518:, placed village chiefs in the position of religious leaders, an arrangement that gave the chiefs broad power over their people. Boscana divided the Acjachemen into two classes: the "Playanos" (who lived along the coast) and the "Serranos" (who inhabited the mountains, some three to four leagues from the Mission). The religious beliefs of the two groups as related to creation differed quite profoundly. The Playanos held that an all-powerful and unseen being called "Nocuma" brought about the earth and the sea, together with all of the trees, plants, and animals of sky, land, and water contained therein. The Serranos, on the other hand, believed in two separate but related existences: the "existence above" and the "existence below". These states of being were "altogether explicable and indefinite" (like brother and sister), and it was the fruits of the union of these two entities that created "...the rocks and sands of the earth; then trees, shrubbery, herbs and grass; then animals...". The "Starman" drawn by artist Jean Goodwin has become an iconic image with the Acjachemen people and is seen often in art and tribal seals.
32:
446:
482:
occupation, as stated in
Article 11 of the treaty: "A great part of the territories which, by the present treaty, are to be comprehended for the future within the limits of the United States, is now occupied by savage tribes." As the United States government declared its right to police and control Native people, the "claims of Indians who had acquired land in the 1841 formation" of the San Juan pueblo, "were similarly ignored, despite evidence that the land commission had data substantiating these Juaneños' titles."
257:
larger settlements. Each clan had its own resource territory and was politically independent; ties to other villages were maintained through economic, religious, and social networks in the immediate region. The elite class (composed chiefly of families, lineage heads, and other ceremonial specialists), a middle class (established and successful families), and people of disconnected or wandering families and captives of war comprised the three hierarchical social classes.
413:
Mexican government on the lands of the San Juan mission "were made in the early 1840s, Indians' rights to their village lands went unrecognized." Although the
Acjachemen were now "free," they were "increasingly vulnerable to being forced to work on public projects" if it was determined that they had "'reverted' to a state of dependence on wild fruits or neglected planting crops and herding" or otherwise failed to continue practicing Spanish-imposed methods of
494:, who they "shared linguistic and cultural similarities, family ties, and colonial histories." Even after their relocation to various Luiseño villages, "San Juan remained an important town for Acjachemen and other Indians connected to it" so that by the "latter part of the nineteenth century individuals and families often moved back and forth between these villages and San Juan for work, residence, family events, and festivals."
2124:
361:
297:. They returned one year later to begin constructing and converting the Acjachemen population. The majority of early converts were often children, who may have been brought by their parents in an attempt to "make alliances with missionaries, who not only possessed new knowledge and goods but also presented the threat of force." Spanish military presence ensured the continuation of the mission system.
245:
285:
486:
recorded that 30 percent of all households were headed by women "who still lived in San Juan on the plots of land that had been distributed in 1841" under
Mexican rule. It was reported that "shortly after the census was taken, the entire population began to leave the area for villages to the southeast of San Juan." A
395:. When news of this spread to other missions, it inspired widespread resistance to work and even open revolt. At San Juan, "the missionary stated that if the 956 neophytes residing at the mission in 1827 were 'kindly begged to go to work,' they would respond by saying simply that they were 'free.'" Following the
503:"were characterized by a marked lack of ethnic diversity." In the 1890s, a permanent elementary school was constructed in San Juan. However, until 1920, for education beyond sixth grade, "students had to relocate to Santa Ana – an impossibility for the vast majority of Californio and Acjachemen families."
1711:
502:
now owned 87 percent of the land value and 86 percent of the assets. Native people went from owning 1 percent of the land value and assets, as recorded in the 1860 census, to 0 percent in 1870. Anglo-Americans became the majority of the population by the mid-1870s, and the towns in which they resided
352:, a missionary at San Juan between 1812 and 1822, admitted that, despite harsh treatment, attempts to convert Native people to Christian beliefs and traditions were largely unsuccessful: "All the missionaries in California, declares Boscana, would agree that the true believer was the rare exception."
337:
The
Acjachemen resisted assimilation by practicing their cultural and religious ceremonies, performing sacred dances and healing rituals both in villages and within the mission compound. Missionaries attempted to prevent "Indigenous forms of knowledge, authority, and power" from passing on to younger
481:
in 1848, "Indian peoples throughout
California were drawn into the 'cycles of conquest' that had been initiated by the Spanish." During the 1850s alone, the California Indian population declined by 80 percent. Any land rights Native people had under Mexican rule were completely erased under American
428:
The formation of the San Juan pueblo was a direct result of the actions of San Diego settlers, who petitioned the government to gain access to the lands of the mission territory. Before the formation of the pueblo, the "one-hundred or so
Acjachemen living there" were asked if they favored or opposed
497:
American occupation resulted in increasing power and wealth for
European immigrants and Anglo-Americans to own land and property by the 1860s, "in sharp contrast to the pattern among Californios, Mexicans, and Indians." In the Santa Ana and San Juan Capistrano townships, most Californios lost their
485:
By 1860, Acjachemen were recorded in the census "with
Spanish first names and no surnames; the occupations of 38 percent of their household heads went unrecorded; and they owned only 1 percent of the land and 0.6 percent of the assets (including cattle, household items, and silver or gold)." It was
308:
While, before 1783, those who had been converted, known as "Juaneños, both children and adults, represented a relatively small percentage of the
Acjachemen population, all that changed between 1790 and 1812, when the vast majority of remaining non-converts were baptized." Spanish colonists referred
304:
approached
Acjachemen territory with a Spanish soldier and one "neophyte," a recently baptized Native and Spanish translator, a "crowd of painted and well-armed Indians, some of whom put arrows to their bowstrings as though they intended to kill the Spanish intruders" surrounded Serra's group. The
256:
In the era preceding colonization by Spain, the Acjachemen resided in permanent, well-defined villages and seasonal camps. Village populations ranged from between 35 and 300 residents, consisting of a single lineage in the smaller villages, and of a dominant clan joined with other families in the
412:
However, while Acjachemen "claimed and were granted villages," there was "rarely" any legal title issued, meaning that the land was "never formally ceded" to them following emancipation, which they protested as others encroached upon their traditional territory. While rancho grants issued by the
333:
As European disease also began to decimate the rural population, the dominion and power of the Spanish missions over the Acjachemen further increased." By 1812, the mission was at the peak of its growth: "3,340 persons had been baptized at the mission, and 1,361 Acjachemen resided in the mission
655:
On July 10, 2021, one of the Acjachemen Nation 84A group elected a new tribal council of Heidi Lee Lucero, Chairwoman; Dr. Richard Rodman, Vice Chairman; Ricky Hernandez, Treasurer; Georgia "Chena" Edmundson, Secretary; Sabrina Banda, Member-At-Large; and Ruth "Cookie" Stoffel, Member-At-Large.
324:
During the late 18th century, the mission economy extended over the entire territory of the Acjachemen. Acjachemen villages still had "access to specific hunting, collecting, and fishing areas" and "within these collectively owned areas villagers also possessed private property." However, the
266:), which was made up of lineage heads and ceremonial specialists in their own right. This body decided upon matters of the community, which were then carried out by the Nota and his underlings. While the placement of residential huts in a village was not regulated, the ceremonial enclosure (
542:. Northern Uto-Aztecan (NUA) is divided into four branches; Numic, Tubatrlabalic, Takic, and Hopic. Takin includes seven languages; Kitanemuk, Serrano (including Vanyume), Gabrielino (including Fernandeńo), Luiseño (including Acjachemen), Cahuilla, Cupeño, and Tataviam.
329:
system was first paralleled and then undermined by the mission system and colonization. The Spanish transformed the countryside into grazing lands for livestock and horticulture. Between 1790 and 1804, "mission herds increased in size from 8,034 head to 26,814 head."
511:
Gerónimo Boscana, a Franciscan scholar who was stationed at San Juan Capistrano for more than a decade beginning in 1812, compiled the first, comprehensive study of Acjachemen religious practices. Religious knowledge was secret, and the prevalent religion, called
1919:
Chinigchinich: A Revised and Annotated Version of Alfred Robinson's Translation of Father Gerónimo Boscana's Historical Account of the Belief, Usages, Customs and Extravagancies of the Indians of this Mission of San Juan Capistrano Called the Acagchemen
558:
344:"away from their parents from the age of seven or so until their marriage." Native children and adults were punished for disobeying Spanish priests through confinement and lashings. The logic behind these harsh practices was "integral to
429:
this change: seventy voted in favor, while thirty, mostly older, Acjachemen opposed, "possibly because they did not want to live among the Californios." The formation of the San Juan pueblo granted Californios and Acjachemen families
2078:
Reverend Father Friar Gerónimo Boscana, 1846. "Chinigchinich; a Historical Account of the Origin, Customs, and Traditions of the Indians at the Missionary Establishment of St. Juan Capistrano, Alta California Called The Acjachemen
275:
The Acjachemen relied upon harvesting and processing acorns, grasses, seeds, and bay shellfish. They had a dietary preference for birds and small mammals like rabbits. They crafted animal bones into weapons, tools, and jewelry.
611:
No. 48 was filed in the state of California, which "memorialized the President and Congress of the United States to declare the Juaneno Band of Mission Indians, Acjachemem Nation, to be the aboriginal tribe of Orange County."
252:
Acjachemen creation and origins stories represent their history in Southern California as beginning in the beginning of time. Archaeologists argue there has been an Acjachemen presence in the region for at least 10,000 years.
2084:
408:
Terrestrial and marine fauna refuse, food storage vessels, specialized craft goods, ritual artifacts culturally associated with elite clan lineages, and interregional trade connections were found at the Puhú village site.
305:"neophyte" informed the Acjachemen that attacking would only result in further violence from the Spanish military. As a result, the Acjachemen "desisted, aware of the serious threat that military retaliation represented."
1655:
583:
622:
Despite the lack of federal recognition, in 2008 the Acjachemen community was successful in protecting a sacred site from being desecrated by a toll road. They also reached a legal agreement agreement with
292:
Acjachemen villages were primarily concentrated along the lower San Juan Creek. In 1775, Spanish colonists erected a cross on an Acjachemen religious site before retreating to San Diego due to a revolt at
545:
Their language became extinct by the early 20th century. People are working at reviving it, with several members learning it. Their studies are based on the research and records of Anastacia Majel and
309:
to the Acjachemen as Juaneño. The Acjachemen were designated as Juaneños by Spanish priests through the baptismal process performed at Mission San Juan Capistrano, named after St. Juan Capistrano in
831:
The appellation Juaneño does not necessarily identify a specific ethnic or tribal group, as the Spanish sometimes gathered diverse peoples to live and work as servants and slaves at their missions.
1509:
2112:
31:
490:
epidemic in 1862 took the lives of 129 Acjachemen people in one month alone of a population now "of only some 227 Indians." The remaining Acjachemen established themselves among the
564:(1912–1985), elected spokesperson of the Juaneño Band of Mission Indians from 1946 to 1985. Lobo wore a Plain-style headdress, even though this was not customary for the Acjachemen.
722:
2483:
1933:
334:
compound." After 1812, the rate of Acjachemen who died surpassed the amount of those who were baptized. By 1834, the Acjachemen population had declined to about 800.
1773:
579:
In the 1990s, the Acjachemen Nation divided into three different governments, all claiming their identity as the Juaneño Band of Mission Indians, Acjachemen Nation.
2105:
964:
915:
2478:
1806:
590:
Juaneño Band of Mission Indians, Acjachemen Nation, San Juan Capistrano, CA (Petitioner 84A, originally known as the Belardes group and now referred to as 84A)
260:
Native leadership consisted of the Nota, or clan chief, who conducted community rites and regulated ceremonial life in conjunction with the council of elders (
2090:
405:
requested that the community be granted the land surrounding the mission, which the Acjachemen had irrigated and were now using to support themselves."
2488:
2098:
704:
624:
1950:
1720:
1044:
940:
891:
737:
2473:
445:
2077:
693:
396:
2042:
1978:
1419:) linguistic stock (this language is sometimes referred to as "Southern California Shoshonean"). But the language at Capistrano and
1013:
169:. Published maps often identify their ancestral lands as extending from the beach to the mountains, south from what is now known as
645:
In May 2013, the 84A group of the Acjachemen Nation voted to elect the first all-female Acjachemen tribal council in its history.
2128:
732:
635:
615:
The Juaneno Band of Mission Indians, Acjachemen Nation 84A petitioned for federal recognition in 1999. On November 26, 2007, the
1783:
372:
717:
601:
166:
224:, which was less than 60 yards from the site where Mission San Juan Capistrano was built in 1776. Alternate spellings include
538:
tribe located to the interior. Considered to speak a dialect of Luiseño, the Juaneño were part of the Cupan subgroup of the
384:
652:, a 1.5-acre park (0.61 ha) in San Juan Capistrano, part of their original lands, which commemorates their history.
631:, where the university is partially situated. The university made several promises to maintain the integrity of the land.
1680:
2199:
182:
216:
in the late 18th century. Today, many contemporary members of organizations for Acjachemen descendants prefer the term
478:
213:
170:
685:
1411:
language family (Luiseño, Juaneño, Cupeño, and Cahuilla Indians all belong to the Cupan subgroup), a part of the
174:
1510:"Indian Entities Recognized by and Eligible To Receive Services From the United States Bureau of Indian Affairs"
665:
36:
1656:"New tribal leader will help the first people of O.C. in their decades-long battle to gain federal recognition"
1539:
999:
The Acjachemen of San Juan Capistrano: The History, Language and Politics of an Indigenous California Community
689:
616:
185:. However, sources also show that Acjachemen people shared sites with other Indigenous nations as far north as
1737:
2397:
573:
680:(1912–1985), chief, lobbyist, and spokesperson of the Acjachemen for 39 years who "was responsible for the
1712:
As Long as Grass Grows: The Indigenous Fight for Environmental Justice, from Colonization to Standing Rock
421:. Because of a lack of formal recognition, "most of the former Acagchemem territory was incorporated into
1876:
1412:
853:
539:
388:
1420:
1115:
569:
39:, an Acjachemen craftsman and bell ringer at Mission San Juan Capistrano, photo taken ca. June 1909.
2468:
1914:
1807:"After delays, the first people of Orange County have preserved a piece of their ancestral village"
1778:
1706:
1404:
648:
In 2021, the Adelia Sandoval, Jerry Nieblas and other Acjachemen members celebrated the opening of
531:
527:
470:
450:
349:
318:
193:
78:
2004:(Master's thesis). Fullerton, California: Department of Anthropology, California State University.
1927:
1466:
1143:
1116:"Enduring Dimensions of Indigenous Foodways in the Southern Alta California Mountain Hinterlands"
958:
909:
757:
684:
reimbursing California Indians $ 2.9 million for the loss of their land." In September 1994, the
634:
In the 21st century, the tribe filed a land claim, seeking to regain the territory of the former
546:
642:
until the 1930s. At that time, the US government bought the land for use as a defense facility.
458:
2038:
1988:
1974:
1946:
1716:
1458:
1424:
1416:
1135:
1040:
946:
936:
897:
887:
858:
762:
681:
568:
Several organizations today identify as representing Acjachemen descendants. None of them are
535:
491:
365:
301:
294:
178:
2179:
1450:
1127:
677:
608:
561:
414:
130:
102:
74:
70:
2313:
727:
499:
376:
345:
192:
The Acjachemen language does not have any fluent speakers. It is closely related to the
2392:
2359:
2184:
2031:
2002:
The Acjachemen in the Franciscan Mission System: Demographic Collapse and Social Change
1037:
Tribal Names of the Americas: Spelling Variants and Alternative Forms, Cross-Referenced
2462:
2412:
2364:
2292:
1470:
1147:
883:
Saints and citizens: Indigenous histories of colonial missions and Mexican California
466:
114:
604:
elects a tribal council, assisted by tribal elders. They have about 1,800 members.
360:
2286:
2163:
743:
Acjachemen villages and significant sites in Southern California (a partial list):
696:. It was the first school in California to be named after a Native American leader.
671:
619:
declined the petition due to not meeting the four of the seven mandatory criteria.
549:, who recorded the language in 1933. (The tape recordings resurfaced around 1995.)
514:
418:
1755:
1131:
593:
Juaneño Band of Mission Indians, Acjachemen Nation, Santa Ana, CA (Petitioner 84B)
340:
220:
as their autonym, or name for themselves. The name is derived from the village of
2442:
2432:
2297:
2210:
2189:
2149:
1484:
1403:, p. 189: Linguistically, the Acjachemen tongue is a dialect of the larger
462:
326:
1628:
1602:
244:
2317:
2265:
2260:
2174:
2123:
1427:, and by some the people of these places are not included among the Luiseños."
557:
422:
197:
106:
1462:
1139:
950:
901:
854:"After having land stolen for generations, Juaneño Indians get a sliver back"
674:, elder who established Native American education programs in public schools.
2427:
2331:
2281:
2244:
2159:
1738:"CSULB under fire for dumping dirt, trash on sacred Native American grounds"
1439:"A Reevaluation of Early Northern Uto-Aztecan Prehistory in Alta California"
1438:
772:
747:
639:
284:
221:
2194:
2054:
University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology
2011:
University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology
1454:
930:
881:
596:
Juaneño Band of Mission Indians, Acjachemen Nation (Romero), Santa Ana, CA
2376:
2370:
2254:
2239:
2169:
2154:
2139:
1831:
802:
782:
777:
767:
649:
487:
454:
392:
2052:
Kroeber, Alfred L. (1907). "The Religion of the Indians of California".
1603:"Petition #084A: Juaneno Band of Mission Indians, Acjachemen Nation, CA"
1572:
1198:
2402:
2354:
2348:
2308:
2303:
2275:
2223:
2219:
2205:
2009:
Sparkman, Philip Stedman (1908). "The Culture of the Luiseño Indians".
807:
792:
628:
600:
The Juaneño Band of Mission Indians, Acjachemen Nation (84A), based in
400:
186:
1376:
1060:
2437:
2386:
2381:
2338:
2323:
797:
110:
2447:
2422:
2417:
2407:
2270:
2234:
2229:
1408:
787:
752:
556:
425:
ranchos by 1841, when San Juan Mission was formed into a pueblo."
359:
310:
283:
243:
313:. Many other local tribes were named similarly (Kizh (pronounced
2343:
2249:
2215:
1014:"Notes on Historical Juaneno Villages and Geographical Features"
477:
Following the American occupation of California in 1846 and the
2094:
2085:
Traditional California Native American Acjachemen Planting Song
723:
Classification of Indigenous peoples of the Americas#California
288:
Reconstruction of Acjachemen hut at Mission San Juan Capistrano
1485:"CNN - Long-dead Indian teaches lost language - Mar. 30, 1996"
932:
Of sacred lands and strip malls : the battle for Puvungna
145:
142:
133:
1943:
Conquests and Historical Identities in California, 1769–1936
1018:
UC Merced Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology
338:
generations by placing recently baptized Indian children in
154:
148:
139:
2071:
1758:. California State University, Long Beach. April 14, 2023.
272:) and the chief's home were most often centrally located.
1423:
differed "considerably from that of the remainder of the
700:
1577:
State of California Native American Heritage Commission
498:
ranchos in the 1860s. By 1870, European immigrants and
441:
American occupation, genocide, and territorial conquest
1905:
Bean, Lowell John; Blackburn, Thomas C., eds. (1976).
1877:"A Special Groundbreaking Makes History, Remembers It"
1629:"Petition #084B: Juaneno Band of Mission Indians, CA"
1114:
Tomczyk, Weronika; Acebo, Nathan P. (July 3, 2021).
383:") on July 25, 1826, which freed Native people from
356:
Emancipation from San Juan mission and Mexican rule
157:
151:
136:
96:
84:
64:
54:
44:
2072:Juaneño Band of Mission Indians, Acjachemen Nation
2030:
1109:
1107:
1105:
668:, Father of Paul Arbiso, bell ringer, and artisan.
1973:. Altadena, CA: Interdisciplinary Research, Inc.
1836:Juaneño Band of Mission Indians Acjachemen Nation
1381:Juaneño Band of Mission Indians Acjachemen Nation
1174:Conquests and Historical Identities in California
1065:Juaneño Band of Mission Indians Acjachemen Nation
1001:. University of California, Davis. pp. 3, 8.
701:Juaneño Band of Mission Indians Acjachemen Nation
1774:"Bobbie Banda, Juaneño Tribal Elder, Dies at 66"
1687:. Legislative Counsel of the State of California
1635:. U.S. Department of the Interior. June 20, 2011
212:, following their conversion to Christianity at
379:, issued a "Proclamation of Emancipation" (or "
196:still spoken by the neighboring Payómkawichum (
1964:. San Francisco, CA: N.J. Stone & Company.
1907:Native California: A Theoretical Retrospective
1858:The Journal of American Indian Family Research
453:Indian tribes based on dialect, including the
2106:
1971:Mission San Juan Capistrano: A Pocket History
1540:"State Recognition of American Indian Tribes"
1084:
572:, and California has no process for creating
267:
261:
8:
1932:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1035:Clark, Patricia Roberts (October 21, 2009).
437:, or plots of land in which to plant crops.
24:
2113:
2099:
2091:
1160:
963:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
914:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
638:. This had been held by them as an Indian
30:
23:
1597:
1595:
1593:
1544:National Conference of State Legislatures
1012:O'Neil, Stephen; Evans, Nancy H. (1980).
208:Spanish colonizers called the Acjachemen
1995:. New York, NY: Dover Publications, Inc.
1400:
444:
2484:History of San Diego County, California
1567:
1565:
1563:
1561:
1363:
1351:
1339:
1268:
1185:
1096:
844:
824:
1925:
1327:
956:
907:
705:California State University Long Beach
1993:Handbook of the Indians of California
1909:. Socorro, New Mexico: Ballena Press.
1767:
1765:
935:. Lanham, MD. pp. 1–3, 120–121.
7:
2479:History of Orange County, California
2202:(Lassik, Nongatl, Sinkyone, Wailaki)
1917:(1933). Hanna, Phil Townsend (ed.).
1315:
1303:
1291:
1279:
1255:
1243:
1231:
1219:
984:
980:
978:
976:
974:
738:California mission clash of cultures
55:Regions with significant populations
16:Native American people in California
1945:. University of California Press.
1736:Jordan, Rachel (October 5, 2019).
1715:. Beacon Press. pp. 132–138.
1685:California Legislative Information
1654:Brazil, Ben (September 22, 2021).
694:Capistrano Unified School District
449:The territorial boundaries of the
397:Mexican secularization act of 1833
14:
1922:. Santa Ana, CA: Fine Arts Press.
1875:Cekola, Anna (October 28, 1993).
1805:Brazil, Ben (December 13, 2021).
1609:. U.S. Department of the Interior
1201:. Juaneño Band of Mission Indians
852:Luppi, Kathleen (June 23, 2016).
2489:Indigenous peoples of California
2129:Indigenous peoples of California
2122:
1633:Office of Federal Acknowledgment
1607:Office of Federal Acknowledgment
733:Indigenous peoples of California
636:Marine Corps Air Station El Toro
375:, the first Mexican governor of
129:
1962:History of California, Volume I
718:Population of Native California
707:lecturer of indigenous studies.
686:Clarence Lobo Elementary School
167:Indigenous people of California
2300:(Monache, Owens Valley Paiute)
997:Woodward, Lisa Louise (2007).
1:
1960:Hittell, Theodore H. (1898).
1132:10.1080/1947461X.2021.1997515
469:, Juaneño (highlighted), and
248:Map of Acjachemen communities
2037:. Beacon Press, Boston, MA.
1407:, which is derived from the
381:Prevenciónes de Emancipacion
317:) – Gabrieleño; named after
189:in contemporary Long Beach.
181:in the northwestern part of
2087:, Indigenous Peoples Issues
1772:Park, Brian (May 8, 2013).
1520:: 2112–16. January 12, 2023
1437:Sutton, Mark (April 2010).
703:- Chairwoman 2021-current.
479:Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
214:Mission San Juan Capistrano
2507:
2474:California Mission Indians
584:unrecognized organizations
553:Contemporary organizations
433:, or lots for houses, and
60:United States (California)
2135:
2074:, San Juan Capistrano, CA
2029:Feinberg, Leslie (1996).
1915:Boscana, Gerónimo, O.F.M.
1085:Bean & Blackburn 1976
1039:. McFarland. p. 10.
101:
89:
69:
59:
49:
29:
2000:O'Neil, Stephen (2002).
886:. Berkeley. p. 31.
617:Bureau of Indian Affairs
2398:Plains and Sierra Miwok
2257:(Diegueño, Ipai, Tipai)
1864:(4). HISTREE: 62. 1985.
627:to protect the land of
574:state-recognized tribes
373:José María de Echeandía
268:
262:
1969:Kelsey, Harry (1993).
1941:Haas, Lisbeth (1996).
1455:10.1179/cal.2010.2.1.3
1443:California Archaeology
1120:California Archaeology
929:Loewe, Ronald (2016).
880:Haas, Lisbeth (2014).
682:Johnson administration
565:
474:
368:
348:belief and practice."
289:
249:
2367:(Konomihu, Okwanuchu)
2200:Eel River Athapaskans
1681:"BILL NUMBER: AJR 48"
607:In 1993, an Assembly
560:
540:Uto-Aztecan languages
534:spoken by the nearby
448:
363:
287:
247:
97:Related ethnic groups
2033:Transgender Warriors
1707:Gilio-Whitaker, Dina
1199:"Acjachemen History"
570:federally recognized
90:Indigenous religion,
25:Acjachemen (Juaneño)
1779:Capistrano Dispatch
666:José de Grácia Cruz
602:San Juan Capistrano
528:Acjachemen language
451:Southern California
319:Mission San Gabriel
37:José de Grácia Cruz
26:
1989:Kroeber, Alfred L.
1756:"Site Maintenance"
1546:. October 10, 2016
1366:, pp. 746–747
1087:, pp. 109–111
660:Notable Acjachemen
566:
547:John P. Harrington
530:is related to the
475:
369:
290:
250:
2456:
2455:
1952:978-0-520-20704-2
1881:Los Angeles Times
1811:Los Angeles Times
1722:978-0-8070-7378-0
1046:978-0-7864-5169-2
942:978-0-7591-2162-1
893:978-0-520-95674-2
859:Los Angeles Times
385:San Diego Mission
295:Mission San Diego
179:Las Pulgas Canyon
121:
120:
2496:
2127:
2126:
2115:
2108:
2101:
2092:
2061:
2048:
2036:
2018:
2005:
1996:
1984:
1965:
1956:
1937:
1931:
1923:
1910:
1892:
1891:
1889:
1887:
1872:
1866:
1865:
1853:
1847:
1846:
1844:
1842:
1828:
1822:
1821:
1819:
1817:
1802:
1796:
1795:
1793:
1791:
1786:on June 15, 2013
1782:. Archived from
1769:
1760:
1759:
1752:
1746:
1745:
1742:Abc7 Los Angeles
1733:
1727:
1726:
1703:
1697:
1696:
1694:
1692:
1677:
1671:
1670:
1668:
1666:
1651:
1645:
1644:
1642:
1640:
1625:
1619:
1618:
1616:
1614:
1599:
1588:
1587:
1585:
1583:
1569:
1556:
1555:
1553:
1551:
1536:
1530:
1529:
1527:
1525:
1514:Federal Register
1506:
1500:
1499:
1497:
1495:
1481:
1475:
1474:
1434:
1428:
1405:Luiseño language
1398:
1392:
1391:
1389:
1387:
1373:
1367:
1361:
1355:
1349:
1343:
1337:
1331:
1325:
1319:
1313:
1307:
1306:, pp. 66–68
1301:
1295:
1294:, pp. 60–63
1289:
1283:
1282:, pp. 56–60
1277:
1271:
1265:
1259:
1258:, pp. 53–55
1253:
1247:
1241:
1235:
1234:, pp. 38–40
1229:
1223:
1222:, pp. 28–29
1217:
1211:
1210:
1208:
1206:
1195:
1189:
1183:
1177:
1170:
1164:
1163:, pp. 68–78
1158:
1152:
1151:
1111:
1100:
1094:
1088:
1082:
1076:
1075:
1073:
1071:
1057:
1051:
1050:
1032:
1026:
1025:
1009:
1003:
1002:
994:
988:
987:, pp. 19–23
982:
969:
968:
962:
954:
926:
920:
919:
913:
905:
877:
871:
870:
868:
866:
849:
832:
829:
678:Clarence H. Lobo
650:Putuidem Village
609:Joint Resolution
562:Clarence H. Lobo
532:Luiseño language
473:language groups.
415:animal husbandry
350:Gerónimo Boscana
271:
265:
240:Pre-colonization
194:Luiseño language
183:San Diego County
164:
163:
160:
159:
156:
153:
150:
147:
144:
141:
138:
135:
45:Total population
34:
27:
2506:
2505:
2499:
2498:
2497:
2495:
2494:
2493:
2459:
2458:
2457:
2452:
2314:Northern Paiute
2131:
2121:
2119:
2068:
2051:
2045:
2028:
2025:
2023:Further reading
2008:
1999:
1987:
1981:
1968:
1959:
1953:
1940:
1924:
1913:
1904:
1901:
1896:
1895:
1885:
1883:
1874:
1873:
1869:
1855:
1854:
1850:
1840:
1838:
1830:
1829:
1825:
1815:
1813:
1804:
1803:
1799:
1789:
1787:
1771:
1770:
1763:
1754:
1753:
1749:
1735:
1734:
1730:
1723:
1705:
1704:
1700:
1690:
1688:
1679:
1678:
1674:
1664:
1662:
1653:
1652:
1648:
1638:
1636:
1627:
1626:
1622:
1612:
1610:
1601:
1600:
1591:
1581:
1579:
1571:
1570:
1559:
1549:
1547:
1538:
1537:
1533:
1523:
1521:
1508:
1507:
1503:
1493:
1491:
1489:edition.cnn.com
1483:
1482:
1478:
1436:
1435:
1431:
1399:
1395:
1385:
1383:
1375:
1374:
1370:
1362:
1358:
1350:
1346:
1338:
1334:
1326:
1322:
1314:
1310:
1302:
1298:
1290:
1286:
1278:
1274:
1266:
1262:
1254:
1250:
1242:
1238:
1230:
1226:
1218:
1214:
1204:
1202:
1197:
1196:
1192:
1184:
1180:
1171:
1167:
1159:
1155:
1113:
1112:
1103:
1095:
1091:
1083:
1079:
1069:
1067:
1059:
1058:
1054:
1047:
1034:
1033:
1029:
1011:
1010:
1006:
996:
995:
991:
983:
972:
955:
943:
928:
927:
923:
906:
894:
879:
878:
874:
864:
862:
851:
850:
846:
841:
836:
835:
830:
826:
821:
816:
728:Mission Indians
714:
692:as part of the
662:
555:
524:
509:
500:Anglo-Americans
443:
377:Alta California
358:
282:
242:
237:
206:
132:
128:
91:
40:
22:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2504:
2503:
2500:
2492:
2491:
2486:
2481:
2476:
2471:
2461:
2460:
2454:
2453:
2451:
2450:
2445:
2440:
2435:
2430:
2425:
2420:
2415:
2410:
2405:
2400:
2395:
2390:
2384:
2379:
2374:
2368:
2362:
2357:
2352:
2346:
2341:
2336:
2335:
2334:
2329:
2321:
2311:
2306:
2301:
2295:
2290:
2284:
2279:
2273:
2268:
2263:
2258:
2252:
2247:
2242:
2237:
2232:
2227:
2213:
2208:
2203:
2197:
2192:
2187:
2182:
2177:
2172:
2167:
2157:
2152:
2147:
2142:
2136:
2133:
2132:
2120:
2118:
2117:
2110:
2103:
2095:
2089:
2088:
2082:
2075:
2067:
2066:External links
2064:
2063:
2062:
2049:
2043:
2024:
2021:
2020:
2019:
2006:
1997:
1985:
1979:
1966:
1957:
1951:
1938:
1911:
1900:
1897:
1894:
1893:
1867:
1848:
1823:
1797:
1761:
1747:
1728:
1721:
1698:
1672:
1646:
1620:
1589:
1557:
1531:
1501:
1476:
1429:
1393:
1368:
1356:
1344:
1332:
1320:
1308:
1296:
1284:
1272:
1260:
1248:
1236:
1224:
1212:
1190:
1178:
1172:Lisbeth Haas,
1165:
1153:
1126:(2): 171–201.
1101:
1089:
1077:
1052:
1045:
1027:
1004:
989:
970:
941:
921:
892:
872:
843:
842:
840:
837:
834:
833:
823:
822:
820:
817:
815:
812:
811:
810:
805:
800:
795:
790:
785:
780:
775:
770:
765:
760:
755:
750:
741:
740:
735:
730:
725:
720:
713:
710:
709:
708:
699:Heidi Lucero,
697:
675:
669:
661:
658:
598:
597:
594:
591:
554:
551:
523:
520:
508:
505:
442:
439:
357:
354:
302:Junípero Serra
281:
280:Mission period
278:
241:
238:
236:
233:
205:
202:
119:
118:
99:
98:
94:
93:
87:
86:
82:
81:
67:
66:
62:
61:
57:
56:
52:
51:
47:
46:
42:
41:
35:
20:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2502:
2501:
2490:
2487:
2485:
2482:
2480:
2477:
2475:
2472:
2470:
2467:
2466:
2464:
2449:
2446:
2444:
2441:
2439:
2436:
2434:
2431:
2429:
2426:
2424:
2421:
2419:
2416:
2414:
2411:
2409:
2406:
2404:
2401:
2399:
2396:
2394:
2391:
2388:
2385:
2383:
2380:
2378:
2375:
2372:
2369:
2366:
2363:
2361:
2358:
2356:
2353:
2350:
2347:
2345:
2342:
2340:
2337:
2333:
2330:
2327:
2326:
2325:
2322:
2319:
2315:
2312:
2310:
2307:
2305:
2302:
2299:
2296:
2294:
2291:
2288:
2285:
2283:
2280:
2277:
2274:
2272:
2269:
2267:
2264:
2262:
2259:
2256:
2253:
2251:
2248:
2246:
2243:
2241:
2238:
2236:
2233:
2231:
2228:
2225:
2221:
2217:
2214:
2212:
2209:
2207:
2204:
2201:
2198:
2196:
2193:
2191:
2188:
2186:
2183:
2181:
2178:
2176:
2173:
2171:
2168:
2165:
2161:
2158:
2156:
2153:
2151:
2148:
2146:
2143:
2141:
2138:
2137:
2134:
2130:
2125:
2116:
2111:
2109:
2104:
2102:
2097:
2096:
2093:
2086:
2083:
2080:
2076:
2073:
2070:
2069:
2065:
2060:(6): 318–356.
2059:
2055:
2050:
2046:
2044:0-8070-7940-5
2040:
2035:
2034:
2027:
2026:
2022:
2017:(4): 187–234.
2016:
2012:
2007:
2003:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1982:
1980:0-9785881-0-X
1976:
1972:
1967:
1963:
1958:
1954:
1948:
1944:
1939:
1935:
1929:
1921:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1903:
1902:
1898:
1882:
1878:
1871:
1868:
1863:
1859:
1856:"Necrology".
1852:
1849:
1837:
1833:
1827:
1824:
1812:
1808:
1801:
1798:
1785:
1781:
1780:
1775:
1768:
1766:
1762:
1757:
1751:
1748:
1743:
1739:
1732:
1729:
1724:
1718:
1714:
1713:
1708:
1702:
1699:
1686:
1682:
1676:
1673:
1661:
1657:
1650:
1647:
1634:
1630:
1624:
1621:
1608:
1604:
1598:
1596:
1594:
1590:
1578:
1574:
1568:
1566:
1564:
1562:
1558:
1545:
1541:
1535:
1532:
1519:
1515:
1511:
1505:
1502:
1490:
1486:
1480:
1477:
1472:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1433:
1430:
1426:
1422:
1418:
1414:
1410:
1406:
1402:
1401:Sparkman 1908
1397:
1394:
1382:
1378:
1372:
1369:
1365:
1360:
1357:
1354:, p. 749
1353:
1348:
1345:
1342:, p. 746
1341:
1336:
1333:
1329:
1324:
1321:
1318:, p. 118
1317:
1312:
1309:
1305:
1300:
1297:
1293:
1288:
1285:
1281:
1276:
1273:
1270:
1264:
1261:
1257:
1252:
1249:
1245:
1240:
1237:
1233:
1228:
1225:
1221:
1216:
1213:
1200:
1194:
1191:
1188:, p. 636
1187:
1182:
1179:
1175:
1169:
1166:
1162:
1157:
1154:
1149:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1133:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1117:
1110:
1108:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1093:
1090:
1086:
1081:
1078:
1066:
1062:
1056:
1053:
1048:
1042:
1038:
1031:
1028:
1024:(2): 226–232.
1023:
1019:
1015:
1008:
1005:
1000:
993:
990:
986:
981:
979:
977:
975:
971:
966:
960:
952:
948:
944:
938:
934:
933:
925:
922:
917:
911:
903:
899:
895:
889:
885:
884:
876:
873:
861:
860:
855:
848:
845:
838:
828:
825:
818:
813:
809:
806:
804:
801:
799:
796:
794:
791:
789:
786:
784:
781:
779:
776:
774:
771:
769:
766:
764:
761:
759:
756:
754:
751:
749:
746:
745:
744:
739:
736:
734:
731:
729:
726:
724:
721:
719:
716:
715:
711:
706:
702:
698:
695:
691:
687:
683:
679:
676:
673:
670:
667:
664:
663:
659:
657:
653:
651:
646:
643:
641:
637:
632:
630:
626:
620:
618:
613:
610:
605:
603:
595:
592:
589:
588:
587:
585:
580:
577:
575:
571:
563:
559:
552:
550:
548:
543:
541:
537:
533:
529:
521:
519:
517:
516:
515:Chinigchinich
506:
504:
501:
495:
493:
489:
483:
480:
472:
468:
464:
460:
456:
452:
447:
440:
438:
436:
432:
426:
424:
420:
416:
410:
406:
404:
403:
398:
394:
390:
389:Santa Barbara
386:
382:
378:
374:
367:
362:
355:
353:
351:
347:
343:
342:
335:
331:
328:
322:
320:
316:
312:
306:
303:
298:
296:
286:
279:
277:
273:
270:
264:
258:
254:
246:
239:
234:
232:
231:
227:
223:
219:
215:
211:
203:
201:
199:
195:
190:
188:
184:
180:
176:
175:Orange County
172:
168:
162:
126:
116:
112:
108:
104:
103:Payómkawichum
100:
95:
88:
83:
80:
76:
72:
68:
63:
58:
53:
48:
43:
38:
33:
28:
19:
2389:(Gabrieliño)
2373:(Fernandeño)
2278:(Bear River)
2144:
2057:
2053:
2032:
2014:
2010:
2001:
1992:
1970:
1961:
1942:
1918:
1906:
1884:. Retrieved
1880:
1870:
1861:
1857:
1851:
1839:. Retrieved
1835:
1832:"Governance"
1826:
1816:December 13,
1814:. Retrieved
1810:
1800:
1788:. Retrieved
1784:the original
1777:
1750:
1741:
1731:
1710:
1701:
1689:. Retrieved
1684:
1675:
1663:. Retrieved
1659:
1649:
1637:. Retrieved
1632:
1623:
1611:. Retrieved
1606:
1580:. Retrieved
1576:
1573:"Acjachemen"
1548:. Retrieved
1543:
1534:
1522:. Retrieved
1517:
1513:
1504:
1492:. Retrieved
1488:
1479:
1446:
1442:
1432:
1396:
1384:. Retrieved
1380:
1371:
1364:Hittell 1898
1359:
1352:Hittell 1898
1347:
1340:Hittell 1898
1335:
1323:
1311:
1299:
1287:
1275:
1269:Kroeber 1925
1263:
1251:
1246:, p. 45
1239:
1227:
1215:
1203:. Retrieved
1193:
1186:Kroeber 1925
1181:
1173:
1168:
1156:
1123:
1119:
1099:, p. 37
1097:Boscana 1933
1092:
1080:
1068:. Retrieved
1064:
1055:
1036:
1030:
1021:
1017:
1007:
998:
992:
931:
924:
882:
875:
863:. Retrieved
857:
847:
827:
742:
690:San Clemente
672:Bobbie Banda
654:
647:
644:
633:
621:
614:
606:
599:
581:
578:
567:
544:
525:
513:
510:
496:
484:
476:
434:
430:
427:
419:horticulture
411:
407:
401:
399:, "neophyte
380:
370:
339:
336:
332:
323:
314:
307:
300:In 1776, as
299:
291:
274:
259:
255:
251:
229:
225:
217:
209:
207:
191:
124:
122:
92:Christianity
21:Ethnic group
18:
2393:Tübatulabal
2211:Halchidhoma
2190:Coast Miwok
2150:Ahwahnechee
1899:Works cited
1841:January 30,
1691:November 3,
1660:Daily Pilot
1639:November 3,
1613:November 3,
1582:November 3,
1550:November 3,
1524:November 3,
1494:January 30,
1449:(1): 3–30.
1413:Uto-Aztecan
1330:, p. 3
1328:Kelsey 1993
1161:O'Neil 2002
1070:January 30,
364:Acjachemen
327:land tenure
325:Indigenous
230:Acagchemem.
171:Aliso Creek
77:, formerly
50:about 1,900
2469:Acjachemen
2463:Categories
2318:Kucadikadi
2261:Lake Miwok
2175:Chemehuevi
2145:Acjachemen
2081:, Webroots
814:References
688:opened in
467:Gabrieliño
423:Californio
218:Acjachemen
200:) people.
125:Acjachemen
115:Gabrieleño
2428:Wukchumni
2332:Ramaytush
2328:Costanoan
2289:(Klamath)
2282:Mechoopda
2245:Kitanemuk
2180:Chimariko
2160:Bay Miwok
1928:cite book
1471:162210224
1463:1947-461X
1377:"History"
1316:Haas 1996
1304:Haas 1996
1292:Haas 1996
1280:Haas 1996
1256:Haas 1996
1244:Haas 1996
1232:Haas 1996
1220:Haas 1996
1205:March 21,
1148:244551127
1140:1947-461X
1061:"History"
985:Haas 1996
959:cite book
951:950751182
910:cite book
902:865853684
839:Citations
773:Lupukngna
748:Acjacheme
640:Rancheria
586:include:
371:Governor
341:monjerios
222:Acjacheme
165:) are an
65:Languages
2377:Timbisha
2371:Tataviam
2255:Kumeyaay
2240:Kawaiisu
2170:Cahuilla
2155:Atsugewi
2140:Achomawi
1991:(1925).
1886:June 21,
1709:(2019).
1665:April 9,
1425:Luiseños
1417:Shoshone
865:June 21,
803:Totpavit
783:Pajbenga
778:Moyongna
768:Hutuknga
712:See also
629:Puvungna
522:Language
507:Religion
488:smallpox
463:Diegueño
455:Cahuilla
393:Monterey
346:Catholic
269:vanquesh
210:Juaneños
85:Religion
2403:Vanyume
2360:Serrano
2355:Salinan
2349:Quechan
2309:Nomlaki
2304:Nisenan
2276:Mattole
2266:Luiseño
2224:Whilkut
2220:Chilula
2206:Esselen
2185:Chumash
2079:Nation"
1790:June 4,
808:Puvunga
536:Luiseño
492:Luiseño
471:Luiseño
435:suertes
402:alcades
366:mortars
263:puuplem
235:History
226:Acachme
198:Luiseño
187:Puvunga
177:to the
107:Luiseño
79:Juaneño
75:Spanish
71:English
2438:Yokuts
2413:Washoe
2387:Tongva
2382:Tolowa
2365:Shasta
2351:(Yuma)
2339:Patwin
2324:Ohlone
2293:Mohave
2195:Cupeño
2164:Saklan
2041:
1977:
1949:
1719:
1469:
1461:
1421:Soboba
1386:May 1,
1267:After
1146:
1138:
1043:
949:
939:
900:
890:
798:Piwiva
758:Alauna
582:These
459:Cupeño
431:solars
391:, and
111:Tongva
2448:Yurok
2423:Wiyot
2418:Wintu
2408:Wappo
2287:Modoc
2271:Maidu
2235:Cahto
2230:Karuk
1920:Tribe
1467:S2CID
1409:Takic
1176:, 20.
1144:S2CID
819:Notes
788:Panhe
763:Genga
753:Ahunx
625:CSULB
315:keech
311:Spain
2443:Yuki
2433:Yana
2344:Pomo
2298:Mono
2250:Kizh
2216:Hupa
2039:ISBN
1975:ISBN
1947:ISBN
1934:link
1888:2019
1843:2024
1818:2021
1792:2013
1717:ISBN
1693:2023
1667:2024
1641:2023
1615:2023
1584:2023
1552:2023
1526:2023
1496:2024
1459:ISSN
1388:2023
1207:2022
1136:ISSN
1072:2024
1041:ISBN
965:link
947:OCLC
937:ISBN
916:link
898:OCLC
888:ISBN
867:2019
793:Puhú
526:The
417:and
204:Name
123:The
1451:doi
1128:doi
321:).
228:or
173:in
109:),
2465::
2222:,
2056:.
2013:.
1930:}}
1926:{{
1879:.
1862:VI
1860:.
1834:.
1809:.
1776:.
1764:^
1740:.
1683:.
1658:.
1631:.
1605:.
1592:^
1575:.
1560:^
1542:.
1518:88
1516:.
1512:.
1487:.
1465:.
1457:.
1445:.
1441:.
1379:.
1142:.
1134:.
1124:13
1122:.
1118:.
1104:^
1063:.
1020:.
1016:.
973:^
961:}}
957:{{
945:.
912:}}
908:{{
896:.
856:.
576:.
465:,
461:,
457:,
387:,
146:tʃ
143:ɑː
134:ɑː
117:)
73:,
2320:)
2316:(
2226:)
2218:(
2166:)
2162:(
2114:e
2107:t
2100:v
2058:4
2047:.
2015:8
1983:.
1955:.
1936:)
1890:.
1845:.
1820:.
1794:.
1744:.
1725:.
1695:.
1669:.
1643:.
1617:.
1586:.
1554:.
1528:.
1498:.
1473:.
1453::
1447:2
1415:(
1390:.
1209:.
1150:.
1130::
1074:.
1049:.
1022:2
967:)
953:.
918:)
904:.
869:.
161:/
158:m
155:ə
152:m
149:ə
140:x
137:ˈ
131:/
127:(
113:(
105:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
