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first words (usually around 12 months). Before infants can identify words, they just hear "sounds" that they come to recognize. Eventually neural pathways are established in the brain that link each sound with a meaning. The more frequently a word is heard, the more its connection is solidified and the same goes for accents. There is no "standard" accent for the child to practice; as far as they are concerned, the accent they hear from their parents is not the "right" way but the only way. Eventually children graduate from the conscious act of recalling each word, and it becomes natural, like breathing. As children grow up, they learn vocabulary of the language they are immersed in, whether assisted by parents or not. However, their first few encounters with words determine the way they will pronounce them for the rest of their lives. This is how accents are cultivated in groups as small as towns and as large as countries; it is a compounding effect. Though it is possible to develop a new accent or lose an old one, it is difficult because the neural pathways created when learning the language were developed with the "original" pronunciations.
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positions than those with standard accents. In business settings, individuals with non-standard accents are more likely to be evaluated negatively. Accent discrimination is also present in educational institutions. For example, non-native speaking graduate students, lecturers, and professors, across college campuses in the US have been targeted for being unintelligible because of accent. Second language speakers have reported being discriminated against, or feeling marginalized for, when they attempted to find a job in higher ranking positions mainly because of their accents. On average, however, students taught by non-native
English speakers do not underperform when compared to those taught by native speakers of English. Some English native-speaker students in Canada reported a preference for non-native speaker instructors as long as the instructor's speech is intelligible. This was due to the psychological impacts such circumstances has on the students requiring them to pay closer attention to the instructor to ensure they understand them.
460:
native-like pronunciation, an individual is unlikely to acquire a native-like accent. This theory, however, is quite controversial among researchers. Although many subscribe to some form of the critical period, they either place it earlier than puberty or consider it more of a critical "window," which may vary from one individual to another and depend on factors other than age, such as length of residence, similarity of the non-native language to the native language, and the frequency with which both languages are used.
456:"forgotten" sounds. A prime example of this can be seen between German and English—the "w" and "th" sounds, like in the English words "wish" and "this" respectively, do not exist in German—the closest sounds are "v" and "z". As a result, many English-speaking Germans pronounce "wish" as "vish" and "this" as "zis". A similar disjunction occurs in German-speaking native English speakers, who may find it difficult to pronounce the vowels in German words such as "schön" (beautiful) and "müde" (tired).
401:
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663:"lecturer", sometimes Asian-looking, sometimes white. Participants in the study who saw the Asian picture believed that they had heard an accented lecturer and performed worse on a task that measured lecture comprehension. Negative evaluations may reflect the prejudices rather than real issues with understanding accents.
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held that a white police officer, who had not seen the black defendant allegedly involved in a drug transaction, could, nevertheless, identify him as a participant by saying that a voice on an audiotape "sounded black". The police officer based this "identification" on the fact that the defendant was
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Even when the listener does understand the speaker, the presence of an accent that is difficult to understand can produce anxiety in the listener that he will not understand what comes next, and cause him to end the conversation earlier or avoid difficult topics. "In speech the perceptual salience of
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In the United States, Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibits discrimination based on national origin, implying accents. However, employers may claim that a person's accent impairs their communication skills that are necessary to the effective business operation. The courts often rely on
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Pronunciation is not important: "This is patently false from any perspective." Speech/Pronunciation forms the vehicle for transmitting the speaker's meaning. If the listener does not understand the message, no communication takes place, and although there are other factors involved, one of the most
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Studies have shown the perception of the accent, not the accent by itself, often results in negative evaluations of speakers. In a study conducted by Rubin (1992), students listened to a taped lecture recorded by a native
English speaker with a standard accent. They were then shown an image of the
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Many teachers of
English as a second language for example neglect teaching speech and pronunciation. Many adult and near-adult learners of second languages have unintelligible speech patterns that may interfere with their education, profession, and social interactions. Pronunciation in a second or
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Nevertheless, children as young as 6 at the time of moving to another country often speak with a noticeable non-native accent as adults. There are also rare instances of individuals who are able to pass for native speakers even if they learned their non-native language in early adulthood. However,
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Accents of non-native speakers may be the result of the speaker's native language. Each language contains distinct sets of sounds. At around 12 months of age, human infants will pick out which sounds they need to learn their language. As they get older it becomes increasingly harder to learn these
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Accent serves as the first point of gate keeping because we are forbidden, by law and social custom, and perhaps by a prevailing sense of what is morally and ethically right, from using race, ethnicity, homeland or economics more directly. We have no such compunctions about language, thus, accent
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Children are able to take on accents relatively quickly. Children of immigrant families, for example, generally have a pronunciation more similar to people native to where they live compared to their parents, but both children and parents may have an accent noticeably differing from local people.
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In the
English speaking world, speakers with certain accents often experience discrimination in housing and employment. For example, speakers who have foreign or ethnic-minority accents are less likely to be called back by landlords and are more likely to be assigned by employers to lower status
431:
During the early period of rapid cognitive development in a child's life, it is much easier to develop and master foreign skills such as learning a new (or first) language. Verbal cues are processed and silently learned in preparation for the day the vocal system is developed enough to speak its
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Researchers consistently show that people with non-native accents are judged as less intelligent, less competent, less educated, having poor
English/language skills, and unpleasant to listen to. Not only people with standard accents subscribe to these beliefs and attitudes, but individuals with
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Intelligibility of speech, in comparison to native-like accent, has been experimentally reported to be of greater importance for the second language speakers. As such ways of increasing intelligibility of speech has been recommended by some researchers within the field. A strong accent does not
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in the United States, accents can be traced back to when an area was settled and by whom. Areas like the city of New
Orleans in Louisiana that are, or at one point in time were, semi-isolated have distinct accents due to the absence of contact between regions. Isolated regions allow dialects to
459:
An important factor in predicting the degree to which the accent will be noticeable (or strong) is the age at which the non-native language was learned. The critical period theory states that if learning takes place after the critical period (usually considered around puberty) for acquiring
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The goals of speech/pronunciation instruction should include: to help the learner speak in a way that is easy to understand and does not distract the listener, to increase the self-confidence of the learner, and to develop the skills to self-monitor and adapt one's own speech.
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study, babies were told to choose a toy from two recorded speakers with varying characteristics. Ahead of all variables tested, including race and gender, recordings speaking with an accent native to the child were selected at a considerably higher frequency.
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neurological constraints associated with brain development appear to limit most non-native speakers' ability to sound native-like. Most researchers agree that for most adults, acquiring a native-like accent in a non-native language is near impossible.
641:
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the only
African American man in the room at the time of the transaction and that an audio-tape contained the voice of a man the officer said "sounded black" selling crack cocaine to a European American informant planted by the police.
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the employer's claims or use judges' subjective opinions when deciding whether the (potential) employee's accent would interfere with communication or performance, without any objective proof that accent was or might be a hindrance.
358:, the interaction of people from many ethnic backgrounds contributed to the formation of the different varieties of North American accents. It is difficult to measure or predict how long it takes an accent to form. Accents from
700:
animated films, mothers and fathers typically speak with White, middle-class
American or English accents. On another note, English accents in Disney animated films are frequently employed for one of two purposes:
342:. Although grammar, semantics, vocabulary, and other language characteristics often vary concurrently with accent, the word "accent" may refer specifically to the differences in pronunciation, whereas the word "
688:
Actors are often called upon to speak a language variety other than their own. For instance, an actor may portray a character of some nationality other than their own by adopting into their native language the
508:
foreign language involves more than the correct articulation of individual sounds. It involves producing a wide range of complex and subtle distinctions which relate sound to meaning at several levels.
495:
Accents are an important dimension of social identity, both individual and communal, due to their ability to identify group or community belonging. One's accent can showcase their class, religion or
1416:
To know a language is really about separating correct from awry? Language is a living organism that varies by context and goes far beyond a collection of rules and norms of how to speak and write
636:
accents also often stereotype against their own or others' accents. Research demonstrates that an average listener is adept at detecting an accent typical of a language differing from their own.
965:
Flege, James Emil; David
Birdsong; Ellen Bialystok; Molly Mack; Hyekyung Sung; Kimiko Tsukada (2006). "Degree of foreign accent in English sentences produced by Korean children and adults".
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in a society than other accents, such that some speakers may as a result consciously adopt them. This is often due to their association with the elite part of society. For example, in the
523:
Inadequate instruction in speech/pronunciation can result in a complete breakdown in communication. The proliferation of commercial "accent reduction" services is seen as a sign that many
1684:
Tsalikis, J., Ortiz-Buonafina, M., & La Tour, M. S. (1992). "The role of accent on the credibility and effectiveness of the international business-person: The case of
Guatemala."
1443:
1541:
LaBelle, Suzanne (2011). "Language standardiation". In A. Mooney; J. Stilwell Peccei; S. LaBelle; B. Engøy Henriksen; E. Eppler; A. Irwin; P. Pichler; S. Preece; S. Soden (eds.).
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may sometimes be erroneously designated in their countries of origin as "accentless" to indicate that they offer no obvious clue to the speaker's regional or social background.
19:
This article is about a way of pronouncing a language that is distinctive to a country, area, social class, or individual. For the prominence of a single syllable or word, see
1272:
Georgetown University Round Table on Languages and Linguistics (GURT) 1996: Linguistics, Language Acquisition, and Language Variation: Current Trends and Future Prospects
374:
for example, developed from the combinations of different accents and languages in various societies and their effect on the various pronunciations of British settlers.
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In linguistics, there is no differentiation among accents in regard to their prestige, aesthetics, or correctness. All languages and accents are linguistically equal.
1736:
Nguyen, B. B.-D. (1993). "Accent discrimination and the Test of Spoken English: A call for an objective assessment of the comprehensibility of nonnative speakers."
1624:
Zhao, B., Ondrich, J., & Yinger, J. (2006). "Why do real estate brokers continue to discriminate? Evidence from the 2000 Housing Discrimination Study."
585:-influenced speech, associated with rural environment and lack of formal education, together with the Portuguese spoken in some other communities of lower
274:
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As human beings spread out into isolated communities, stresses and peculiarities develop. Over time, they can develop into identifiable accents. In
1501:
Bresnahan, M. J., Ohashi, R., Nebashi, R., Liu, W. Y., & Shearman, S. M. (2002). "Attitudinal and affective response toward accented English."
1640:
Rubin, D. L. (2002). "Help! My professor (or doctor or boss) doesn't speak English." In J. N. Martin, T. K. Nakayama, & L. A. Flores (Eds.),
1114:
Bongaerts, T., van Summeren, C., Planken, B., & Schils, E. (1997). "Age and ultimate attainment in the pronunciation of a foreign language."
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Unlike other forms of discrimination, there are no strong norms against accent discrimination in the general society. Rosina Lippi-Green writes,
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Accents seem to remain relatively malleable until a person's early twenties, after which a person's accent seems to become more entrenched.
781:
1440:
1834:
Lindemann, S. (2003). "Koreans, Chinese or Indians? Attitudes and ideologies about non-native English speakers in the United States."
1754:
1753:. Courtroom: Court sanctioned Racial Stereotyping, 18 Harvard BlackLetter Law Journal 185–210, 185–188 (Spring, 2002)(179 Footnotes).
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Accents have even found to be more impactful on perception of babies than known perceptual dividers like race, religion, or sex. In a
1723:
Rubin, D. L. (1992). "Non language factors affecting undergraduates' judgments of nonnative English-speaking teaching assistants."
1881:
Wated, G., & Sanchez, J. I. (2006). "The role of accent as a work stress or on attitudinal and health-related work outcomes."
1391:
476:, speakers who deviate from it are often said to "speak with an accent". However, everyone speaks with an accent. People from the
1962:
761:
730:
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1147:
Matsuda, M. J. (1991). "Voices of America: Accent, antidiscrimination law, and a jurisprudence for the last reconstruction."
267:
1166:"Does accent matter? Investigating the relationship between accent and identity in English as a lingua franca communication"
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revealed that the speech patterns of even so conservative a figure as a monarch can continue to change over her lifetime.
1128:
1067:
Piske, T., MacKay, I. R. A., & Flege, J. E. (2001). "Factors affecting degree of foreign accent in an L2: A review".
524:
1527:
Nesdale, D., & Rooney, R. (1996). "Evaluations and stereotyping of accented speakers by pre-adolescent children."
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552:
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Students will pick it up on their own: "Some will learn to pronounce the second language intelligibly; many will not."
378:
319:. An accent may be identified with the locality in which its speakers reside (a regional or geographical accent), the
134:
78:
1777:
1514:
Cargile, A. C., & Giles, H. (1997). "Understanding language attitudes: Exploring listener affect and identity."
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Accent, intelligibility, and identity in international teaching assistants and internationally-educated instructors
711:
1867:
Moyer, A. (1999). "Ultimate attainment in L2 phonology: The critical factors of age, motivation and instruction."
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Fleisher, B., Hashimoto, M., & Weinberg, B. A. (2002). "Foreign GTAs can be effective teachers of economics."
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Accents typically differ in quality of voice, pronunciation and distinction of vowels and consonants, stress, and
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Negative perceptions of accents, the basis of which may relate to the speaker's social identity, can manifest as
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489:
1488:
Bradac, J. J. (1990). "Language attitudes and impression formation." In H. Giles & W. P. Robinson (Eds.),
944:
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profile typical of the nationality to be portrayed, in what is commonly known as "speaking with an accent".
992:
Harrington, Jonathan (2006). "An Acoustic Analysis of 'Happy Tensing' in the Queen's Christmas Broadcasts".
822:
766:
697:
444:
212:
188:
129:
83:
28:
1841:
Lindemann, S. (2005). "Who speaks 'broken English'? US undergraduates' perception of non-native English."
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149:
119:
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Accents may vary within regions of an area in which a uniform language is spoken. In some cases, such as
1957:
791:
339:
222:
144:
1927:
1697:
Mastitis, A. (2005). "U.S. academic institutions and perceived effectiveness of foreign-born faculty."
1905:– Listen to regional accents and dialects of the UK on the British Library's 'Sounds Familiar' website
1165:
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expand and evolve independently. Social and economic factors can also influence the way people speak.
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Nonetheless, accents are not fixed even in adulthood. An acoustic analysis by Jonathan Harrington of
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20:
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202:
1919:
346:" encompasses the broader set of linguistic differences. "Accent" is often a subset of "dialect".
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39:
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Linguistic prejudice and the surprising (academic and formal) unity of Brazilian Portuguese
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73:
58:
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332:
53:
1902:
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A Time to Speak: A Psycho linguistic Inquiry into the Critical Period for Human Speech
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Certain accents, particularly those of European heritage, are perceived to carry more
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Teaching of speech/pronunciation is neglected in part because of the following myths:
400:
1941:
1373:
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becomes a litmus test for exclusion, and excuse to turn away, to recognize the other.
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teachers are not meeting their students' needs for speech/pronunciation instruction.
477:
371:
355:
296:
104:
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1415:
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English with an Accent: Language, Ideology, and Discrimination in the United States
690:
586:
440:
391:
363:
312:
1030:
706:
1270:
1181:
902:
1298:"Passing for a native speaker: Identity and success in second language learning"
771:
564:
481:
1934:– a summary of research on non-native accents and extensive accent bibliography
1572:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
1015:
978:
1915:
The Speech Accent Archive (Native and non-native accent recordings of English)
1671:
1357:
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Accents may have stereotypical associations in entertainment. For example, in
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316:
159:
1475:(2010). "The way they speak: Stigma of non-native accents in communication."
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1313:
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324:
114:
24:
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dwellers, and other sociocultural variants such as middle and upper class
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the accent overrides other measures of competence and performance," wrote
1781:
300:
169:
154:
1458:
Edwards, J. (1999). "Refining our understanding of language attitudes."
1051:
Scovel, T. (2000). "A critical review of the critical period research."
1204:
605:
343:
304:
109:
1220:
1100:
591:
359:
308:
164:
1811:
The Adventure of English, 500AD to 2000: The Biography of a Language
1342:"Putting accent in its place: Rethinking obstacles to communication"
1908:
1205:"Accent, Identity, and a Fear of Loss? ESL Students' Perspectives"
480:
would "speak English with an accent" from the point of view of an
328:
1642:
Readings in Intercultural Communication: Experiences and Contexts
579:, especially considering the disparity of prestige between most
516:
important is the intelligibility of the speaker's pronunciation.
1656:"Employment interviewers' reactions to Mexican American speech"
543:
necessarily impede intelligibility despite common perceptions.
1924:
395:
709:. Examples of this can be seen in characters from the films
1909:'Hover & Hear' accents of English from around the World
563:
of the English language is associated with the traditional
331:
or social class (a social accent), or influence from their
1914:
613:) to the other side, inside Southeastern Brazil itself.
926:"Probing Question: How Did Regional Accents Originate?"
412:
1892:. (3 volumes). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
1851:
Authority in Language: Investigating Standard English
819:The New Oxford American Dictionary. Second Edition
567:. The same can be said about the predominance of
1129:Maturational constraints on language development
1036:. Linguistic Society of America, Washington, DC.
1778:"Why Villains in Movies Have English Accents"
1340:Derwing, Tracey M.; Munro, Murray J. (2009).
1264:
1262:
1260:
1258:
1256:
1254:
1252:
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1248:
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1203:McCrocklin, Shannon; Link, Stephanie (2016).
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850:
848:
846:
844:
842:
268:
8:
1843:International Journal of Applied Linguistics
1164:Sung, Chit Cheung Matthew (August 1, 2016).
16:A distinctive way of pronouncing a language
1883:International Journal of Stress Management
1490:Handbook of Language and Social psychology
1143:
1141:
275:
261:
35:
1849:Milroy, James; and Lesley Milroy (2005).
1601:
1591:
1568:"The Native Language of Social Cognition"
1529:Journal of Language and Social Psychology
1460:Journal of Language and Social Psychology
1099:
1005:
23:. For the symbols on top of letters, see
1831:. Buckingham, UK: Open University Press.
1636:
1634:
1477:Personality and Social Psychology Review
1085:
1083:
1081:
1079:
1077:
1063:
1061:
882:A Dictionary of Language and Linguistics
675:Kentucky's highest court in the case of
960:
958:
807:
194:
177:
91:
45:
38:
1869:Studies in Second Language Acquisition
1827:Giles, H., & Coupland, N. (1991).
1133:Studies in Second Language Acquisition
1116:Studies in Second Language Acquisition
1094:(PhD thesis). University of Manitoba.
620:Accent stereotyping and discrimination
1878:. Cambridge, England: New bury House.
1776:il viaggiatore (12 September 2011) .
1335:
1333:
1331:
1159:
1157:
893:
891:
813:
811:
7:
1654:de la Zerda, N.; Hopper, R. (1979).
1269:Alatis, James E. (August 15, 1996).
1053:Annual Review of Applied Linguistics
1031:"Why do Some People Have an Accent?"
782:Non-native pronunciations of English
1853:(3rd ed.). London: Routledge.
1829:Language: Contexts and Consequences
1644:(pp. 127–137). Boston: McGraw Hill.
1209:The Canadian Modern Language Review
1813:. London: Hodder & Stoughton.
1566:Spelke, Elizabeth (June 9, 2007).
1492:(pp. 387–412). London: John Wiley.
1394:from the original on June 14, 2008
943:Kiester, Edwin (January 1, 2001).
484:, and vice versa. Accents such as
14:
1757:from the original on May 29, 2008
1911:, and compare them side by side.
924:Etter, Sarah (August 29, 2005).
762:English-language accents in film
399:
243:
234:
233:
184:
183:
1545:. Routledge. pp. 187–205.
1275:. Georgetown University Press.
901:. LINGUIST List. Archived from
737:, respectively), among others.
1686:International Marketing Review
1:
1712:Journal of Economic Education
1543:Language, Society & Power
899:"Ask a Linguist FAQ: Accents"
1725:Research in Higher Education
1182:10.1016/j.system.2016.06.002
1836:Journal of Sociolinguistics
1302:Journal of Sociolinguistics
884:. Malden-Oxford: Blackwell.
787:Regional accents of English
611:the state of Rio de Janeiro
571:accents in the case of the
379:regional accents of English
1979:
1920:Wells Accents and Spelling
1751:"Race, Racism and the Law"
1699:Journal of Economic Issues
1626:Journal of Urban Economics
1516:Language and Communication
1503:Language and Communication
1426:Museu da Língua Portuguesa
1016:10.1016/j.wocn.2005.08.001
979:10.1016/j.wocn.2005.05.001
389:
18:
1930:January 16, 2021, at the
1672:10.1080/03637757909375998
1358:10.1017/S026144480800551X
677:Clifford vs. Commonwealth
630:employment discrimination
303:that is distinctive to a
218:Sociocultural linguistics
1660:Communication Monographs
1421:22 December 2012 at the
1090:Mahdi, Rahimian (2018).
855:Lippi-Green, R. (1997).
490:General American English
445:Royal Christmas Messages
1963:Linguistics terminology
1593:10.1073/pnas.0705345104
1446:21 October 2012 at the
1314:10.1111/1467-9481.00184
1296:Piller, Ingrid (2002).
949:Smithsonian Institution
880:Crystal, David (2008).
859:. New York: Routledge.
823:Oxford University Press
767:Foreign accent syndrome
472:When a group defines a
323:of its speakers, their
213:Linguistic anthropology
130:Phono-semantic matching
29:Accent (disambiguation)
1780:. h2g2. Archived from
1390:. Indiana University.
1029:Birner, Betty (1999).
656:
569:Southeastern Brazilian
561:Received Pronunciation
486:Received Pronunciation
474:standard pronunciation
327:(an ethnolect), their
208:Historical linguistics
150:Linguistic description
120:Homophonic translation
27:. For other uses, see
1738:California Law Review
1127:Long, M. H. (1990). "
945:"Accents are Forever"
792:Variety (linguistics)
705:and the portrayal of
651:
599:(dialect spoken from
223:Sociology of language
1069:Journal of Phonetics
994:Journal of Phonetics
967:Journal of Phonetics
723:, respectively) and
587:socioeconomic strata
335:(a foreign accent).
321:socioeconomic status
21:Stress (linguistics)
1874:Scovel, T. (1988).
1584:2007PNAS..10412577K
1471:Gluszek, A., &
609:(dialect spoken in
577:Portuguese language
203:Applied linguistics
1890:Accents of English
1888:Wells, J C. 1982.
905:on October 8, 2008
684:Acting and accents
667:Legal implications
497:sexual orientation
451:Non-native accents
411:. You can help by
249:Linguistics portal
145:Language varieties
140:Discourse analysis
125:Macaronic language
1860:978-0-415-17413-8
1820:978-0-340-82991-2
1784:on 19 August 2011
1552:978-0-415-57659-8
1346:Language Teaching
1282:978-1-58901-853-2
1221:10.3138/cmlr.2582
1151:, 100, 1329–1407.
866:978-0-415-11476-9
832:978-0-19-517077-1
752:Accent perception
603:to the East) and
601:Greater São Paulo
573:Brazilian variant
429:
428:
285:
284:
69:Language planning
64:Language ideology
1970:
1948:Sociolinguistics
1925:humanaccents.com
1903:Sounds Familiar?
1864:
1824:
1794:
1793:
1791:
1789:
1773:
1767:
1766:
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1762:
1747:
1741:
1740:, 81, 1325–1361.
1734:
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703:slapstick comedy
628:, harassment or
503:Being understood
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74:Multilingualism
59:Language change
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1897:External links
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1782:the original
1771:
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1745:
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687:
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313:social class
295:is a way of
292:
286:
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772:Human voice
565:upper class
386:Development
297:pronouncing
1942:Categories
1101:1993/33028
803:References
717:the Sultan
606:fluminense
597:paulistano
482:Australian
317:individual
160:Pragmatics
1953:Phonology
1428:. Page 3.
1388:"Accents"
1374:146247120
1366:0261-4448
1322:1360-6441
1237:147527541
1229:0008-4506
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1002:CiteSeerX
909:April 10,
368:Australia
325:ethnicity
115:Diglossia
84:Variation
25:Diacritic
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1755:Archived
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1444:Archived
1419:Archived
1392:Archived
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741:See also
589:such as
553:prestige
547:Prestige
370:and the
301:language
239:Category
170:Soramimi
155:Loanword
135:Register
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1761:May 12,
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1580:Bibcode
1398:May 12,
712:Aladdin
582:caipira
575:of the
350:History
344:dialect
340:prosody
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592:favela
360:Canada
293:accent
178:People
165:Pidgin
100:Accent
1370:S2CID
1233:S2CID
1034:(PDF)
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329:caste
315:, or
291:, an
1855:ISBN
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1790:2013
1763:2008
1608:PMID
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1225:ISSN
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911:2016
861:ISBN
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735:Scar
733:and
731:Zazu
719:and
642:PNAS
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