova Scotia County Court). 1835: 1833: 849:Adong bin Kuwau v. Kerajaan Negeri Johor 82:Aboriginal title is also referred to as 4639:Land law and policy in Papua New Guinea 4476:Siasa: politics and nationalism in E.A. 4213:Legal Pluralism and the Colonial Legacy 2639:"Japan: New Ainu Law Becomes Effective" 2196: (on appeal from British Honduras). 1716: 1583: 1389:) the existence of aboriginal title in 679:(1888), characterized it as a personal 422:was established in 1973 in the wake of 410:Supreme Court of the Northern Territory 164:Judicial Committee of the Privy Council 4695:State Coercion and Freedom in Tanzania 4329:Aborigines and the law: a bibliography 3571:Rahonamo v Enai and Another (Re Hitau) 3017:Re Lundon and Whitaker Claims Act 1871 2485:Tsilhqot'in Nation v. British Columbia 1745:(1608) Davis 28 (conquest of Ireland). 1726: 1724: 1722: 1720: 1304:(ROC) took control of Taiwan from the 978:remained the guiding principle, until 797:Tsilhqot'in Nation v. British Columbia 759:and that the federal government has a 4359:. Aboriginal Studies Press, Canberra. 3990:United States v. Santa Fe Pac. R. Co. 3733:South African Journal on Human Rights 2097:Wik Peoples v The State of Queensland 1426:United States Court of Federal Claims 1375:Aboriginal title in the United States 520:. In response, Parliament passed the 274:Aboriginal title does not constitute 266:, and continuity to the present day. 138:often follow from the recognition of 7: 4585:Social and Legal Studies 163 (2007). 4211:Hazelhurst, Kayleen M. (ed.). 1995. 4076:Tee-Hit-Ton Indians v. United States 3784:Aspinwall, Nick (13 February 2019). 3607:Alexkor Ltd v Richtersveld Community 3307:Te Weehi v Regional Fisheries Office 3245:Tamihana Korokai v Solicitor-General 3029:Wi Parata v the Bishop of Wellington 2537:Osoyoos Indian Band v. Oliver (Town) 1606:, 528 F. Supp. 1359 (D. Conn. 1982). 1594:, 483 F. Supp. 597 (D. Conn. 1980), 1437:Tee-Hit-Ton Indians v. United States 1414:Indian Claims Commission Act of 1946 1060:Te Weehi v Regional Fisheries Office 981:Wi Parata v the Bishop of Wellington 628:Sesana and Others v Attorney General 4247:Land Law and Custom in the Colonies 4111:McNeil, 1989, pp. 136–141, 147–157. 4090:, 390 F.2d 686, 690 (Ct. Cl. 1968). 3626:Journal of Southern African Studies 3411:McGuire v Hastings District Council 2672:Cooke, Fadzilah Majid, ed. (2006). 2291:St. Catharines Milling v. The Queen 1484:inhabitants departed these islands. 1460:Jurisdiction rejecting the doctrine 1201:Restitution of Land Rights Act 1994 719:(1973). All seven of the judges in 676:St. Catharines Milling v. The Queen 553:A-G for British Honduras v Bristowe 532:(2002) held that native title is a 418:(the "Gove land rights case"). The 77:either individually or collectively 3155: (on appeal from New Zealand). 3108: (on appeal from New Zealand). 3084: (on appeal from New Zealand). 3057: (on appeal from New Zealand). 1888:Sakariyawo Oshodi v Moriamo Dakolo 1779:Campbell v. Hall (1774) Lofft 655. 1768:(1608) 77 E.R. 377, 397–98 (K.B.): 1361:when a foreign investor started a 510:In 1996, the High Court held that 25: 4406:Native Liberty, Crown Sovereignty 3699:Mostert, H. and Fitzpatrick, P., 3573:(1971) unreported judgment N612 . 1911:Adeyinka Oyekan v Musendiku Adele 1874:Sunmonu v Disu Raphael (Deceased) 1640:Williams v Attorney General (NSW) 1160:Supreme Court of Papua New Guinea 420:Aboriginal Land Rights Commission 56:land rights of indigenous peoples 5767: 5766: 4702:Pastoral Land Rights in Tanzania 4551:Waitangi & Indigenous Rights 4504:Australian Indigenous Law Review 4343:Aborigines and the law: a digest 4015:Seminole Nation v. United States 3857:R. v. Bukunda Kilanga and Others 3661:, 2001 (3) 1293 (22 March 2001). 3447:Geita Sebea v Territory of Papua 3259:(1929) 11 Bay of Islands MB 253. 2995:(1866) (unreported) (CJ Fenton). 2072:Western Australia v Commonwealth 1285:, making up a little over 2% of 1196:Alexkor v Richtersveld Community 1167:Constitution of Papua New Guinea 1149:Geita Sebea v Territory of Papua 929:with little to claim except for 665:Indigenous land claims in Canada 639:have the right to reside in the 504:Western Australia v Commonwealth 62:persist after the assumption of 5866:Aboriginal title in New Zealand 4760:Aboriginal Title Implementation 4529:Legal Assistance Center. 2006. 1902:207 (West African Gold Coast); 1660:Randwick Corporation v Rutledge 1598:, 638 F.2d 612 (2d Cir. 1980), 1001:The Privy Council disagreed in 687:was decided in the wake of the 522:Native Title Amendment Act 1998 440:Aboriginal Land Rights Act 1976 5332:Right of way (property access) 4576:Victoria U. Wellington L. Rev. 4518:Land administration in Sarawak 4453:Nissim, Roger. 2008 (2d ed.). 3745:10.1080/19962126.2004.11864810 2458:Delgamuukw v. British Columbia 2171:(Australia). 12 December 2002. 1699:Currently, section 261 of the 1298:Taiwan was under Japanese rule 923:New Zealand land confiscations 784:Delgamuukw v. British Columbia 499:National Native Title Tribunal 470:Racial Discrimination Act 1975 212:Mohegan Indians v. Connecticut 1: 4723:Land Law and Policy in Zambia 4334:Law Reform Commission. 1986. 3869:Noya Gomusha and Others v. R. 3031:(1877) 3 N.Z. Jur. (N.S.) 72. 1492:jurisdictions; for instance, 1422:United States Court of Claims 1325:Council of Indigenous Peoples 1119:Foreshore and Seabed Act 2004 1095:Te Ture Whenua Māori Act 1993 1013:Coal Mines Amendment Act 1903 992:, advocating the doctrine of 885:. The Federal Court endorsed 641:Central Kalahari Game Reserve 446:to Aboriginal ownership; the 190:delivered a famous dictum in 41:Foreshore and Seabed Act 2004 4355:Strelein, L. 2009 (2d ed.). 4320:Bartlett, R. 2004 (2d ed.). 4273:Robertson, Lindsay G. 2005. 4218:Hocking, Barbara Ann. 2005. 4028:United States v Sioux Nation 3980:, 20 Johns. 693 (N.Y. 1823). 3673:(unreported, 24 March 2003). 3638:10.1080/03057070.2013.795811 3523:Teori Tau v The Commonwealth 3435:Attorney-General v Ngati Apa 3423:Attorney-General v Ngati Apa 3401:3 NZLR 553 (whale watching). 3389:2 NZLR 641 (fishing rights). 3184:"The Opuatia Survey Dispute" 1592:Mohegan Tribe v. Connecticut 1444:" within the meaning of the 1279:Taiwanese indigenous peoples 1104:Ngati Apa v Attorney-General 693:Aboriginal peoples in Canada 5638:Two Treatises of Government 4427:Customary Land Law in Ghana 4299:. Sydney: Federation Press. 4277:. Oxford University Press. 4261:Common Law Aboriginal Title 4240:Land Tenure in the Colonies 3269:In Re Bed of Wanganui River 2598:Fine, Sean (26 June 2014). 2017:186 (8 December 1988), 1936:Milirrpum v Nabalco Pty Ltd 1913:2 All ER 785 (West Africa). 1346:Court of Appeal of Tanzania 1342:Canadian Food Aid Programme 1110:In Re the Ninety-Mile Beach 1045:Treaty of Waitangi Act 1975 583:filed a complaint with the 415:Milirrpum v Nabalco Pty Ltd 116:customary international law 5882: 4707:Widner, Jennifer A. 2001. 4700:Tenga, Ringo Willy. 1992. 4679:Peter, Chris Maina. 1997. 4341:McCorquodale, John. 1987. 4263:. Oxford University Press. 4238:Liversage, Vincent. 1945. 3956:, 21 U.S. 543, 573 (1823). 3190:. 10 March 1894. p. 5 2107:1 (23 December 1996), 1628:[1889] UKLawRpAC 7 1540:authorizing the purchase. 1536:were valid even without a 1530:British East India Company 1372: 725:Royal Proclamation of 1763 658: 461:, after paving the way in 450:, had a similar effect in 381: 75:, and that it may be held 5811:Indigenous Australian law 5762: 5134: 4750:Resources in your library 4721:Mvunga, Mphanza P. 1982. 4623:Williams, David V. 1999. 4322:Native Title in Australia 2409:(1996) 137 DLR (4th) 289. 2395:(1996) 138 DLR (4th) 657. 2343:2 S.C.R. 335 (Wilson J.). 2083:186 (16 March 1995), 1852:In re Southern Rhodesia 1823:In re Southern Rhodesia 1199:(2003), a suit under the 1088:Muriwhenua Fishing Report 877:Federal Court of Malaysia 591:. In 2007, Chief Justice 384:Native title in Australia 71:that aboriginal title is 5690:The Great Transformation 5048:Labor theory of property 4709:Building the rule of law 4474:Odhiambo, Atieno. 1981. 4467:Mackenzie, Fiona. 1998. 4327:Brockwell, Sally. 1979. 4135:(1924) L.R. 51 I.A. 357. 3844:South China Morning Post 3771:www.culturalsurvival.org 2525:Australian Law Librarian 2122:Western Australia v Ward 2032:Mabo v Queensland (No 2) 2006:Mabo v Queensland (No 1) 1923:Nyali v Attorney General 1865:In chronological order: 1634:286 (3 April 1889), 1617:Attorney-General v Brown 1418:Indian Claims Commission 1393:. Marshall envisioned a 1213:diamond mining operation 529:Western Australia v Ward 517:Wik Peoples v Queensland 480:Mabo v Queensland (No 2) 412:rejected the concept in 66:to that land by another 5836:Law of Papua New Guinea 5259:Forest-dwelling (India) 5221:restraint on alienation 5001:Common good (economics) 4558:New Zealand Law Journal 4549:Brookfield, F.M. 1999. 4493:Asia Pacific Law Review 4288:Slattery, Brian. 1983. 3714:Indigenous Law Bulletin 3690:4(23), pp. 9–11 (1999). 3688:Indigenous Law Bulletin 3359:[2007] NZCA 269 3282:In Re Ninety-Mile Beach 2512:Indigenous Law Bulletin 2329:(1973) 34 DRL (3d) 145. 2293:(1888) 14 App. Cas. 46. 2133:1 (8 August 2002), 1512:peoples, respectively. 1424:in 1978, and later the 1391:series of key decisions 1140:High Court of Australia 1076:general applicability. 751:Supreme Court of Canada 661:Canadian Indigenous law 459:High Court of Australia 373:History by jurisdiction 218:In re Southern Rhodesia 146:British colonial legacy 5698:Pierre-Joseph Proudhon 5472:Primitive accumulation 5327:Right of way (transit) 5112:Tragedy of the commons 4994:fictitious commodities 4693:Shivji, Issa G. 1990. 4672:Japhet, Kirilo. 1967. 4616:McHugh, Paul G. 1991. 4606:McHugh, Paul G. 1983. 4404:Clark, Bruce A. 1990. 4242:. pp. 2–18, 45—53 4078:, 348 U.S. 272 (1955). 4030:, 448 U.S. 371 (1980). 4018:, 316 U.S. 286 (1942). 4004:, 187 U.S. 553 (1903). 4002:Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock 3992:, 314 U.S. 339 (1942). 3335:[1987] NZCA 60 3217:Treaty Resource Centre 3188:The New Zealand Herald 3098:[1901] UKPC 50 3074:[1901] UKPC 50 3047:[1901] UKPC 18 3042:Nireaha Tamaki v Baker 2937:6 CLJ 509; 2 MLJ 677. 2898:4 AMR 621; 1 MLJ 256. 2685:10.22459/SCFCB.07.2006 2186:[1880] UKPC 46 1925:1 QB 1 (Lord Denning). 1638:(on appeal from NSW); 1622:; 2 SCR (NSW) App 30; 1551:Supreme Court of India 1485: 1275: 1270:Clickable imagemap of 1190: 1053:facilitate settlements 1041:Maori Affairs Act 1953 1037:statute of limitations 1035:established a 12-year 1004:Nireaha Tamaki v Baker 918: 737:Constitution Act, 1867 735:Section 91(24) of the 635:, which held that the 539:Yorta Yorta v Victoria 398:Torres Strait Islander 390:Indigenous Australians 360:Indigenous territories 354:Indigenous territories 348:Native Community Lands 237: 172:Doctrine of Continuity 159: 136:Indigenous land rights 44: 5751:The Wealth of Nations 5731:Jean-Jacques Rousseau 5723:The Ethics of Liberty 4644:Sack, Peter G. 1973. 4637:Mugambwa, J.T. 2002. 4618:The Maori Magna Carta 4397:Borrows, John. 2002. 4123:(1828) 1 Moo. IA 305. 4066:, 329 U.S. 40 (1946). 3527:[1969] HCA 62 3503:[1964] HCA 75 3479:[1973] HCA 59 3451:[1941] HCA 37 3413:UKPC 43; 2 NZLR 577. 3145:[1941] UKPC 6 2886:MLJU 240; 5 MLJ 305. 2305:Washington Law Review 2153:[2002] HCA 58 2127:[2002] HCA 28 2101:[1996] HCA 40 2077:[1995] HCA 47 2043:1 (3 June 1992), 2037:[1992] HCA 23 2011:[1988] HCA 69 1961:[1979] HCA 68 1680:[1969] HCA 28 1664:[1959] HCA 63 1644:[1913] HCA 33 1467: 1269: 1184: 1171:customary land tenure 960:Native Lands Act 1865 912: 870:representative action 659:Further information: 495:Native Title Act 1993 232: 153: 96:original Indian title 35: 18:Aboriginal land claim 5614:Progress and Poverty 4948:Common-pool resource 4594:Newcastle Law Review 4425:Ollennu, N.A. 1962. 4383:Grandi, Liza. 2006. 4295:Young, Simon. 2008. 4266:McNeil, Kent. 2001. 4259:McNeil, Kent. 1989. 4233:The Indigenous World 3007:(1870) (unreported). 2268:16 July 2010 at the 2226:17 July 2010 at the 1943:141 (27 April 1971) 1743:The Case of Tanistry 1416:, which created the 1359:Mkomazi Game Reserve 1283:Austronesian peoples 1205:Constitutional Court 1017:Native Land Act 1909 939:foreshore and seabed 589:American Declaration 573:Belize Supreme Court 176:Recognition Doctrine 100:in the United States 5841:Law of South Africa 5737:The Social Contract 5425:population transfer 5342:prior-appropriation 5021:homestead principle 4683:. pp. 214–269. 4516:Porter, A.F. 1967. 4256:(Oxford: OUP, 2011) 3953:Johnson v. McIntosh 3247:(1912) 32 NZLR 321. 3166:"Counties Act 1886" 3067:Te Teira Te Paea v 2644:Library of Congress 2527:9(1): 32–41 (2001). 2249:9 June 2011 at the 2242:. 12 October 2004. 2208:, 1989, at 141–147. 1867:Sobhuza II v Miller 1804:6 July 2011 at the 1733:, 1989, at 161–179. 1701:Coal Mines Act 1979 1572:Native Tongue Title 1526:Pratt–Yorke opinion 1033:Limitation Act 1950 611:Belize Constitution 366:Indian reservations 5717:Murray N. Rothbard 5028:Free-rider problem 4674:The Meru Land Case 4308:Seattle U. L. Rev. 4252:McHugh, PG. 2011. 3978:Goodell v. Jackson 3968:, 1 Ky. 77 (1791). 3377:2 NZLR 513 (coal). 3309:(1986) 1 NZLR 682. 3226:on 30 January 2018 2968:"(1847) NZPCC 387" 2604:The Globe and Mail 2471:Mitchell v. Canada 2406:R. v. Van der Peet 2162:"Judgment Summary" 1957:Coe v Commonwealth 1620:(1847) 1 Legge 312 1486: 1420:(succeeded by the 1410:sovereign immunity 1276: 1191: 1165:Schedule 2 of the 949:Treaty of Waitangi 919: 915:Treaty of Waitangi 868:, rather than the 749:(1982), the first 444:Northern Territory 432:Coe v Commonwealth 330:Percentage of land 252:Doctrinal overview 160: 123:indigenous peoples 54:doctrine that the 45: 5861:Land registration 5816:Real property law 5793: 5792: 5704:What Is Property? 5497:human trafficking 5482:Regulatory taking 5357: 5356: 5102:Right to property 4736:Library resources 4302:Blake A. Watson, 4245:Meek, C.K. 1946. 4121:Freeman v. Fairie 3966:Marshall v. Clark 3019:(1872) NZPCC 387. 2487:, 2007 BCSC 1700. 2461:153 D.L.R. (4th). 1872:518 (Swaziland); 1811:Osgoode Hall L.J. 1318:Chinese Civil War 1302:Republic of China 1049:Waitangi Tribunal 777:Numbered Treaties 769:(1985) overruled 320:right to property 246:Southern Rhodesia 239:Two years later, 108:indigenous rights 16:(Redirected from 5873: 5806:Aboriginal title 5770: 5769: 5674:John Stuart Mill 5594:Friedrich Engels 5575:Frédéric Bastiat 5568: 5420:Forced migration 5388:Collectivization 5132: 5011:First possession 4984:Bundle of rights 4789: 4782: 4775: 4766: 4741:Aboriginal Title 4632:Papua New Guinea 4309: 4184: 4178: 4172: 4166: 4160: 4154: 4148: 4142: 4136: 4130: 4124: 4118: 4112: 4109: 4103: 4097: 4091: 4085: 4079: 4073: 4067: 4061: 4055: 4037: 4031: 4025: 4019: 4011: 4005: 3999: 3993: 3987: 3981: 3975: 3969: 3963: 3957: 3949: 3943: 3937: 3931: 3923: 3917: 3911: 3905: 3902: 3896: 3890: 3884: 3878: 3872: 3866: 3860: 3854: 3848: 3847: 3836: 3830: 3829: 3818: 3812: 3811: 3800: 3794: 3793: 3781: 3775: 3774: 3763: 3757: 3756: 3728: 3717: 3710: 3704: 3697: 3691: 3680: 3674: 3668: 3662: 3656: 3650: 3649: 3621: 3610: 3604: 3598: 3592: 3586: 3580: 3574: 3568: 3562: 3556: 3550: 3544: 3538: 3520: 3514: 3496: 3490: 3472: 3466: 3458: 3444: 3438: 3432: 3426: 3420: 3414: 3408: 3402: 3396: 3390: 3384: 3378: 3372: 3366: 3352: 3346: 3328: 3322: 3316: 3310: 3304: 3298: 3292: 3286: 3278: 3272: 3266: 3260: 3254: 3248: 3242: 3236: 3235: 3233: 3231: 3225: 3219:. 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Archived from 2959: 2950: 2944: 2938: 2932: 2923: 2917: 2911: 2905: 2899: 2893: 2887: 2881: 2875: 2869: 2863: 2857: 2851: 2845: 2839: 2833: 2827: 2821: 2815: 2809: 2803: 2797: 2791: 2785: 2779: 2773: 2767: 2761: 2755: 2749: 2743: 2737: 2731: 2725: 2719: 2713: 2707: 2706: 2704: 2702: 2687: 2669: 2663: 2662: 2661:. 20 April 2019. 2655: 2649: 2648: 2635: 2629: 2628: 2621: 2615: 2614: 2612: 2610: 2595: 2589: 2588: 2586: 2584: 2570: 2564: 2558: 2552: 2546: 2540: 2534: 2528: 2521: 2515: 2508: 2502: 2494: 2488: 2482: 2476: 2468: 2462: 2454: 2448: 2442: 2436: 2430: 2424: 2416: 2410: 2402: 2396: 2388: 2382: 2374: 2368: 2362: 2356: 2350: 2344: 2336: 2330: 2322: 2313: 2312: 2300: 2294: 2288: 2282: 2279: 2273: 2260: 2254: 2237: 2231: 2218: 2209: 2207: 2203: 2197: 2179: 2173: 2172: 2166: 2144: 2138: 2118: 2112: 2094: 2088: 2068: 2062: 2058:Native Title Act 2054: 2048: 2028: 2022: 2002: 1996: 1988: 1982: 1974: 1968: 1954: 1948: 1947:(NT, Australia). 1932: 1926: 1920: 1914: 1863: 1857: 1850: 1844: 1837: 1828: 1821: 1815: 1812: 1795: 1789: 1786: 1780: 1777: 1771: 1761: 1755: 1752: 1746: 1740: 1734: 1732: 1728: 1704: 1697: 1691: 1651: 1630:, (1889) 14 1613: 1607: 1588: 1567:Ancestral domain 1498:Pitcairn Islands 1474:Pitcairn Islands 1470:Bounty mutineers 1252: 1240:Natives Land Act 1144:Papua New Guinea 1134:Papua New Guinea 964:Māori Land Court 763:to preserve it. 534:bundle of rights 180:private property 84:indigenous title 60:customary tenure 48:Aboriginal title 21: 5881: 5880: 5876: 5875: 5874: 5872: 5871: 5870: 5831:Law of Malaysia 5826:Law of Botswana 5796: 5795: 5794: 5789: 5758: 5562: 5561: 5555: 5505:husband-selling 5442:Illegal logging 5437:Illegal fishing 5366: 5353: 5264:Freedom to roam 5237: 5150:(agrarian land) 5123: 5080:Property rights 4972: 4929: 4891:Estate (landed) 4874: 4798: 4793: 4756: 4755: 4754: 4744: 4743: 4739: 4732: 4560:421–423 (2003). 4511:Lawasia Journal 4307: 4193: 4191:Further reading 4188: 4187: 4179: 4175: 4167: 4163: 4155: 4151: 4143: 4139: 4131: 4127: 4119: 4115: 4110: 4106: 4098: 4094: 4086: 4082: 4074: 4070: 4062: 4058: 4038: 4034: 4026: 4022: 4012: 4008: 4000: 3996: 3988: 3984: 3976: 3972: 3964: 3960: 3950: 3946: 3938: 3934: 3924: 3920: 3912: 3908: 3903: 3899: 3891: 3887: 3879: 3875: 3867: 3863: 3855: 3851: 3846:. 11 June 2018. 3838: 3837: 3833: 3820: 3819: 3815: 3802: 3801: 3797: 3783: 3782: 3778: 3765: 3764: 3760: 3730: 3729: 3720: 3711: 3707: 3698: 3694: 3681: 3677: 3669: 3665: 3657: 3653: 3623: 3622: 3613: 3605: 3601: 3593: 3589: 3581: 3577: 3569: 3565: 3561:P&NGLR 229. 3557: 3553: 3545: 3541: 3521: 3517: 3497: 3493: 3473: 3469: 3445: 3441: 3433: 3429: 3421: 3417: 3409: 3405: 3397: 3393: 3385: 3381: 3373: 3369: 3363:Court of Appeal 3353: 3349: 3343:Court of Appeal 3329: 3325: 3317: 3313: 3305: 3301: 3293: 3289: 3279: 3275: 3267: 3263: 3257:Re Lake Omapere 3255: 3251: 3243: 3239: 3229: 3227: 3223: 3212: 3208: 3207: 3203: 3193: 3191: 3182: 3181: 3177: 3164: 3163: 3159: 3139: 3135: 3129:Court of Appeal 3116: 3112: 3092: 3088: 3069:Te Roera Tareha 3065: 3061: 3039: 3035: 3027: 3023: 3015: 3011: 3003: 2999: 2991: 2987: 2977: 2975: 2966: 2960: 2953: 2945: 2941: 2933: 2926: 2918: 2914: 2906: 2902: 2894: 2890: 2882: 2878: 2870: 2866: 2858: 2854: 2846: 2842: 2834: 2830: 2822: 2818: 2810: 2806: 2798: 2794: 2786: 2782: 2774: 2770: 2762: 2758: 2750: 2746: 2738: 2734: 2726: 2722: 2714: 2710: 2700: 2698: 2696: 2671: 2670: 2666: 2657: 2656: 2652: 2637: 2636: 2632: 2623: 2622: 2618: 2608: 2606: 2597: 2596: 2592: 2582: 2580: 2572: 2571: 2567: 2559: 2555: 2547: 2543: 2535: 2531: 2522: 2518: 2509: 2505: 2495: 2491: 2483: 2479: 2474: 2469: 2465: 2455: 2451: 2443: 2439: 2431: 2427: 2417: 2413: 2403: 2399: 2389: 2385: 2375: 2371: 2363: 2359: 2351: 2347: 2337: 2333: 2323: 2316: 2302: 2301: 2297: 2289: 2285: 2280: 2276: 2270:Wayback Machine 2261: 2257: 2251:Wayback Machine 2238: 2234: 2228:Wayback Machine 2219: 2212: 2205: 2204: 2200: 2180: 2176: 2164: 2160: 2145: 2141: 2119: 2115: 2095: 2091: 2069: 2065: 2055: 2051: 2029: 2025: 2003: 1999: 1989: 1985: 1975: 1971: 1955: 1951: 1933: 1929: 1921: 1917: 1894:667 (Nigeria); 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Marshall 2489: 2477: 2463: 2449: 2437: 2425: 2411: 2397: 2383: 2381:1 S.C.R. 1075. 2369: 2357: 2345: 2331: 2314: 2295: 2283: 2274: 2255: 2232: 2210: 2198: 2174: 2139: 2113: 2089: 2063: 2049: 2023: 1997: 1983: 1969: 1949: 1927: 1915: 1858: 1845: 1829: 1816: 1797:Mark Walters, 1790: 1781: 1772: 1756: 1747: 1735: 1715: 1714: 1712: 1709: 1706: 1705: 1692: 1608: 1602:452 U.S. 968, 1582: 1581: 1579: 1576: 1575: 1574: 1569: 1562: 1559: 1517: 1514: 1478:Norfolk Island 1472:landed on the 1461: 1458: 1403:fiduciary duty 1373:Main article: 1370: 1367: 1333: 1330: 1291:ethnic Chinese 1247: 1244: 1178: 1175: 1135: 1132: 1084:fiduciary duty 906: 903: 820: 817: 805: 802: 761:fiduciary duty 711:St. Catharines 685:St. Catharines 656: 653: 618: 615: 593:Abdulai Conteh 547: 544: 382:Main article: 379: 376: 374: 371: 370: 369: 363: 357: 351: 345: 339: 331: 328: 324:fiduciary duty 313:public purpose 307: 306:Extinguishment 304: 276:allodial title 271: 268: 258: 255: 253: 250: 203:Oyekan v Adele 198:Lord Mansfield 170:doctrine, the 147: 144: 112:fiduciary duty 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5878: 5867: 5864: 5862: 5859: 5857: 5854: 5852: 5851:Law of Canada 5849: 5847: 5844: 5842: 5839: 5837: 5834: 5832: 5829: 5827: 5824: 5822: 5821:Law of Belize 5819: 5817: 5814: 5812: 5809: 5807: 5804: 5803: 5801: 5784: 5781: 5780: 5779: 5776: 5774: 5771:Categories: 5765: 5764: 5761: 5753: 5752: 5748: 5747: 5746: 5743: 5739: 5738: 5734: 5733: 5732: 5729: 5725: 5724: 5720: 5719: 5718: 5715: 5713: 5712:David Ricardo 5710: 5706: 5705: 5701: 5700: 5699: 5696: 5692: 5691: 5687: 5686: 5685: 5682: 5680: 5679:Elinor Ostrom 5677: 5675: 5672: 5668: 5667: 5663: 5662: 5661: 5658: 5654: 5653: 5649: 5648: 5647: 5644: 5640: 5639: 5635: 5634: 5633: 5630: 5628: 5625: 5623: 5620: 5616: 5615: 5611: 5610: 5609: 5606: 5602: 5601: 5597: 5596: 5595: 5592: 5590: 5587: 5583: 5582: 5578: 5577: 5576: 5573: 5572: 5570: 5566: 5558: 5552: 5549: 5545: 5542: 5540: 5537: 5535: 5532: 5530: 5527: 5526: 5525: 5522: 5518: 5515: 5511: 5508: 5506: 5503: 5502: 5500: 5498: 5495: 5493: 5490: 5489: 5488: 5485: 5483: 5480: 5478: 5477:Privatization 5475: 5473: 5470: 5468: 5465: 5463: 5460: 5458: 5457:Legal plunder 5455: 5453: 5450: 5448: 5445: 5443: 5440: 5438: 5435: 5431: 5428: 5426: 5423: 5422: 5421: 5418: 5416: 5415: 5411: 5409: 5408:Expropriation 5406: 5404: 5401: 5399: 5396: 5394: 5391: 5389: 5386: 5382: 5379: 5378: 5377: 5374: 5373: 5371: 5369: 5364: 5360: 5348: 5345: 5343: 5340: 5339: 5338: 5335: 5333: 5330: 5328: 5325: 5321: 5320: 5316: 5315: 5314: 5311: 5309: 5306: 5302: 5299: 5297: 5294: 5292: 5289: 5288: 5287: 5284: 5282: 5279: 5275: 5272: 5271: 5270: 5267: 5265: 5262: 5260: 5257: 5255: 5252: 5250: 5247: 5246: 5244: 5240: 5232: 5229: 5227: 5224: 5222: 5219: 5217: 5214: 5212: 5209: 5208: 5207: 5204: 5202: 5199: 5195: 5192: 5191: 5190: 5187: 5185: 5184: 5180: 5178: 5175: 5171: 5168: 5166: 5163: 5161: 5158: 5157: 5156: 5153: 5151: 5149: 5145: 5143: 5142:(watercourse) 5141: 5137: 5136: 5133: 5130: 5126: 5118: 5115: 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3552: 3548: 3543: 3540: 3536: 3532: 3528: 3524: 3519: 3516: 3512: 3508: 3505:, (1964) 113 3504: 3500: 3495: 3492: 3488: 3484: 3481:, (1973) 130 3480: 3476: 3471: 3468: 3464: 3460: 3452: 3448: 3443: 3440: 3436: 3431: 3428: 3424: 3419: 3416: 3412: 3407: 3404: 3400: 3395: 3392: 3388: 3383: 3380: 3376: 3371: 3368: 3364: 3360: 3356: 3351: 3348: 3344: 3340: 3336: 3332: 3327: 3324: 3320: 3315: 3312: 3308: 3303: 3300: 3296: 3291: 3288: 3284: 3283: 3277: 3274: 3270: 3265: 3262: 3258: 3253: 3250: 3246: 3241: 3238: 3222: 3218: 3211: 3205: 3202: 3189: 3185: 3179: 3176: 3171: 3167: 3161: 3158: 3154: 3153:Privy Council 3150: 3146: 3142: 3137: 3134: 3130: 3126: 3122: 3119: 3114: 3111: 3107: 3106:Privy Council 3103: 3099: 3095: 3090: 3087: 3083: 3082:Privy Council 3079: 3075: 3071: 3070: 3063: 3060: 3056: 3055:Privy Council 3052: 3048: 3044: 3043: 3037: 3034: 3030: 3025: 3022: 3018: 3013: 3010: 3006: 3001: 2998: 2994: 2989: 2986: 2974:on 1 May 2014 2973: 2969: 2965: 2964: 2958: 2956: 2952: 2948: 2943: 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ANU Press. 2677: 2676: 2668: 2665: 2660: 2654: 2651: 2646: 2645: 2640: 2634: 2631: 2626: 2620: 2617: 2605: 2601: 2594: 2591: 2579: 2578:Vancouver Sun 2575: 2569: 2566: 2562: 2557: 2554: 2550: 2545: 2542: 2538: 2533: 2530: 2526: 2520: 2517: 2513: 2507: 2504: 2500: 2499: 2493: 2490: 2486: 2481: 2478: 2473:1 S.C.R. 911. 2472: 2467: 2464: 2460: 2459: 2453: 2450: 2447:2 S.C.R. 915. 2446: 2441: 2438: 2435:2 S.C.R. 686. 2434: 2433:R. v. Sappier 2429: 2426: 2423:3 S.C.R. 139. 2422: 2421: 2415: 2412: 2408: 2407: 2401: 2398: 2394: 2393: 2387: 2384: 2380: 2379: 2378:R. v. Sparrow 2373: 2370: 2367:2 S.C.R. 387. 2366: 2361: 2358: 2354: 2353:R. v. Syliboy 2349: 2346: 2342: 2341: 2335: 2332: 2328: 2327: 2321: 2319: 2315: 2310: 2306: 2299: 2296: 2292: 2287: 2284: 2278: 2275: 2271: 2267: 2264: 2259: 2256: 2252: 2248: 2245: 2241: 2236: 2233: 2229: 2225: 2222: 2217: 2215: 2211: 2202: 2199: 2195: 2194:Privy Council 2191: 2187: 2183: 2178: 2175: 2170: 2163: 2158: 2155:, (2002) 214 2154: 2150: 2149: 2143: 2140: 2136: 2132: 2129:, (2002) 213 2128: 2124: 2123: 2117: 2114: 2110: 2106: 2103:, (1996) 187 2102: 2098: 2093: 2090: 2086: 2082: 2079:, (1988) 166 2078: 2074: 2073: 2067: 2064: 2060: 2059: 2053: 2050: 2046: 2042: 2039:, (1992) 175 2038: 2034: 2033: 2027: 2024: 2020: 2016: 2013:, (1988) 166 2012: 2008: 2007: 2001: 1998: 1994: 1993: 1987: 1984: 1980: 1979: 1973: 1970: 1966: 1962: 1958: 1953: 1950: 1946: 1945:Supreme Court 1942: 1938: 1937: 1931: 1928: 1924: 1919: 1916: 1912: 1908: 1905: 1901: 1897: 1893: 1889: 1885: 1882: 1878: 1875: 1871: 1868: 1862: 1859: 1855: 1849: 1846: 1842: 1836: 1834: 1830: 1826: 1820: 1817: 1813: 1807: 1803: 1800: 1794: 1791: 1785: 1782: 1776: 1773: 1767: 1766: 1765:Calvin's Case 1760: 1757: 1751: 1748: 1744: 1739: 1736: 1727: 1725: 1723: 1721: 1717: 1710: 1702: 1696: 1693: 1689: 1685: 1682:, (1969) 121 1681: 1677: 1674:(Australia); 1673: 1669: 1666:, (1959) 102 1665: 1661: 1658:(Australia); 1657: 1653: 1645: 1641: 1637: 1636:Privy Council 1633: 1629: 1625: 1621: 1618: 1612: 1609: 1605: 1601: 1597: 1593: 1587: 1584: 1577: 1573: 1570: 1568: 1565: 1564: 1560: 1558: 1556: 1552: 1548: 1547: 1541: 1539: 1535: 1531: 1527: 1523: 1515: 1513: 1511: 1507: 1503: 1499: 1495: 1491: 1483: 1479: 1476:and later on 1475: 1471: 1466: 1459: 1457: 1453: 1451: 1447: 1443: 1439: 1438: 1433: 1432: 1427: 1423: 1419: 1415: 1411: 1406: 1404: 1398: 1396: 1392: 1388: 1387: 1382: 1381:John Marshall 1376: 1369:United States 1368: 1366: 1364: 1360: 1356: 1350: 1347: 1343: 1339: 1336:In 1976, the 1331: 1329: 1326: 1321: 1319: 1315: 1311: 1307: 1303: 1299: 1294: 1292: 1288: 1284: 1280: 1273: 1245: 1243: 1241: 1237: 1233: 1228: 1224: 1222: 1218: 1214: 1210: 1206: 1202: 1198: 1197: 1188: 1183: 1176: 1174: 1172: 1168: 1163: 1161: 1157: 1156: 1151: 1150: 1145: 1141: 1133: 1131: 1129: 1125: 1120: 1116: 1112: 1111: 1106: 1105: 1100: 1096: 1091: 1089: 1085: 1081: 1080: 1074: 1070: 1066: 1062: 1061: 1056: 1054: 1050: 1046: 1042: 1038: 1034: 1028: 1026: 1020: 1018: 1014: 1010: 1006: 1005: 999: 997: 996: 995:terra nullius 991: 987: 983: 982: 977: 973: 969: 965: 961: 956: 954: 950: 946: 945: 940: 936: 932: 928: 924: 916: 911: 904: 902: 900: 899:customary law 896: 895:consideration 892: 888: 884: 883: 878: 875:In 2007, the 873: 871: 867: 863: 858: 855: 851: 850: 845: 844:Mokhtar Sidin 840: 838: 833: 831: 830: 825: 818: 816: 813: 811: 803: 801: 799: 798: 792: 788: 786: 785: 780: 778: 774: 773: 772:R. v. Syliboy 768: 767: 762: 758: 757: 752: 748: 747: 742: 738: 733: 730: 726: 722: 718: 717: 712: 708: 706: 702: 698: 697:First Nations 694: 690: 686: 682: 678: 677: 672: 671:Privy Council 666: 662: 654: 652: 650: 646: 642: 638: 634: 630: 629: 624: 616: 614: 612: 608: 607: 601: 598: 594: 590: 586: 582: 578: 574: 569: 567: 563: 559: 558:Privy Council 555: 554: 545: 543: 541: 540: 535: 531: 530: 525: 523: 519: 518: 513: 508: 506: 505: 500: 496: 492: 491: 490:terra nullius 486: 482: 481: 476: 472: 471: 466: 465: 460: 455: 453: 449: 445: 441: 437: 433: 429: 425: 421: 417: 416: 411: 407: 403: 399: 395: 391: 385: 377: 372: 367: 364: 361: 358: 355: 352: 349: 346: 343: 340: 337: 334: 333: 329: 327: 325: 321: 316: 315:requirement. 314: 305: 303: 301: 300:customary law 297: 291: 289: 285: 281: 280:radical title 277: 269: 267: 265: 256: 251: 249: 247: 242: 236: 231: 228: 226: 225: 220: 219: 214: 213: 207: 205: 204: 199: 195: 194: 193:Calvin's Case 189: 184: 181: 177: 173: 169: 165: 157: 152: 145: 143: 141: 137: 133: 129: 124: 119: 117: 113: 109: 105: 101: 97: 93: 89: 85: 80: 78: 74: 69: 65: 61: 57: 53: 49: 42: 38: 34: 30: 19: 5778:Property law 5749: 5735: 5721: 5702: 5688: 5684:Karl Polanyi 5664: 5660:Marcel Mauss 5650: 5636: 5627:David Harvey 5612: 5608:Henry George 5598: 5589:Ronald Coase 5579: 5564: 5510:wife selling 5492:bride buying 5430:repatriation 5412: 5363:Disposession 5317: 5290: 5206:Property law 5181: 5177:Forest types 5147: 5139: 5128:Applications 5058:rent-seeking 5043:Gift economy 4901:Intellectual 4740: 4722: 4708: 4701: 4694: 4687: 4680: 4673: 4659: 4653:South Africa 4645: 4638: 4624: 4617: 4607: 4600: 4593: 4589: 4582: 4575: 4568: 4564: 4557: 4550: 4543: 4530: 4528: 4517: 4510: 4503: 4499: 4492: 4489: 4475: 4468: 4454: 4440: 4426: 4412: 4405: 4398: 4384: 4370: 4356: 4349: 4342: 4335: 4328: 4321: 4303: 4296: 4289: 4274: 4267: 4260: 4253: 4246: 4239: 4232: 4226: 4219: 4212: 4202: 4180: 4176: 4168: 4164: 4156: 4152: 4144: 4140: 4132: 4128: 4120: 4116: 4107: 4099: 4095: 4087: 4083: 4075: 4071: 4063: 4059: 4035: 4027: 4023: 4013: 4009: 4001: 3997: 3989: 3985: 3977: 3973: 3965: 3961: 3951: 3947: 3939: 3935: 3925: 3921: 3913: 3909: 3900: 3892: 3888: 3880: 3876: 3868: 3864: 3856: 3852: 3843: 3834: 3825: 3816: 3807: 3798: 3789: 3779: 3770: 3761: 3736: 3732: 3713: 3708: 3700: 3695: 3687: 3683: 3678: 3670: 3666: 3658: 3654: 3629: 3625: 3606: 3602: 3594: 3590: 3582: 3578: 3570: 3566: 3558: 3554: 3546: 3542: 3537:(Australia). 3522: 3518: 3513:(Australia). 3498: 3494: 3489:(Australia). 3474: 3470: 3465:(Australia). 3446: 3442: 3434: 3430: 3422: 3418: 3410: 3406: 3398: 3394: 3386: 3382: 3374: 3370: 3354: 3350: 3330: 3326: 3318: 3314: 3306: 3302: 3294: 3290: 3280: 3276: 3268: 3264: 3256: 3252: 3244: 3240: 3228:. Retrieved 3221:the original 3216: 3204: 3192:. Retrieved 3187: 3178: 3169: 3160: 3140: 3136: 3123:; (1902) 21 3117: 3113: 3093: 3089: 3066: 3062: 3040: 3036: 3028: 3024: 3016: 3012: 3004: 3000: 2992: 2988: 2978:28 September 2976:. Retrieved 2972:the original 2961: 2946: 2942: 2934: 2919: 2915: 2907: 2903: 2895: 2891: 2883: 2879: 2871: 2867: 2859: 2855: 2847: 2843: 2835: 2831: 2823: 2819: 2811: 2807: 2799: 2795: 2787: 2783: 2775: 2771: 2763: 2759: 2751: 2747: 2739: 2735: 2727: 2723: 2715: 2711: 2701:28 September 2699:. Retrieved 2674: 2667: 2653: 2642: 2633: 2619: 2609:28 September 2607:. Retrieved 2603: 2593: 2583:28 September 2581:. Retrieved 2577: 2568: 2560: 2556: 2548: 2544: 2536: 2532: 2524: 2519: 2511: 2506: 2496: 2492: 2484: 2480: 2470: 2466: 2456: 2452: 2445:R. v. Morris 2444: 2440: 2432: 2428: 2418: 2414: 2404: 2400: 2390: 2386: 2376: 2372: 2364: 2360: 2352: 2348: 2340:R. v. Guerin 2338: 2334: 2324: 2308: 2304: 2298: 2290: 2286: 2277: 2258: 2235: 2201: 2181: 2177: 2146: 2142: 2120: 2116: 2111:(Australia). 2096: 2092: 2087:(Australia). 2070: 2066: 2056: 2052: 2047:(Australia). 2030: 2026: 2021:(Australia). 2004: 2000: 1990: 1986: 1976: 1972: 1956: 1952: 1934: 1930: 1922: 1918: 1910: 1909:325 (Fiji); 1903: 1895: 1887: 1880: 1873: 1866: 1861: 1856:211, 233–34. 1848: 1819: 1809: 1793: 1784: 1775: 1763: 1759: 1750: 1742: 1738: 1695: 1690:(Australia). 1675: 1659: 1639: 1623: 1616: 1611: 1603: 1600:cert. denied 1599: 1595: 1591: 1586: 1544: 1542: 1538:Crown patent 1519: 1490:Commonwealth 1487: 1468:Some of the 1454: 1449: 1435: 1429: 1407: 1399: 1384: 1378: 1351: 1335: 1323:In 2017 the 1322: 1295: 1277: 1229: 1225: 1220: 1216: 1209:Richtersveld 1194: 1192: 1187:Richtersveld 1177:South Africa 1164: 1153: 1147: 1137: 1114: 1108: 1102: 1092: 1087: 1077: 1072: 1064: 1058: 1057: 1047:created the 1029: 1021: 1008: 1002: 1000: 993: 989: 985: 979: 975: 957: 942: 920: 890: 886: 880: 874: 861: 859: 847: 841: 834: 827: 822: 814: 807: 795: 793: 789: 782: 781: 770: 764: 754: 746:R. v. Guerin 744: 734: 720: 714: 710: 709: 684: 674: 668: 644: 626: 620: 604: 602: 577:Maya peoples 570: 556:(1880), the 551: 549: 537: 527: 526: 515: 509: 503: 488: 487:, rejecting 484: 478: 474: 473:, overruled 468: 463: 456: 436:class action 431: 423: 413: 387: 336:Native title 317: 309: 292: 273: 260: 245: 241:Amodu Tijani 240: 238: 233: 229: 222: 216: 210: 208: 201: 191: 185: 168:Act of State 161: 140:native title 120: 103: 95: 92:in Australia 88:native title 87: 83: 81: 47: 46: 39:against the 29: 5856:Land tenure 5652:Das Kapital 5539:progressive 5529:inheritance 5452:Land reform 5226:real estate 5201:Land tenure 5189:Inheritance 5117:anticommons 5053:Law of rent 5033:Game theory 4963:Information 4943:Common land 4840:Cooperative 4603:363 (2000). 4537:New Zealand 4310:507 (2011). 4196:Comparative 4052:§ 1505 3437:3 NZLR 643. 3425:2 NZLR 661. 3321:2 NZLR 188. 3005:Kauwaeranga 2963:R v Symonds 2392:R. v. Adams 2365:R. v. Simon 2188:, (1880) 6 2137:(Australia) 1967:(Australia) 1522:inalienable 1450:Tee-Hit-Ton 1221:Yorta Yorta 1169:recognizes 1069:Paul McHugh 944:R v Symonds 905:New Zealand 872:provision. 837:inalienable 810:Ainu people 766:R. v. Simon 756:sui generis 406:Blackburn J 404:. In 1971, 264:sovereignty 257:Recognition 221:(1919) and 188:Edward Coke 156:Mohegan Sun 73:inalienable 64:sovereignty 5800:Categories 5783:by country 5745:Adam Smith 5632:John Locke 5296:indigenous 5291:aboriginal 5211:alienation 4906:indigenous 4896:Intangible 4810:Collective 4596:65 (2004). 4513:99 (2002). 4506:54 (2007). 4495:83 (2001). 4364:Bangladesh 3716:18 (2004). 3585:PNGLR 186. 3549:PNGLR 232. 3535:High Court 3511:High Court 3487:High Court 3463:High Court 3455:(1941) 67 2949:8 MLJ 441. 2922:2 MLJ 555. 2910:3 MLJ 289. 2862:6 MLJ 289. 2850:2 MLJ 591. 2838:6 MLJ 241. 2826:2 MLJ 158. 2814:1 MLJ 418. 2766:MLJU 0410. 2754:4 MLJ 415. 2742:1 MLJ 192. 2514:19 (1998). 2420:R. v. Côté 2169:High Court 2135:High Court 2109:High Court 2085:High Court 2045:High Court 2019:High Court 1965:High Court 1939:(1971) 17 1711:References 1688:High Court 1672:High Court 1656:High Court 1648:(1913) 16 1510:Polynesian 1482:Polynesian 1314:Communists 1296:From 1895 1107:overruled 1093:Circa the 972:fee simple 937:, and the 931:river beds 854:Orang Asli 689:Indian Act 633:Roy Sesana 566:fee simple 394:Aboriginal 288:fee simple 174:, and the 68:colonising 52:common law 5646:Karl Marx 5447:Land Back 5398:Enclosure 5381:biopiracy 5319:Bergregal 5301:squatting 5075:Ownership 4989:Commodity 4968:Knowledge 4879:By nature 4835:Customary 4825:Community 4448:Hong Kong 4315:Australia 4159:INSC 150. 4046:, et seq 4044:§ 70 3753:140759377 3646:216091875 3597:PNGLR 22. 3297:NZLR 322. 3285:NZLR 461. 2874:7 MLJ 10. 2778:2 MLJ 66. 2311:(3): 643. 1814:4 (2007). 1604:on remand 1532:from the 1115:Wi Parata 1065:Wi Parata 1009:Wi Parata 986:Wi Parata 953:Chapman J 935:lake beds 866:O. 53 RHC 842:In 1997, 485:Mabo No 2 475:Milirrpum 464:Mabo No 1 424:Milirrpum 378:Australia 296:the Crown 5773:Property 5666:The Gift 5565:key work 5560:Scholars 5544:property 5501:spousal 5467:Poaching 5403:Eviction 5347:riparian 5308:Littoral 5216:easement 5194:executor 5165:literary 5090:usufruct 5038:Georgism 4918:Tangible 4913:Personal 4820:Communal 4803:By owner 4796:Property 4667:Tanzania 4483:Malaysia 4183:INSC 77. 4171:INSC 52. 4147:INSC 55. 3790:SupChina 3230:28 April 3194:27 April 2802:CLJ 486. 2730:SCR 104. 2266:Archived 2247:Archived 2224:Archived 1802:Archived 1561:See also 1496:and the 1494:Barbados 1395:usufruct 1332:Tanzania 1316:won the 1236:Khoekhoe 1152:(1941), 1073:Te Weehi 1015:and the 984:(1877). 951:(1840). 824:Malaysia 819:Malaysia 681:usufruct 623:Botswana 617:Botswana 606:alcaldes 501:(NNTT). 483:(1992). 428:Paul Coe 284:usufruct 235:bridged. 227:(1921). 206:(1957). 128:Malaysia 37:Protests 5581:The Law 5487:Slavery 5313:Mineral 5281:Hunting 5274:pannage 5269:Grazing 5254:Fishing 5140:Acequia 5107:Rivalry 5095:women's 4953:Digital 4935:Commons 4870:Unowned 4845:Private 4578:(1994). 4571:(1993). 4525:Namibia 3895:TLR 88. 3871:TLR 19. 3808:Reuters 3703:(2004). 2718:SCR 95. 1898:(1953) 1632:App Cas 1555:Adivasi 1328:owned. 1025:Opuatia 990:Symonds 976:Symonds 729:Nisga'a 579:of the 408:of the 270:Content 102:), and 5462:Piracy 5414:Farhud 5242:Rights 5183:Huerta 5155:Estate 4977:Theory 4958:Global 4860:Social 4850:Public 4815:Common 4738:about 4716:Zambia 4434:Guyana 4392:Canada 4378:Belize 4281: 4050: 4042: 3751: 3644: 2993:Oakura 2692: 2206:McNeil 2061:(Cth). 1981:(Cth). 1731:McNeil 1508:, and 1502:Arawak 1442:taking 1355:Maasai 1349:year. 1287:Taiwan 1272:Taiwan 1246:Taiwan 1189:desert 1011:. 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