514:. Essentially, increasing the current flow into the damper magnetic circuit increases the circuit magnetic flux. This in turn causes the metal particles to change their alignment, which increases fluid viscosity thereby raising the compression/rebound rates, while a decrease softens the effect of the dampers by aligning the particles in the opposite direction. If we imagine the metal particles as dinner plates then whilst aligned so they are on edge - viscosity is minimised. At the other end of the spectrum they will be aligned at 90 degrees so flat. Thus making the fluid much more viscous. It is the electric field produced by the electromagnet that changes the alignment of the metal particles. Information from wheel sensors (about suspension extension), steering, acceleration sensors - and other data, is used to calculate the optimal stiffness at that point in time. The fast reaction of the system (milliseconds) allows, for instance, making a softer passing by a single wheel over a bump in the road at a particular instant in time.
426:, and do not add energy to the suspension system. While adaptive suspensions have generally a slow time response and a limited number of damping coefficient values, semi-active suspensions have time response close to a few milliseconds and can provide a wide range of damping values. Therefore, adaptive suspensions usually only propose different riding modes (comfort, normal, sport...) corresponding to different damping coefficients, while semi-active suspensions modify the damping in real time, depending on the road conditions and the dynamics of the car. Though limited in their intervention (for example, the control force can never have different direction than the current vector of velocity of the suspension), semi-active suspensions are less expensive to design and consume far less energy. In recent times, research in semi-active suspensions has continued to advance with respect to their capabilities, narrowing the gap between semi-active and fully active suspension systems.
409:. Thanks to the front camera, the sedan detects bumps in the road early on and predictively adjusts the active suspension. Even before the car reaches a bump in the road, the preview function developed by Audi transmits the right amount of travel to the actuators and actively controls the suspension. The computer-controlled motors can sense imperfection on the road, and can raise the suspension up from the wheel which would go over the undulation, thus aiding the ride quality. The system will direct the motors on the outside to push up or pull down the suspension while cornering. This will result in a flatter drive and reduced body-roll around corners which in turn means more confident handling dynamics.
460:
adjustment information signals would then modify the shock absorbers when a driver-controlled switch was placed in "Auto". The automatic adjustment could be limited if the switch was placed in "Soft," "Medium," or "Hard" settings. A modified version that didn't use the sonar module was also used, allowing the settings to be manually selected. This implementation is currently used industry-wide by a number of manufacturers, provided by
507:(from model 2002), and on some other GM models from 2003. This was an upgrade for semi-active systems ("automatic road-sensing suspensions") used in upscale GM vehicles for decades. It allows, together with faster modern computers, changing the stiffness of all wheel suspensions independently. These dampers are finding increased usage in the US and already leases to some foreign brands, mostly in more expensive vehicles.
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209:. Sensors continually monitor body movement and vehicle ride level, constantly supplying the hydraulic height correctors with new data. In a matter of a few milliseconds, the suspension generates counter forces to raise or lower the body. During driving maneuvers, the encased nitrogen compresses instantly, offering six times the compressibility of the steel
475:
technology to modify the transmission's shift points. The settings are labeled as Normal, Comfort, or R, and can be either set in Normal for automatic adjustment or the "R" setting for high-speed driving, while "Comfort" is for touring and a more compliant ride. The "R" mode enables the vehicle to
180:
which can exert an independent force on the suspension to improve the riding characteristics. The drawbacks of this design are high cost, added complication and mass of the apparatus, and the need for frequent maintenance on some implementations. Maintenance can require specialised tools, and some
256:
In 1990, Nissan installed a hydraulic supported MacPherson strut based setup, called Full-Active
Suspension that was used in the Nissan Q45 and President. The system used a hydraulic oil pump, a hydraulic cylinder, an accumulator and damping valve, which connected two independent circuits for the
252:
Sensors continually monitor body movement and vehicle ride level, constantly supplying the computer with new data. As the computer receives and processes data, it operates the hydraulic servos, mounted beside each wheel. Almost instantly, the servo-regulated suspension generates counter forces to
459:
In 1985, Nissan introduced a shock absorber using a similar version, called "Super Sonic
Suspension," adding an ultrasonic sensor that would provide information that a microcomputer would then interpret, combined with information from the steering, brakes, throttle, and vehicle speed sensor. The
363:
Electromagnetic active suspension uses linear electromagnetic motors attached to each wheel. It provides extremely fast response, and allows regeneration of power consumed, by using the motors as generators. This nearly surmounts the issues of slow response times and high power consumption of
400:
suspension system introduced in 2017. It drives each wheel individually and adapts to the prevailing road conditions. Each wheel has an electric motor which is powered by the 48-volt main electrical system. Additional components include gears, a rotary tube together with internal titanium
163:
A vehicle contacts the ground through the spring and damper in a normal spring damper suspension, as in Figure 1. To achieve the same level of stability as the
Skyhook theory, the vehicle must contact the ground through the spring, and the imaginary line with the damper, as in Figure 2.
151:
Skyhook theory is that the ideal suspension would let the vehicle maintain a stable posture, unaffected by weight transfer or road surface irregularities, as if suspended from an imaginary hook in the sky continuing at a constant altitude above sea level, therefore remaining stable.
364:
hydraulic systems. Electronically controlled active suspension system (ECASS) technology was patented by the
University of Texas Center for Electromechanics in the 1990s and has been developed by L-3 Electronic Systems for use on military vehicles. The ECASS-equipped
62:
to maintain static support and dampen the vertical wheel movements caused by the road surface. Active suspensions are divided into two classes: true active suspensions, and adaptive or semi-active suspensions. While adaptive suspensions only vary
438:, therefore changing the damping characteristics of the suspension setup. The solenoids are wired to the controlling computer, which sends them commands depending on the control algorithm (usually the so-called "Sky-Hook" technique).
1548:
1420:
155:
Since an actual skyhook is obviously impractical, real active suspension systems are based on actuator operations. The imaginary line (of zero vertical acceleration) is calculated based on the value provided by an
480:
rate with a reduced steering angle for a crisper, more communicative steering, while the "Comfort" setting produces less vertical G-loading in comparison to the "Normal" or computer determined suspension setting.
348:
In fully active electronically controlled production cars, the application of electric servos and motors married to electronic computing allows for flat cornering and instant reactions to road conditions.
1362:
94:
control. An onboard computer detects body movement from sensors throughout the vehicle and, using that data, controls the action of the active and semi-active suspensions. The system virtually eliminates
1334:
Bryant, Adam; Beno, Joseph; Weeks, Damon (2011). "Benefits of
Electronically Controlled Active Electromechanical Suspension Systems (EMS) for Mast Mounted Sensor Packages on Large Off-Road Vehicles".
761:(sixth generation) - features Active Controlled Suspension (Dynamic ECS). The system enables a comfortable ride and handling stability by automatically adjusting the vehicle height and damping force.
384:
from 2004 incorporates an in-wheel electrical suspension motor that controls torque distribution, traction, turning maneuvers, pitch, roll and suspension damping for that wheel, in addition to an
1395:
1903:
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developed the original concept of computer management of hydraulic suspension in the 1980s to improve cornering in racing cars. Lotus fitted and developed a prototype system to a 1985
510:
This system was in development for 25 years. The damper fluid contains metallic particles. Through the onboard computer, the dampers' compliance characteristics are controlled by an
160:
installed on the body of the vehicle (see Figure 3). The dynamic elements comprise only the linear spring and the linear damper; therefore, no complicated calculations are necessary.
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280:
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by keeping the chassis parallel to the road when turning corners, preventing unwanted contacts between the vehicle frame and the ground (especially when going over a
434:
This type is the most economic and basic type of semi-active suspensions. They consist of a solenoid valve which alters the flow of the hydraulic medium inside the
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1948:
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with electro-hydraulic active suspension, but never offered it for sale to the public, although many demonstration cars were built for other manufacturers.
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311:, where high pressure hydraulic servos are controlled by electronic computing, and this feature is still available. Vehicles can be designed to actively
857:
Activa - self-levelling, fully active
Hydractive on all four wheels with hydraulic anti-roll bars and automatically adjusted spring rates and dampeners.
257:
front and rear strut assemblies. The system would then recover motion energy to balance the car continuously. The system was revised and is now called
1167:
864:- Active Cornering Enhancement; an electronically controlled hydraulic anti-roll bar system was fitted to some versions, which reduced cornering roll.
1320:
368:
exceeded the performance specifications for all performance evaluations in terms of absorbed power to the vehicle operator, stability and handling.
1909:
119:, active suspension can also be used to temporarily lower the vehicle's floor, thus making it easier for passengers to board and exit the vehicle.
718:: world first Electronically controlled (TEMS) that used a shock absorber control actuator (spring constant, variable attenuation force) installed
471:, "DampTronic" was jointly developed by Nissan and Bilstein. DampTronic provides three selectable driver settings that can also interact with the
453:
168:
reaches an infinite value, the vehicle will be in a state where it is completely fixed to the imaginary line, thus the vehicle will not shake.
2224:
1018:
231:
This system performed remarkably well in straight ahead driving, including over uneven surfaces, but had little control over roll stiffness.
258:
1265:
1811:
725:
Partial load bearing hydropneumatic suspension on all four wheels as an option on the 16v model. Standard on the Evo 1 and Evo 2 models
2526:
2148:
600:
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1941:
1892:
571:
538:
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272:
1077:"Fundamental Performance of a Hydraulically Actuated Friction Damper for Seismic Isolation System Based on the Skyhook Theory"
754:
Hydropneumatic suspension on all four wheels with electronically controlled adaptive damping as an option on the LWB v8 models
610:
1446:
1141:
868:
776:
302:
2531:
1989:
1934:
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221:
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Partial load bearing hydropneumatic suspension with automatically adjusted spring rates and dampers as an option (ADS)
1523:
553:
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2471:
2310:
2143:
2125:
656:
343:
1771:
1737:
Sugasawa, Fukashi; Kobayashi, Hiroshi; Kakimoto, Toshihiko; Shiraishi, Yasuhiro; Tateishi, Yoshiaki (1985-10-01).
1620:
Sugasawa, Fukashi; Kobayashi, Hiroshi; Kakimoto, Toshihiko; Shiraishi, Yasuhiro; Tateishi, Yoshiaki (1985-10-01).
1117:
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2004:
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729:
87:
606:
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2172:
1984:
1739:"Electronically Controlled Shock Absorber System Used as a Road Sensor Which Utilizes Super Sonic Waves"
1622:"Electronically Controlled Shock Absorber System Used as a Road Sensor Which Utilizes Super Sonic Waves"
445:
1680:
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1316:
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2014:
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83:
35:
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and handling by analysing road conditions and making up to 3,000 adjustments every second to the
283:
decided to ban the technology to decrease the gap between
Williams F1 team and its competitors.
206:
112:
1549:"The innovative shock absorber system from Audi: New technology saves fuel and enhances comfort"
669:
Partial load bearing hydropneumatic suspension on all four wheels. Front system deleted in 1969
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Computer Active
Technology Suspension (CATS) co-ordinates the best possible balance between
67:
firmness to match changing road or dynamic conditions, active suspensions use some type of
2620:
2546:
2541:
2448:
2443:
2395:
2240:
2054:
2044:
1421:"Looking ahead to the new Audi A8: Fully active suspension offers tailor-made flexibility"
909:
210:
100:
59:
1712:. SAE International Congress and Exposition. Society Automotive Engineers International.
944:
User-Selectable
Electronically Controlled Shock Dampening (Dynamic Chassis Control (DCC))
1051:
740:
that integrated actuators inside the MacPherson struts on the front and rear suspension.
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2536:
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2438:
2360:
2088:
2078:
2073:
1974:
847:
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832:
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435:
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385:
360:, had been working on exotic suspensions for many years while he was an MIT professor.
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64:
39:
17:
2673:
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2615:
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2385:
2270:
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2034:
1999:
1655:"The 1988-1994 Nissan Maximas had a shockingly ahead-of-its time adaptive suspension"
951:
794:
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673:
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511:
449:
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934:. Self leveling fully active hydraulic system with road surface scanning electronics
2595:
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2423:
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2187:
2109:
783:
504:
406:
381:
287:
276:
104:
79:
75:
1706:
Yokoya, Yuji; Asami, Ken; Hamajima, Toshimitsu; Nakashim, Noriyuki (1984-02-01).
902:(Four-C, a short name for "Continuously Controlled Chassis Concept", semi-active)
2648:
2600:
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2335:
2319:
2315:
2300:
2068:
2063:
1994:
1370:
1232:
Yao, Jialing; Li, Zhihong; Wang, Meng; Yao, Feifan; Tang, Zheng (October 2018).
1060:
1035:
836:
744:
468:
402:
279:, for the team's Formula 1 cars in 1992, creating such successful cars that the
246:
234:
Millions of production vehicles have been built with variations on this system.
225:
143:
1575:"2019 Audi A8: Flagship Floats on Active Suspension - Official Photos and Info"
1036:"Cost-Effective Skyhook Control for Semiactive Vehicle Suspension Applications"
2630:
2516:
2511:
2491:
2365:
2280:
2182:
938:
711:
Hydropneumatic suspension on all four wheels as an option on the LWB v8 models
405:
and a lever which exerts up to 1,100 Nm (811.3 lb-ft) on the suspension via a
202:
135:
127:
58:, rather than the conventional passive suspension that relies solely on large
1250:
1233:
1102:
2400:
2340:
2285:
2104:
2024:
1979:
1013:(Thesis). Stockholm, Sweden: KTH Royal Institute of Technology. p. 35.
899:
895:
886:
496:
477:
357:
96:
1363:"Michelin to Commercialize Active Wheel; Technology to Appear in 2010 Cars"
808:
on all four wheels, with automatically adjusted spring rates and dampeners.
772:
on all four wheels with automatically adjusted spring rates and dampeners.
74:
These technologies allow car manufacturers to achieve a greater degree of
2410:
2209:
2009:
1399:
1347:
1093:
1076:
958:
913:
812:
495:
Another method incorporates magnetorheological dampers with a brand name
442:
377:
177:
91:
68:
1709:
Toyota
Electronic Modulated Suspension (TEMS) System for the 1983 Soarer
461:
165:
108:
51:
1926:
2605:
948:
704:, self-leveling Citroën hydropneumatic suspension on all four wheels.
690:, self-leveling Citroën hydropneumatic suspension on all four wheels.
683:, self-leveling Citroën hydropneumatic suspension on all four wheels.
676:, self-leveling Citroën hydropneumatic suspension on all four wheels.
652:, self-leveling Citroën hydropneumatic suspension on all four wheels.
365:
556:. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed.
1750:
1717:
1633:
2577:
2463:
1812:"The design, development and applications of MagneRide suspension"
892:
820:
275:
prepared an active suspension, devised by designer-aerodynamicist
189:
Hydraulically actuated suspensions are controlled with the use of
43:
1266:"How the Active Curve Tilting Feature of the S-Class Coupe Works"
1122:(Technical report). Amal Jyoti College of Engineering. p. 15
224:
features, with the latter now tied to vehicle speed for improved
2581:
2275:
2019:
1738:
1707:
1621:
393:
47:
2213:
1930:
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called CVSAe, or Continuously Variable Semi-Active electronic.
2252:
1473:"The New Audi A8 Will Spot Potholes And Adjust The Suspension"
1168:"A Comprehensive Review on Regenerative Shock Absorber System"
1142:"The Amazing Citroen DS One of the most significant cars ever"
583:
521:
216:
In practice, the system has always incorporated the desirable
116:
176:
Active suspensions, the first to be introduced, use separate
1905:
Electronics Developed for Lotus Active Suspension Technology
71:
to raise and lower the chassis independently at each wheel.
1745:. Vol. 1. Society Automotive Engineers International.
1628:. Vol. 1. Society Automotive Engineers International.
1234:"Automobile active tilt control based on active suspension"
448:(CCR) suspension system. The first production car was the
1075:
Hasebe, Masanobu; Phuc, Pham Van; Ohyama, Takumi (2010).
228:
performance, as the vehicle lowers itself at high speed.
99:
and pitch variation in many driving situations including
790:"Full-Active Suspension (FAS)", active suspension system
205:. The hydraulic pressure is supplied by a high pressure
545:
499:. It was initially developed by Delphi Corporation for
1790:"75 Years of Toyota | Technical Development | Chassis"
1499:"Audi's active suspension prepares for the road ahead"
503:
and was standard, as many other new technologies, for
330:(ECU) during hard cornering. First production car was
253:
body lean, dive, and squat during driving maneuvers.
418:
Adaptive or semi-active systems can only change the
2575:
2462:
2409:
2261:
2134:
2118:
2097:
2087:
2053:
1962:
732:sensing "Super Sonic Suspension" optionally on the
356:has a proof of concept model. The founder of Bose,
326:stiffens under command of the driver or suspension
1081:Journal of Structural and Construction Engineering
954:Touring model (Adaptive Variable Suspension (AVS))
797:ST183 (Toyota Electronically Modulated Suspension)
42:to control the vertical movement of the vehicle's
1860:"This Chinese EV can shake off snow like a puppy"
1551:(Press release). Audi. 2016-08-10. Archived from
1423:(Press release). Audi. 2017-06-22. Archived from
193:. The first example appeared in 1954, with the
1293:"Bose Redefines Automobile Suspension Systems"
2225:
1942:
878:2000 Citroen C5 Hydractive 3 or Hydractive 3+
825:continuously variable road sensing suspension
697:Hydropneumatic suspension on all four wheels.
603:to certain ideas, incidents, or controversies
8:
1192:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
238:Electronic actuation of hydraulic suspension
2232:
2218:
2210:
2094:
1949:
1935:
1927:
1524:"Audi reveals new A8's chassis technology"
1447:"New Audi A8's robot suspension explained"
1166:Zheng, Wang, Gao, Peng, Ruichen, Jingwei.
613:this issue before removing this message.
1249:
1092:
1059:
819:. RSS was available in both standard and
572:Learn how and when to remove this message
281:Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile
142:
134:
126:
1040:The Open Mechanical Engineering Journal
996:
294:settings via electronically controlled
181:problems can be difficult to diagnose.
1885:History of the Grand Prix Car: 1966-91
1772:"The history of the amazing Jaguar XJ"
1185:
875:. Available on the S, CL and SL models
467:In 2008, with the introduction of the
454:Toyota Electronic Modulated Suspension
1522:Vijayenthiran, Viknesh (2017-06-22).
1119:Analysis of Hydropneumatic Suspension
1007:On Active Suspension in Rail Vehicles
871:Self leveling fully active hydraulic
7:
1908:. US: General Motors. Archived from
259:Hydraulic Body Motion Control System
728:1985: Nissan introduced ultrasound
607:create a more balanced presentation
164:Theoretically, in a case where the
2685:Automotive suspension technologies
2680:Advanced driver assistance systems
2527:Electronic brakeforce distribution
1238:Advances in Mechanical Engineering
804:VSX - self-levelling, semi-active
213:used by vehicles up to this time.
25:
1600:"Technical Development – Chassis"
1396:"MICHELIN ACTIVE WHEEL Press Kit"
964:(SkyRide fully active suspension)
839:, selecting between two settings.
2654:
2653:
2643:
1602:. Toyota Motor Corporation. 2012
975:Toyota Active Control Suspension
912:Cloverleaf (DNA System based on
588:
526:
386:in-wheel electric traction motor
923:, self-leveling air suspension.
905:2006 Citroen C6 - Hydractive 3+
659:: premiere of self-leveling GM
441:This type of system is used in
273:Williams Grand Prix Engineering
86:), and allowing overall better
768:- self-levelling, semi-active
1:
1858:Naughton, Nora (2024-02-21).
1834:"Jaguar XF Sportbrake review"
1770:Mullen, Enda (30 June 2019).
862:Land Rover Discovery series 2
315:to improve occupant comfort.
303:Mercedes-Benz CL-Class (C215)
27:Type of automotive suspension
2532:Electronic stability control
1990:Electronic Stability Control
1810:Crosse, Jesse (2014-10-28).
1681:"2021 Nissan GT-R Press Kit"
1573:Tingwall, Eric (July 2017).
1497:Collie, Scott (2017-06-22).
1471:Brady, Andrew (2017-06-23).
1361:Dogget, Scott (2008-12-01).
1140:Edgar, Julian (2016-07-05).
1116:Moonjeli, Varun Joy (2011).
338:Electromagnetic recuperative
222:height adjustable suspension
207:radial piston hydraulic pump
2419:Ackermann steering geometry
1291:Hanlon, Mike (2004-09-30).
1061:10.2174/1874155X00903010017
1004:Qazizadeh, Alireza (2017).
747:, self-leveling suspension.
552:the claims made and adding
420:viscous damping coefficient
2706:
2482:Active rollover protection
1743:SAE Technical Paper Series
1687:. Nissan Motor Corporation
1626:SAE Technical Paper Series
1445:Adcock, Ian (2017-06-17).
1336:SAE Technical Paper Series
815:, several models with RSS
657:Cadillac Eldorado Brougham
488:
344:Electromagnetic suspension
341:
2639:
2248:
980:Hydropneumatic suspension
723:Mercedes Benz 190E 2.3-16
695:Mercedes Benz 450 SEL 6.9
667:Rolls-Royce Silver Shadow
643:hydropneumatic suspension
491:Magnetorheological damper
485:Magnetorheological damper
218:self-levelling suspension
195:hydropneumatic suspension
2690:Mechanical power control
2477:Anti-lock braking system
2271:Anti-roll bar (sway bar)
1685:Nissan Motor Corporation
1251:10.1177/1687814018801456
827:) systems. It monitored
473:Vehicle Dynamics Control
414:Adaptive and semi-active
332:Mitsubishi Mirage Cyborg
2507:Combined braking system
1902:Cox, Ronald W. (1986).
1887:. Hazleton Publishing.
1244:(10): 168781401880145.
817:road sensing suspension
430:Solenoid/valve actuated
328:electronic control unit
18:Adaptive Damping System
2331:Independent suspension
916:'s Skyhook technology)
730:semi-active suspension
635:Citroën Traction Avant
462:Monroe Shock Absorbers
148:
140:
132:
2351:Multi-link suspension
1317:US patent 5999868
446:Computer Command Ride
146:
138:
130:
38:that uses an onboard
36:automotive suspension
1832:Huntingford, Steve.
1348:10.4271/2011-01-0269
1212:Motor Sport Magazine
1094:10.3130/aijs.75.2133
1087:(658). Japan: 2133.
1034:Song, Xubin (2009).
921:Jaguar XF Sportbrake
324:Active anti-roll bar
319:Active anti-roll bar
2522:Electric park brake
1957:Automotive handling
1208:"Active suspension"
1174:. ResearchGate GmbH
1052:2009OMEJ....3...17S
985:Active Body control
873:Active body control
518:Production vehicles
308:Active Body Control
261:, installed on the
185:Hydraulic actuation
166:damping coefficient
158:acceleration sensor
113:commercial vehicles
2562:Regenerative brake
1883:Nye, Doug (1992).
1272:. 16 February 2014
932:Magic body control
928:Mercedes Benz W222
869:Mercedes Benz C215
777:Mercedes Benz R129
752:Mercedes Benz W126
709:Mercedes Benz W126
629:By calendar year:
537:possibly contains
149:
141:
133:
2667:
2666:
2472:Automatic braking
2207:
2206:
2203:
2202:
2196:
2193:Semi-trailing arm
2169:
2152:
1367:Green Car Advisor
1020:978-91-7729-408-5
846:introduced first
759:Mitsubishi Galant
627:
626:
605:. Please help to
597:This section may
582:
581:
574:
539:original research
452:with semi-active
398:electromechanical
32:active suspension
16:(Redirected from
2697:
2657:
2656:
2647:
2611:Outline of tires
2346:MacPherson strut
2234:
2227:
2220:
2211:
2190:
2163:
2161:MacPherson strut
2146:
2119:Semi-independent
2095:
2040:Vehicle dynamics
1951:
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1864:Business Insider
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1822:
1820:
1819:
1807:
1801:
1800:
1798:
1797:
1786:
1780:
1779:
1767:
1761:
1760:
1758:
1757:
1734:
1728:
1727:
1725:
1724:
1703:
1697:
1696:
1694:
1692:
1677:
1671:
1670:
1668:
1666:
1650:
1644:
1643:
1641:
1640:
1617:
1611:
1610:
1608:
1607:
1596:
1590:
1589:
1587:
1586:
1570:
1564:
1563:
1561:
1560:
1545:
1539:
1538:
1536:
1535:
1519:
1513:
1512:
1510:
1509:
1494:
1488:
1487:
1485:
1484:
1468:
1462:
1461:
1459:
1458:
1442:
1436:
1435:
1433:
1432:
1417:
1411:
1410:
1408:
1407:
1392:
1386:
1385:
1383:
1382:
1373:. Archived from
1358:
1352:
1351:
1331:
1325:
1324:
1323:
1319:
1313:
1307:
1306:
1304:
1303:
1288:
1282:
1281:
1279:
1277:
1262:
1256:
1255:
1253:
1229:
1223:
1222:
1220:
1219:
1204:
1198:
1197:
1191:
1183:
1181:
1179:
1163:
1157:
1156:
1154:
1153:
1137:
1131:
1130:
1128:
1127:
1113:
1107:
1106:
1096:
1072:
1066:
1065:
1063:
1031:
1025:
1024:
1012:
1001:
883:Cadillac Seville
788:Nissan President
622:
619:
592:
591:
584:
577:
570:
566:
563:
557:
554:inline citations
530:
529:
522:
354:Bose Corporation
313:lean into curves
50:relative to the
21:
2705:
2704:
2700:
2699:
2698:
2696:
2695:
2694:
2670:
2669:
2668:
2663:
2635:
2584:
2580:
2571:
2547:Hydraulic fluid
2542:Hydraulic brake
2458:
2449:Torque steering
2444:Rack and pinion
2405:
2396:Wheel alignment
2311:Double wishbone
2257:
2244:
2238:
2208:
2199:
2144:Double wishbone
2130:
2114:
2083:
2049:
2045:Weight transfer
1958:
1955:
1924:
1915:
1913:
1901:
1895:
1882:
1879:
1878:
1869:
1867:
1857:
1856:
1852:
1842:
1840:
1831:
1830:
1826:
1817:
1815:
1809:
1808:
1804:
1795:
1793:
1788:
1787:
1783:
1769:
1768:
1764:
1755:
1753:
1736:
1735:
1731:
1722:
1720:
1705:
1704:
1700:
1690:
1688:
1679:
1678:
1674:
1664:
1662:
1652:
1651:
1647:
1638:
1636:
1619:
1618:
1614:
1605:
1603:
1598:
1597:
1593:
1584:
1582:
1572:
1571:
1567:
1558:
1556:
1547:
1546:
1542:
1533:
1531:
1528:Motor Authority
1521:
1520:
1516:
1507:
1505:
1496:
1495:
1491:
1482:
1480:
1470:
1469:
1465:
1456:
1454:
1444:
1443:
1439:
1430:
1428:
1419:
1418:
1414:
1405:
1403:
1394:
1393:
1389:
1380:
1378:
1360:
1359:
1355:
1333:
1332:
1328:
1321:
1315:
1314:
1310:
1301:
1299:
1290:
1289:
1285:
1275:
1273:
1270:BenzInsider.com
1264:
1263:
1259:
1231:
1230:
1226:
1217:
1215:
1214:. December 2001
1206:
1205:
1201:
1184:
1177:
1175:
1165:
1164:
1160:
1151:
1149:
1139:
1138:
1134:
1125:
1123:
1115:
1114:
1110:
1074:
1073:
1069:
1033:
1032:
1028:
1021:
1010:
1003:
1002:
998:
993:
971:
910:Alfa Romeo MiTo
833:shock absorbers
645:on rear wheels.
623:
617:
614:
593:
589:
578:
567:
561:
558:
543:
531:
527:
520:
493:
487:
432:
416:
374:
346:
340:
321:
240:
187:
174:
125:
111:. When used on
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2703:
2701:
2693:
2692:
2687:
2682:
2672:
2671:
2665:
2664:
2662:
2661:
2651:
2640:
2637:
2636:
2634:
2633:
2628:
2626:Whitewall tire
2623:
2618:
2613:
2608:
2603:
2598:
2593:
2587:
2585:
2576:
2573:
2572:
2570:
2569:
2564:
2559:
2554:
2549:
2544:
2539:
2537:Engine braking
2534:
2529:
2524:
2519:
2514:
2509:
2504:
2499:
2494:
2489:
2487:Brake bleeding
2484:
2479:
2474:
2468:
2466:
2460:
2459:
2457:
2456:
2451:
2446:
2441:
2439:Power steering
2436:
2431:
2426:
2421:
2415:
2413:
2407:
2406:
2404:
2403:
2398:
2393:
2391:Watt's linkage
2388:
2383:
2378:
2373:
2368:
2363:
2361:Shock absorber
2358:
2353:
2348:
2343:
2338:
2333:
2328:
2326:Hydropneumatic
2323:
2313:
2308:
2303:
2298:
2293:
2288:
2283:
2278:
2273:
2267:
2265:
2259:
2258:
2249:
2246:
2245:
2243:control system
2239:
2237:
2236:
2229:
2222:
2214:
2205:
2204:
2201:
2200:
2198:
2197:
2185:
2180:
2178:Sliding pillar
2175:
2170:
2158:
2153:
2140:
2138:
2132:
2131:
2129:
2128:
2122:
2120:
2116:
2115:
2113:
2112:
2107:
2101:
2099:
2092:
2085:
2084:
2082:
2081:
2076:
2071:
2066:
2060:
2058:
2051:
2050:
2048:
2047:
2042:
2037:
2032:
2027:
2022:
2017:
2012:
2007:
2002:
1997:
1992:
1987:
1982:
1977:
1975:Center of mass
1972:
1966:
1964:
1960:
1959:
1956:
1954:
1953:
1946:
1939:
1931:
1922:
1921:
1899:
1893:
1877:
1876:
1850:
1824:
1802:
1792:. Toyota. 2012
1781:
1762:
1751:10.4271/851652
1729:
1718:10.4271/840341
1698:
1672:
1645:
1634:10.4271/851652
1612:
1591:
1579:Car and Driver
1565:
1540:
1514:
1489:
1463:
1437:
1412:
1387:
1353:
1326:
1308:
1283:
1257:
1224:
1199:
1158:
1132:
1108:
1067:
1026:
1019:
995:
994:
992:
989:
988:
987:
982:
977:
970:
967:
966:
965:
955:
945:
935:
924:
917:
906:
903:
889:
879:
876:
865:
858:
855:Citroën Xantia
851:
850:air suspension
844:Toyota Celsior
840:
809:
802:Citroën Xantia
798:
791:
780:
773:
762:
755:
748:
741:
726:
719:
712:
705:
698:
691:
684:
677:
670:
663:
661:air suspension
653:
646:
625:
624:
609:. Discuss and
596:
594:
587:
580:
579:
534:
532:
525:
519:
516:
489:Main article:
486:
483:
436:shock absorber
431:
428:
424:shock absorber
415:
412:
411:
410:
390:
389:
373:
370:
342:Main article:
339:
336:
320:
317:
239:
236:
186:
183:
173:
170:
124:
121:
65:shock absorber
40:control system
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2702:
2691:
2688:
2686:
2683:
2681:
2678:
2677:
2675:
2660:
2652:
2650:
2646:
2642:
2641:
2638:
2632:
2629:
2627:
2624:
2622:
2619:
2617:
2616:Rostyle wheel
2614:
2612:
2609:
2607:
2604:
2602:
2599:
2597:
2594:
2592:
2589:
2588:
2586:
2583:
2582:Tires (Tyres)
2579:
2574:
2568:
2565:
2563:
2560:
2558:
2557:Parking brake
2555:
2553:
2552:Inboard brake
2550:
2548:
2545:
2543:
2540:
2538:
2535:
2533:
2530:
2528:
2525:
2523:
2520:
2518:
2515:
2513:
2510:
2508:
2505:
2503:
2500:
2498:
2495:
2493:
2490:
2488:
2485:
2483:
2480:
2478:
2475:
2473:
2470:
2469:
2467:
2465:
2461:
2455:
2452:
2450:
2447:
2445:
2442:
2440:
2437:
2435:
2432:
2430:
2427:
2425:
2422:
2420:
2417:
2416:
2414:
2412:
2408:
2402:
2399:
2397:
2394:
2392:
2389:
2387:
2386:Unsprung mass
2384:
2382:
2379:
2377:
2374:
2372:
2369:
2367:
2364:
2362:
2359:
2357:
2354:
2352:
2349:
2347:
2344:
2342:
2339:
2337:
2334:
2332:
2329:
2327:
2324:
2321:
2317:
2314:
2312:
2309:
2307:
2304:
2302:
2299:
2297:
2294:
2292:
2289:
2287:
2284:
2282:
2279:
2277:
2274:
2272:
2269:
2268:
2266:
2264:
2260:
2256:
2254:
2247:
2242:
2235:
2230:
2228:
2223:
2221:
2216:
2215:
2212:
2194:
2189:
2186:
2184:
2181:
2179:
2176:
2174:
2171:
2167:
2166:Chapman strut
2162:
2159:
2157:
2154:
2150:
2145:
2142:
2141:
2139:
2137:
2133:
2127:
2124:
2123:
2121:
2117:
2111:
2108:
2106:
2103:
2102:
2100:
2096:
2093:
2090:
2086:
2080:
2077:
2075:
2072:
2070:
2067:
2065:
2062:
2061:
2059:
2056:
2052:
2046:
2043:
2041:
2038:
2036:
2035:Unsprung mass
2033:
2031:
2028:
2026:
2023:
2021:
2018:
2016:
2013:
2011:
2008:
2006:
2003:
2001:
2000:Inboard brake
1998:
1996:
1993:
1991:
1988:
1986:
1983:
1981:
1978:
1976:
1973:
1971:
1968:
1967:
1965:
1961:
1952:
1947:
1945:
1940:
1938:
1933:
1932:
1929:
1925:
1912:on 2013-06-17
1911:
1907:
1906:
1900:
1896:
1894:0-905138-94-5
1890:
1886:
1881:
1880:
1865:
1861:
1854:
1851:
1839:
1835:
1828:
1825:
1814:. UK: Autocar
1813:
1806:
1803:
1791:
1785:
1782:
1777:
1773:
1766:
1763:
1752:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1733:
1730:
1719:
1715:
1711:
1710:
1702:
1699:
1686:
1682:
1676:
1673:
1660:
1656:
1653:Palmer, Zac.
1649:
1646:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1623:
1616:
1613:
1601:
1595:
1592:
1580:
1576:
1569:
1566:
1555:on 2017-07-20
1554:
1550:
1544:
1541:
1529:
1525:
1518:
1515:
1504:
1500:
1493:
1490:
1478:
1474:
1467:
1464:
1452:
1448:
1441:
1438:
1427:on 2017-10-13
1426:
1422:
1416:
1413:
1401:
1397:
1391:
1388:
1377:on 2009-02-10
1376:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1357:
1354:
1349:
1345:
1341:
1337:
1330:
1327:
1318:
1312:
1309:
1298:
1294:
1287:
1284:
1271:
1267:
1261:
1258:
1252:
1247:
1243:
1239:
1235:
1228:
1225:
1213:
1209:
1203:
1200:
1195:
1189:
1173:
1169:
1162:
1159:
1147:
1143:
1136:
1133:
1121:
1120:
1112:
1109:
1104:
1100:
1095:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1071:
1068:
1062:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1046:(1). US: 17.
1045:
1041:
1037:
1030:
1027:
1022:
1016:
1009:
1008:
1000:
997:
990:
986:
983:
981:
978:
976:
973:
972:
968:
963:
960:
956:
953:
950:
946:
943:
940:
936:
933:
929:
925:
922:
918:
915:
911:
907:
904:
901:
897:
894:
890:
888:
884:
880:
877:
874:
870:
866:
863:
859:
856:
852:
849:
845:
841:
838:
834:
830:
829:damping rates
826:
822:
818:
814:
810:
807:
803:
799:
796:
795:Toyota Celica
792:
789:
785:
781:
778:
774:
771:
767:
763:
760:
756:
753:
749:
746:
742:
739:
738:Nissan Laurel
736:, Gloria and
735:
731:
727:
724:
720:
717:
716:Toyota Soarer
713:
710:
706:
703:
699:
696:
692:
689:
685:
682:
678:
675:
671:
668:
664:
662:
658:
654:
651:
647:
644:
640:
639:self-leveling
636:
632:
631:
630:
621:
618:December 2017
612:
608:
604:
602:
595:
586:
585:
576:
573:
565:
562:December 2017
555:
551:
547:
541:
540:
535:This section
533:
524:
523:
517:
515:
513:
512:electromagnet
508:
506:
502:
498:
492:
484:
482:
479:
474:
470:
465:
463:
457:
456:, from 1983.
455:
451:
450:Toyota Soarer
447:
444:
439:
437:
429:
427:
425:
421:
413:
408:
404:
399:
395:
392:
391:
387:
383:
379:
376:
375:
371:
369:
367:
361:
359:
355:
350:
345:
337:
335:
333:
329:
325:
318:
316:
314:
310:
309:
304:
299:
297:
293:
289:
284:
282:
278:
274:
270:
268:
267:Infiniti QX80
264:
263:Nissan Patrol
260:
254:
250:
248:
244:
243:Colin Chapman
237:
235:
232:
229:
227:
223:
219:
214:
212:
208:
204:
200:
197:developed by
196:
192:
184:
182:
179:
171:
169:
167:
161:
159:
153:
145:
137:
129:
122:
120:
118:
114:
110:
106:
102:
98:
93:
89:
85:
81:
77:
72:
70:
66:
61:
57:
56:vehicle frame
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
34:is a type of
33:
19:
2596:Custom wheel
2567:Vacuum servo
2502:Brake lining
2424:Caster angle
2381:Trailing arm
2306:De Dion tube
2296:Car handling
2291:Camber angle
2251:Part of the
2250:
2188:Trailing arm
2110:De Dion tube
1970:Car handling
1923:
1914:. Retrieved
1910:the original
1904:
1884:
1868:. Retrieved
1863:
1853:
1841:. Retrieved
1837:
1827:
1816:. Retrieved
1805:
1794:. Retrieved
1784:
1776:CoventryLive
1775:
1765:
1754:. Retrieved
1742:
1732:
1721:. Retrieved
1708:
1701:
1689:. Retrieved
1684:
1675:
1663:. Retrieved
1658:
1648:
1637:. Retrieved
1625:
1615:
1604:. Retrieved
1594:
1583:. Retrieved
1578:
1568:
1557:. Retrieved
1553:the original
1543:
1532:. Retrieved
1527:
1517:
1506:. Retrieved
1502:
1492:
1481:. Retrieved
1476:
1466:
1455:. Retrieved
1450:
1440:
1429:. Retrieved
1425:the original
1415:
1404:. Retrieved
1402:. 2008-09-26
1390:
1379:. Retrieved
1375:the original
1366:
1356:
1339:
1335:
1329:
1311:
1300:. Retrieved
1296:
1286:
1274:. Retrieved
1269:
1260:
1241:
1237:
1227:
1216:. Retrieved
1211:
1202:
1176:. Retrieved
1172:ResearchGate
1171:
1161:
1150:. Retrieved
1145:
1135:
1124:. Retrieved
1118:
1111:
1084:
1080:
1070:
1043:
1039:
1029:
1006:
999:
837:milliseconds
806:Hydractive 2
784:Infiniti Q45
628:
615:
601:undue weight
598:
568:
559:
536:
509:
505:Cadillac STS
494:
476:utilize the
466:
458:
440:
433:
417:
407:coupling rod
382:Active Wheel
372:Active Wheel
362:
351:
347:
322:
306:
300:
288:ride quality
285:
277:Frank Dernie
271:
255:
251:
241:
233:
230:
215:
188:
175:
162:
154:
150:
105:accelerating
80:car handling
76:ride quality
73:
31:
29:
2631:Wire wheels
2601:Drive wheel
2591:Alloy wheel
2497:Brake fluid
2376:Torsion bar
2356:Panhard rod
2336:Leaf spring
2316:Hydrolastic
2301:Coil spring
2136:Independent
2020:Tire / Tyre
1995:Fishtailing
1963:Main topics
1661:. Yahoo Inc
1371:Edmunds.com
930:: Optional
885:STS, first
745:Jaguar XJ40
469:Nissan GT-R
403:torsion bar
305:introduced
226:aerodynamic
2674:Categories
2578:Roadwheels
2517:Drum brake
2512:Disc brake
2492:Brake fade
2454:Understeer
2366:Swing axle
2281:Axle track
2263:Suspension
2253:Automobile
2183:Swing axle
2173:Multi-link
2149:Jaguar IRS
2126:Twist beam
2089:Suspension
2030:Understeer
2015:Suspension
1916:2013-01-17
1870:2024-04-20
1843:11 January
1818:2017-12-16
1796:2017-12-16
1756:2017-12-16
1723:2017-12-16
1639:2017-12-16
1606:2015-01-14
1585:2017-07-12
1559:2017-07-12
1534:2017-06-25
1508:2017-06-25
1483:2017-06-25
1457:2017-06-24
1431:2017-06-24
1406:2009-09-15
1381:2009-09-15
1302:2017-04-08
1276:2 December
1218:2017-05-14
1152:2017-05-12
1146:Auto Speed
1126:2017-05-07
991:References
942:Mk7 Golf R
939:Volkswagen
770:Hydractive
766:Citroën XM
702:Citroën BX
688:Citroën CX
681:Citroën GS
674:Citroën SM
650:Citroën DS
546:improve it
443:Cadillac's
292:suspension
199:Paul Magès
191:hydraulics
84:depression
2434:Oversteer
2401:Wheelbase
2371:Toe angle
2341:Live axle
2286:Beam axle
2105:Beam axle
2098:Dependent
2074:Pneumatic
2025:Transaxle
2005:Oversteer
1980:Downforce
1503:New Atlas
1297:New Atlas
1103:1340-4202
887:MagneRide
835:every 15
550:verifying
497:MagneRide
478:yaw angle
358:Amar Bose
334:in 1988.
301:The 1999
178:actuators
123:Principle
101:cornering
97:body roll
2659:Category
2411:Steering
2320:Hydragas
2156:Dubonnet
2010:Steering
1985:Drifting
1838:WhatCar?
1659:Autoblog
1400:Michelin
1188:cite web
969:See also
914:Maserati
813:Cadillac
641:Citroën
637:15-6H:,
378:Michelin
147:Figure 3
139:Figure 2
131:Figure 1
115:such as
92:steering
88:traction
69:actuator
2621:Spinner
2429:Kingpin
2241:Chassis
2079:Torsion
1477:Motor 1
1048:Bibcode
848:Skyhook
831:of the
611:resolve
544:Please
422:of the
396:active
296:dampers
211:springs
203:Citroën
109:braking
60:springs
52:chassis
2649:Portal
2606:Hubcap
2464:Brakes
2255:series
2055:Spring
1891:
1691:14 May
1322:
1101:
1017:
957:2025:
952:Avalon
949:Toyota
947:2019:
937:2013:
926:2013:
919:2012:
908:2010:
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867:1999:
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764:1989:
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743:1986:
734:Cedric
714:1983:
707:1979:
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693:1975:
686:1974:
679:1970:
672:1970:
665:1967:
655:1957:
648:1955:
633:1954:
366:Humvee
172:Active
44:wheels
2091:types
2057:types
1665:6 May
1178:6 May
1148:(725)
1011:(PDF)
900:V70 R
896:S60 R
893:Volvo
821:CVRSS
721:1985
599:lend
247:Excel
117:buses
48:axles
2276:Axle
2069:Leaf
2064:Coil
1889:ISBN
1866:. US
1845:2023
1693:2024
1667:2024
1581:. US
1530:. US
1479:. UK
1453:. UK
1278:2014
1194:link
1180:2024
1099:ISSN
1015:ISBN
898:and
786:and
394:Audi
352:The
265:and
220:and
107:and
90:and
78:and
46:and
1747:doi
1714:doi
1630:doi
1451:Car
1344:doi
1246:doi
1089:doi
1056:doi
962:ET9
959:Nio
548:by
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