625:(DOT) awarded a highway construction contract in Colorado to Mountain Gravel and Construction Company. Mountain Gravel solicited bids for a subcontract for guardrails along the highway. The lowest bid was submitted by Adarand Constructors, with a higher bid being submitted by Gonzales Construction. However, Gonzales Construction had been certified by the Small Business Administration as a disadvantaged business and so Mountain Gravel awarded the subcontract to Gonzales because of financial incentives in the Mountain Gravel's contract for employing disadvantaged businesses. Adarand filed suit in federal court against DOT by arguing that the subcontracting incentive clause, or bonus, that caused Adarand to lose a subcontract was unconstitutional. The federal district court and circuit court ruled in favor of DOT and against Adarand, which then appealed to the US Supreme Court. The case was docketed as
144:
35:
707:, dissented from the majority regarding the congruency between the 5th and 14th amendment. Justice Stevens argues that the concept of congruence "ignores important protected and legal differences federal state and local decision makers...a rule of 'congruence' that ignores a 'purposeful incongruity' so fundamental to our system of government is unacceptable."
644:
The questions before the Court was primarily whether the presumption of disadvantage based on race alone, as well as the consequent allocation of favored treatment, was a discriminatory practice that violates the equal protection clause of the 14th
Amendment as well as the Due Process clause of the
678:
also joined in part. Justice O'Connor found that while reviewing the process of "reverse incorporation", there is congruency between the 5th and 14th amendment. Justice O'Connor held that regardless of the motive, strict scrutiny analysis applied to all race-based classification for both the State
561:
held the federal government to the same standards as the state and local governments through a process of "reverse incorporation," in which the 5th
Amendment's Due Process Clause was held to bind the federal government to the same standards as state and local governments are bound under the
3507:
755:, and the Small Business Administration, do not seriously consider race-neutral alternatives before implementing race-conscious federal procurement programs. The Commission found that such consideration is required by the strict scrutiny standard under
3224:
3392:
2935:
3352:
321:
296:
1205:
3517:
1105:
3256:
3032:
617:"the contractor shall presume that socially and economically disadvantaged individuals include Black Americans, Hispanic Americans, Native Americans, Asian Pacific Americans, and other minorities...."
545:
281:
1519:
563:
485:
939:
3537:
1098:
1011:
808:
783:
522:
347:", the highest level of Supreme Court review (such classifications are constitutional only if they are narrowly tailored measures that further compelling governmental interests).
326:
308:
261:
185:
251:
1447:
3416:
3400:
3522:
1221:
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481:
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3168:
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1553:
1149:
1091:
2607:
1798:
1237:
3200:
763:
dissented from the commission's report, arguing that the commission was taking a "radical step backwards" from the "race-progressive policies" of the past.
3532:
3096:
748:
3512:
3456:
1288:
736:
99:
1536:
343:
All racial classifications, imposed by whatever federal, state, or local government actor, must be analyzed by a reviewing court under a standard of "
71:
3440:
3320:
1745:
1531:
613:. That usually meant that the business was owned by racial or ethnic minority groups or by women. In this particular case the contract stated that
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3296:
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1245:
1114:
78:
3376:
2615:
2267:
892:
740:
1197:
3120:
1779:
1471:
1312:
1229:
1213:
85:
207:) ¶ 43,556; 78 Rad. Reg. 2d (P & F) 357; 95 Cal. Daily Op. Service 4381; 95 Daily Journal DAR 7503; 40 Cont. Cas. Fed. (CCH) ¶ 76,756
3208:
2663:
1423:
732:
3424:
3408:
3232:
3192:
3016:
1122:
744:
525:
148:
67:
1812:
1360:
752:
118:
1376:
3280:
2591:
2416:
2012:
1581:
1352:
1344:
638:
598:
3072:
2951:
2863:
2192:
1772:
1561:
1431:
803:
716:
622:
553:
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3080:
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1641:
56:
49:
915:
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3368:
2079:
1463:
606:
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2216:
2149:
1913:
1738:
1296:
1328:
92:
3216:
1956:
634:
3128:
2903:
1611:
3384:
3176:
3160:
2504:
2432:
1841:
3344:
3272:
3008:
2927:
2759:
2316:
1980:
1857:
1320:
3144:
431:
O'Connor, joined by
Kennedy; Rehnquist, Thomas (all but Part III–C); Scalia (as consistent with his concurrence)
3464:
3184:
2911:
2687:
2424:
2283:
1510:
1336:
1264:
1157:
277:
3288:
3040:
2232:
228:
3000:
2719:
2472:
2328:
3304:
3112:
3048:
2655:
2464:
2224:
2168:
2114:
2047:
2039:
1972:
1873:
1764:
1731:
1601:
1515:
1304:
300:
292:
45:
1964:
1058:
247:
3152:
2823:
2799:
2679:
2583:
2575:
2448:
2392:
2098:
2071:
2063:
1996:
1937:
1929:
1894:
1672:
1667:
1415:
1280:
659:
548:
529:
500:
378:
2647:
2599:
2992:
2839:
2775:
2496:
2368:
2336:
2208:
2106:
1825:
1707:
1702:
1621:
1591:
1541:
1525:
1015:
812:
787:
684:
330:
312:
265:
177:
3432:
2855:
2807:
2352:
3088:
2791:
2783:
2735:
1479:
1439:
2743:
2711:
2259:
2130:
1189:
1173:
1399:
167:
Adarand
Constructors, Incorporated, Petitioner v. Federico Peña, Secretary of Transportation, et al.
2984:
2831:
2751:
2727:
2695:
2488:
2456:
2408:
2400:
2360:
2176:
2020:
1631:
1407:
1141:
1040:
700:
406:
192:
3480:
2879:
2703:
2563:
2440:
2376:
2344:
2291:
2275:
1865:
1687:
1635:
1575:
1368:
1181:
225:
605:
that were owned or controlled by "socially and economically disadvantaged individuals." The US
3312:
2895:
2671:
2631:
2623:
2480:
2184:
2122:
2004:
1697:
1662:
1272:
940:"Adarand Constructors, Inc. v. Pena Case Brief for Law Students | Case Brief for Law Students"
888:
696:
667:
579:
370:
362:
3136:
2847:
2639:
2528:
2384:
2251:
2200:
1165:
1031:
987:
630:
541:
244:
17:
557:, in which the Court had created a two tiered system for analyzing racial classifications.
3248:
2815:
2520:
2055:
1988:
1921:
1682:
1501:
1496:
1083:
671:
663:
537:
402:
390:
344:
1723:
1448:
Northeastern Fla. Chapter, Associated Gen. Contractors of
America v. City of Jacksonville
1022:
3056:
2972:
2767:
2512:
1849:
1692:
1571:
1049:
960:
920:
856:
831:
815:
790:
704:
683:
departed from prior cases by holding "benign" racial classifications need only satisfy
675:
602:
414:
382:
882:
3501:
2887:
2536:
1833:
1677:
610:
583:
204:
200:
540:", the most stringent level of review which requires that racial classifications be
2919:
760:
394:
3508:
United States
Supreme Court decisions that overrule a prior Supreme Court decision
180:
627:
Adarand
Constructors, Inc. v. Federico Peña, Secretary of Transportation, et al.
34:
3225:
Williamson County
Regional Planning Commission v. Hamilton Bank of Johnson City
3393:
Stop the Beach
Renourishment v. Florida Department of Environmental Protection
1645:
1565:
594:
587:
533:
256:
196:
911:
591:
575:
2936:
Department of
Homeland Security v. Regents of the University of California
1067:
881:
Finkelman, Paul; Urofsky, Melvin I.; United States. Supreme Court (2003).
3353:
Tahoe-Sierra Preservation Council, Inc. v. Tahoe Regional Planning Agency
1625:
1605:
1595:
1585:
727:
decision, federal agencies still largely fail to comply with the rule in
232:
1246:
Students for Fair Admissions v. President and Fellows of Harvard College
1712:
1615:
1206:
Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1
551:
wrote the majority opinion of the Court, which effectively overturned
720:
687:, which goes against the congruency of the 5th and 14th amendment.
3033:
Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad Co. v. City of Chicago
3257:
First English Evangelical Lutheran Church v. Los Angeles County
2970:
2561:
2314:
1892:
1810:
1768:
1727:
1087:
143:
916:"The Congruent Constitution (Part Two): Reverse Incorporation"
28:
731:. Specifically, the Commission found that the Departments of
988:
U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, Federal Procurement After
679:
and Federal governments. The court specifically noted that
3377:
San Remo Hotel, L.P. v. City & County of San Francisco
961:"Adarand Constructors, Inc. v. Peña, 515 U.S. 200 (1995)"
857:"Adarand Constructors, Inc. v. Peña, 515 U.S. 200 (1995)"
832:"Adarand Constructors, Inc. v. Peña, 515 U.S. 200 (1995)"
3518:
United States Supreme Court cases of the Rehnquist Court
1198:
Doe v. Kamehameha Schools/Bernice Pauahi Bishop Estate
887:. Internet Archive. Washington, D.C. : CQ Press.
662:
wrote for the majority joined in full only by Justice
884:
Landmark decisions of the United States Supreme Court
3401:
Arkansas Game & Fish Commission v. United States
3417:
Koontz v. St. Johns River Water Management District
2243:
2160:
2141:
2090:
2031:
1948:
1905:
1655:
1551:
1494:
1387:
1256:
1133:
1121:
475:
467:
459:
451:
443:
435:
427:
422:
351:
337:
272:
217:
212:
172:
162:
155:
136:
1222:Schuette v. Coalition to Defend Affirmative Action
199:4037; 63 U.S.L.W. 4523; 67 Fair Empl. Prac. Cas. (
493:This case overturned a previous ruling or rulings
3169:Penn Central Transportation Co. v. New York City
1150:Regents of the University of California v. Bakke
759:and other Supreme Court decisions. Commissioner
2608:Railroad Retirement Board v. Alton Railroad Co.
1238:Coalition for TJ v. Fairfax County School Board
3241:Keystone Bituminous Coal Ass'n v. DeBenedictis
544:to further compelling governmental interests.
1780:
1739:
1099:
8:
3538:United States racial discrimination case law
3201:Loretto v. Teleprompter Manhattan CATV Corp.
3193:Webb's Fabulous Pharmacies, Inc. v. Beckwith
1377:Charlton-Perkins v. University of Cincinnati
3281:Preseault v. Interstate Commerce Commission
3097:Louisville Joint Stock Land Bank v. Radford
3457:Pakdel v. City and County of San Francisco
3073:Seaboard Air Line Ry. Co. v. United States
2967:
2558:
2311:
1902:
1889:
1807:
1787:
1773:
1765:
1746:
1732:
1724:
1289:Hazelwood School District v. United States
1130:
1106:
1092:
1084:
574:At the time this case was litigated, many
133:
3523:United States affirmative action case law
1537:Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964
119:Learn how and when to remove this message
3441:Knick v. Township of Scott, Pennsylvania
3321:Suitum v. Tahoe Regional Planning Agency
1532:Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964
536:, must be analyzed under a standard of "
3543:United States equal protection case law
3361:Brown v. Legal Foundation of Washington
3329:Phillips v. Washington Legal Foundation
3297:Lucas v. South Carolina Coastal Council
3265:Nollan v. California Coastal Commission
3081:Rindge Company v. County of Los Angeles
1115:Affirmative action in the United States
983:
981:
772:
2616:United States v. Carolene Products Co.
55:Please improve this article by adding
3425:Horne v. Department of Agriculture II
3105:United States v. General Motors Corp.
3025:Monongahela Nav. Co. v. United States
2268:Louisiana ex rel. Francis v. Resweber
741:United States Department of Education
222:Adarand Constructors, Inc. v. Skinner
131:1995 United States Supreme Court case
7:
3409:Horne v. Department of Agriculture I
3121:Kimball Laundry Co. v. United States
1472:Adarand Constructors, Inc. v. Mineta
1464:Adarand Constructors, Inc. v. Slater
1313:Wygant v. Jackson Board of Education
906:
904:
826:
824:
609:would certify certain businesses as
322:Adarand Constructors, Inc. v. Mineta
289:Adarand Constructors, Inc. v. Slater
68:"Adarand Constructors, Inc. v. Peña"
3209:Hawaii Housing Authority v. Midkiff
2664:Department of Agriculture v. Moreno
1424:City of Richmond v. J.A. Croson Co.
299:(2000); affirmed in part, 228 F.3d
3533:United States due process case law
3233:United States v. Riverside Bayview
3017:Head v. Amoskeag Manufacturing Co.
2872:Adarand Constructors, Inc. v. Peña
1456:Adarand Constructors, Inc. v. Peña
1077:Adarand Constructors, Inc. v. Peña
1008:Adarand Constructors, Inc. v. Peña
780:Adarand Constructors, Inc. v. Peña
723:finding that, ten years after the
641:represented Adarand Constructors.
518:Adarand Constructors, Inc. v. Peña
463:Souter, joined by Ginsburg, Breyer
241:Adarand Constructors, Inc. v. Pena
149:Supreme Court of the United States
25:
3513:United States Supreme Court cases
1361:Piscataway School Board v. Taxman
1329:Firefighters v. City of Cleveland
1018:200 (1995) is available from:
3217:Ruckelshaus v. Montanato Company
2013:Bravo-Fernandez v. United States
1353:Wards Cove Packing Co. v. Atonio
1345:Johnson v. Transportation Agency
1230:Fisher v. University of Texas II
639:Mountain States Legal Foundation
447:Thomas (in part and in judgment)
439:Scalia (in part and in judgment)
142:
33:
3129:United States v. Pewee Coal Co.
2864:Metro Broadcasting, Inc. v. FCC
1432:Metro Broadcasting, Inc. v. FCC
1214:Fisher v. University of Texas I
804:Metro Broadcasting, Inc. v. FCC
717:U.S. Commission on Civil Rights
623:US Department of Transportation
554:Metro Broadcasting, Inc. v. FCC
507:Metro Broadcasting, Inc. v. FCC
3528:1995 in United States case law
3065:Pennsylvania Coal Co. v. Mahon
2944:United States v. Vaello Madero
2904:Flores-Villar v. United States
1:
3473:Sheetz v. County of El Dorado
3449:Cedar Point Nursery v. Hassid
3369:Lingle v. Chevron U.S.A. Inc.
3177:Kaiser Aetna v. United States
2592:Adkins v. Children's Hospital
1796:United States Fifth Amendment
1755:United States Fifth Amendment
749:Housing and Urban Development
607:Small Business Administration
521:, 515 U.S. 200 (1995), was a
203:) 1828; 66 Empl. Prac. Dec. (
57:secondary or tertiary sources
3337:Eastern Enterprises v. Apfel
2952:Department of State v. Muñoz
2217:Puerto Rico v. Sanchez Valle
2150:Blockburger v. United States
1914:Blockburger v. United States
1297:United Steelworkers v. Weber
137:Adarand Constructors v. Peña
18:Adarand Constructors v. Pena
3273:Pennell v. City of San Jose
2928:Sessions v. Morales-Santana
1957:United States v. Randenbush
1321:Sheet Metal Workers v. EEOC
658:In a 5–4 decision, Justice
635:Secretary of Transportation
526:United States Supreme Court
455:Stevens, joined by Ginsburg
3559:
3385:Kelo v. City of New London
3161:Armstrong v. United States
3145:Nelson v. City of New York
2505:J. D. B. v. North Carolina
2433:Dickerson v. United States
1842:Wong Wing v. United States
1068:Oyez (oral argument audio)
715:On September 5, 2005, the
471:Ginsburg, joined by Breyer
3345:Palazzolo v. Rhode Island
3009:Cole v. City of La Grange
2979:
2966:
2760:United States v. Antelope
2570:
2557:
2417:Mitchell v. United States
2323:
2317:Self-Incrimination Clause
2310:
2161:Dual sovereignty doctrine
1981:Fong Foo v. United States
1906:Meaning of "same offense"
1901:
1888:
1858:United States v. Moreland
1820:
1806:
1762:
1337:United States v. Paradise
532:, imposed by the federal
498:
491:
480:
356:
342:
295:(10th Cir. 1999); rev'd,
141:
3465:Tyler v. Hennepin County
3289:Yee v. City of Escondido
3185:Agins v. City of Tiburon
3041:Peabody v. United States
2912:United States v. Windsor
2688:Weinberger v. Wiesenfeld
2425:United States v. Hubbell
2284:North Carolina v. Pearce
2233:Denezpi v. United States
2193:United States v. Wheeler
1511:Civil Rights Act of 1866
1265:Griggs v. Duke Power Co.
1158:United States v. Fordice
1079:Case Brief at Lawnix.com
276:On remand, 965 F. Supp.
3305:Dolan v. City of Tigard
3113:United States v. Causby
3001:United States v. Lawton
2720:Hampton v. Mow Sun Wong
2656:Frontiero v. Richardson
2473:Corley v. United States
2465:United States v. Patane
2329:Curcio v. United States
2225:Gamble v. United States
2115:United States v. Dinitz
2048:Ludwig v. Massachusetts
2040:United States v. Wilson
1973:Burton v. United States
1874:United States v. Cotton
1516:Equal Protection Clause
711:Subsequent developments
504:(1980) (in part) &
156:Argued January 17, 1995
3049:United States v. Cress
2824:Fullilove v. Klutznick
2680:Schlesinger v. Ballard
2584:Adair v. United States
2576:Dred Scott v. Sandford
2449:Yarborough v. Alvarado
2169:United States v. Lanza
2099:United States v. Perez
2080:Smith v. United States
2072:United States v. Dixon
2064:United States v. Felix
1997:Burks v. United States
1938:United States v. Dixon
1930:United States v. Felix
1895:Double Jeopardy Clause
1416:Fullilove v. Klutznick
1305:Firefighters v. Stotts
1281:Schlesinger v. Ballard
619:
530:racial classifications
501:Fullilove v. Klutznick
44:relies excessively on
2993:Kohl v. United States
2497:Berghuis v. Thompkins
2337:Griffin v. California
2209:United States v. Lara
2107:United States v. Jorn
1965:Ball v. United States
1826:Hurtado v. California
1542:Executive Order 11246
1526:Executive Order 10925
1127:lower court decisions
914:(December 22, 2022).
685:intermediate scrutiny
615:
528:case which held that
482:U.S. Const. amends. V
191:115 S. Ct. 2097; 132
158:Decided June 12, 1995
3153:United States v. Dow
2800:Califano v. Westcott
2744:Califano v. Goldfarb
2393:Doe v. United States
2260:Palko v. Connecticut
2131:Blueford v. Arkansas
1520:Fourteenth Amendment
1509:Section 1981 of the
1190:Grutter v. Bollinger
699:, joined by Justice
319:dismissed, sub nom.
2985:Barron v. Baltimore
2832:Rostker v. Goldberg
2752:Califano v. Webster
2728:Washington v. Davis
2696:Mathews v. Eldridge
2648:Richardson v. Davis
2600:Nichols v. Coolidge
2489:Maryland v. Shatzer
2457:Missouri v. Seibert
2409:McNeil v. Wisconsin
2401:Illinois v. Perkins
2361:Williams v. Florida
2177:Bartkus v. Illinois
2142:Multiple punishment
2021:McElrath v. Georgia
1408:Califano v. Webster
1142:DeFunis v. Odegaard
1059:Library of Congress
549:Sandra Day O'Connor
407:Ruth Bader Ginsburg
379:Sandra Day O'Connor
3481:DeVillier v. Texas
2880:Miller v. Albright
2840:Heckler v. Mathews
2776:Califano v. Torres
2704:Hills v. Gautreaux
2564:Due Process Clause
2441:Chavez v. Martinez
2377:Edwards v. Arizona
2369:Michigan v. Tucker
2345:Miranda v. Arizona
2292:Benton v. Maryland
2276:Baxstrom v. Herold
1866:Beck v. Washington
1799:criminal procedure
1708:Stephan Thermstrom
1703:Abigail Thermstrom
1688:Richard Kahlenberg
1622:State Question 759
1369:Ricci v. DeStefano
1182:Gratz v. Bollinger
681:Metro Broadcasting
367:Associate Justices
303:(10th Cir. 2000);
3495:
3494:
3491:
3490:
3433:Murr v. Wisconsin
3313:Babbitt v. Youpee
2962:
2961:
2896:Zadvydas v. Davis
2856:Bowen v. Gilliard
2808:Harris v. Rosario
2672:Morton v. Mancari
2632:Schneider v. Rusk
2624:Bolling v. Sharpe
2551:
2550:
2547:
2546:
2481:Florida v. Powell
2353:Boulden v. Holman
2306:
2305:
2302:
2301:
2185:Waller v. Florida
2123:Oregon v. Kennedy
2005:Evans v. Michigan
1884:
1883:
1721:
1720:
1698:Stuart Taylor Jr.
1663:Peter Arcidiacono
1490:
1489:
1273:Morton v. Mancari
894:978-1-56802-720-3
542:narrowly tailored
514:
513:
363:William Rehnquist
129:
128:
121:
103:
16:(Redirected from
3550:
3137:Berman v. Parker
3089:Leonard v. Earle
2968:
2848:Lyng v. Castillo
2792:Davis v. Passman
2784:Vance v. Bradley
2736:Mathews v. Lucas
2640:Rogers v. Bellei
2559:
2529:Salinas v. Texas
2385:Oregon v. Elstad
2312:
2252:Ex parte Bigelow
2201:Heath v. Alabama
2032:After conviction
1903:
1890:
1808:
1789:
1782:
1775:
1766:
1748:
1741:
1734:
1725:
1480:Vitolo v. Guzman
1443:(D.C. Cir. 1992)
1440:Lamprecht v. FCC
1166:Hopwood v. Texas
1131:
1108:
1101:
1094:
1085:
1072:
1066:
1063:
1057:
1054:
1048:
1045:
1039:
1036:
1030:
1027:
1021:
994:
992:(September 2005)
985:
976:
975:
973:
971:
957:
951:
950:
948:
946:
936:
930:
929:
908:
899:
898:
878:
872:
871:
869:
867:
853:
847:
846:
844:
842:
828:
819:
800:
794:
777:
599:prime contractor
352:Court membership
315:941 (2001);
284:1997); vacated,
268:1288 (1994).
235:1992); affirmed
146:
145:
134:
124:
117:
113:
110:
104:
102:
61:
37:
29:
21:
3558:
3557:
3553:
3552:
3551:
3549:
3548:
3547:
3498:
3497:
3496:
3487:
3249:Hodel v. Irving
2975:
2958:
2816:Harris v. McRae
2712:Mathews v. Diaz
2566:
2553:
2552:
2543:
2521:Howes v. Fields
2319:
2298:
2239:
2156:
2137:
2086:
2056:Grady v. Corbin
2027:
1989:Ashe v. Swenson
1949:After acquittal
1944:
1922:Grady v. Corbin
1897:
1880:
1816:
1802:
1793:
1758:
1752:
1722:
1717:
1683:Arthur Fletcher
1651:
1648:, 2020, failed)
1638:, 2019, failed)
1612:Proposition 107
1598:, 2008, failed)
1562:Proposition 209
1547:
1499:
1486:
1483:(6th Cir. 2021)
1391:
1389:
1383:
1380:(6th Cir. 2022)
1252:
1241:(4th Cir. 2023)
1201:(9th Cir. 2006)
1174:Texas v. Lesage
1169:(5th Cir. 1996)
1126:
1117:
1112:
1070:
1064:
1061:
1055:
1052:
1046:
1043:
1037:
1034:
1028:
1025:
1019:
1003:
998:
997:
986:
979:
969:
967:
959:
958:
954:
944:
942:
938:
937:
933:
910:
909:
902:
895:
880:
879:
875:
865:
863:
855:
854:
850:
840:
838:
830:
829:
822:
801:
797:
778:
774:
769:
713:
693:
656:
651:
645:5th Amendment.
572:
538:strict scrutiny
494:
405:
403:Clarence Thomas
393:
391:Anthony Kennedy
381:
371:John P. Stevens
345:strict scrutiny
333:103 (2001).
208:
157:
151:
132:
125:
114:
108:
105:
62:
60:
54:
50:primary sources
38:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3556:
3554:
3546:
3545:
3540:
3535:
3530:
3525:
3520:
3515:
3510:
3500:
3499:
3493:
3492:
3489:
3488:
3486:
3485:
3477:
3469:
3461:
3453:
3445:
3437:
3429:
3421:
3413:
3405:
3397:
3389:
3381:
3373:
3365:
3357:
3349:
3341:
3333:
3325:
3317:
3309:
3301:
3293:
3285:
3277:
3269:
3261:
3253:
3245:
3237:
3229:
3221:
3213:
3205:
3197:
3189:
3181:
3173:
3165:
3157:
3149:
3141:
3133:
3125:
3117:
3109:
3101:
3093:
3085:
3077:
3069:
3061:
3057:Block v. Hirsh
3053:
3045:
3037:
3029:
3021:
3013:
3005:
2997:
2989:
2980:
2977:
2976:
2973:Takings Clause
2971:
2964:
2963:
2960:
2959:
2957:
2956:
2948:
2940:
2932:
2924:
2916:
2908:
2900:
2892:
2884:
2876:
2868:
2860:
2852:
2844:
2836:
2828:
2820:
2812:
2804:
2796:
2788:
2780:
2772:
2768:Fiallo v. Bell
2764:
2756:
2748:
2740:
2732:
2724:
2716:
2708:
2700:
2692:
2684:
2676:
2668:
2660:
2652:
2644:
2636:
2628:
2620:
2612:
2604:
2596:
2588:
2580:
2571:
2568:
2567:
2562:
2555:
2554:
2549:
2548:
2545:
2544:
2542:
2541:
2533:
2525:
2517:
2513:Bobby v. Dixon
2509:
2501:
2493:
2485:
2477:
2469:
2461:
2453:
2445:
2437:
2429:
2421:
2413:
2405:
2397:
2389:
2381:
2373:
2365:
2357:
2349:
2341:
2333:
2324:
2321:
2320:
2315:
2308:
2307:
2304:
2303:
2300:
2299:
2297:
2296:
2288:
2280:
2272:
2264:
2256:
2247:
2245:
2241:
2240:
2238:
2237:
2229:
2221:
2213:
2205:
2197:
2189:
2181:
2173:
2164:
2162:
2158:
2157:
2155:
2154:
2145:
2143:
2139:
2138:
2136:
2135:
2127:
2119:
2111:
2103:
2094:
2092:
2091:After mistrial
2088:
2087:
2085:
2084:
2076:
2068:
2060:
2052:
2044:
2035:
2033:
2029:
2028:
2026:
2025:
2017:
2009:
2001:
1993:
1985:
1977:
1969:
1961:
1952:
1950:
1946:
1945:
1943:
1942:
1934:
1926:
1918:
1909:
1907:
1899:
1898:
1893:
1886:
1885:
1882:
1881:
1879:
1878:
1870:
1862:
1854:
1850:Maxwell v. Dow
1846:
1838:
1830:
1821:
1818:
1817:
1811:
1804:
1803:
1794:
1792:
1791:
1784:
1777:
1769:
1763:
1760:
1759:
1753:
1751:
1750:
1743:
1736:
1728:
1719:
1718:
1716:
1715:
1710:
1705:
1700:
1695:
1693:Richard Sander
1690:
1685:
1680:
1675:
1670:
1665:
1659:
1657:
1653:
1652:
1650:
1649:
1642:Proposition 16
1639:
1629:
1619:
1609:
1602:Initiative 424
1599:
1589:
1579:
1572:Initiative 200
1569:
1558:
1556:
1549:
1548:
1546:
1545:
1539:
1534:
1529:
1523:
1513:
1506:
1504:
1492:
1491:
1488:
1487:
1485:
1484:
1476:
1468:
1460:
1452:
1444:
1436:
1428:
1420:
1412:
1404:
1400:Kahn v. Shevin
1395:
1393:
1392:and Set-Asides
1385:
1384:
1382:
1381:
1373:
1365:
1364:(3d Cir. 1996)
1357:
1349:
1341:
1333:
1325:
1317:
1309:
1301:
1293:
1285:
1277:
1269:
1260:
1258:
1254:
1253:
1251:
1250:
1242:
1234:
1226:
1218:
1210:
1202:
1194:
1186:
1178:
1170:
1162:
1154:
1146:
1137:
1135:
1128:
1119:
1118:
1113:
1111:
1110:
1103:
1096:
1088:
1082:
1081:
1073:
1041:Google Scholar
1002:
1001:External links
999:
996:
995:
977:
952:
931:
921:BYU Law Review
900:
893:
873:
848:
820:
795:
771:
770:
768:
765:
737:Transportation
712:
709:
692:
689:
666:while Justice
655:
652:
650:
647:
637:at that time.
603:subcontractors
571:
568:
564:14th Amendment
512:
511:
496:
495:
492:
489:
488:
478:
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433:
432:
429:
425:
424:
420:
419:
418:
417:
415:Stephen Breyer
383:Antonin Scalia
368:
365:
360:
354:
353:
349:
348:
340:
339:
335:
334:
274:
270:
269:
219:
215:
214:
210:
209:
190:
174:
170:
169:
164:
163:Full case name
160:
159:
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147:
139:
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127:
126:
41:
39:
32:
24:
14:
13:
10:
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6:
4:
3:
2:
3555:
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3503:
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3422:
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3406:
3403:
3402:
3398:
3395:
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3374:
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3331:
3330:
3326:
3323:
3322:
3318:
3315:
3314:
3310:
3307:
3306:
3302:
3299:
3298:
3294:
3291:
3290:
3286:
3283:
3282:
3278:
3275:
3274:
3270:
3267:
3266:
3262:
3259:
3258:
3254:
3251:
3250:
3246:
3243:
3242:
3238:
3235:
3234:
3230:
3227:
3226:
3222:
3219:
3218:
3214:
3211:
3210:
3206:
3203:
3202:
3198:
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3186:
3182:
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3158:
3155:
3154:
3150:
3147:
3146:
3142:
3139:
3138:
3134:
3131:
3130:
3126:
3123:
3122:
3118:
3115:
3114:
3110:
3107:
3106:
3102:
3099:
3098:
3094:
3091:
3090:
3086:
3083:
3082:
3078:
3075:
3074:
3070:
3067:
3066:
3062:
3059:
3058:
3054:
3051:
3050:
3046:
3043:
3042:
3038:
3035:
3034:
3030:
3027:
3026:
3022:
3019:
3018:
3014:
3011:
3010:
3006:
3003:
3002:
2998:
2995:
2994:
2990:
2987:
2986:
2982:
2981:
2978:
2974:
2969:
2965:
2954:
2953:
2949:
2946:
2945:
2941:
2938:
2937:
2933:
2930:
2929:
2925:
2922:
2921:
2917:
2914:
2913:
2909:
2906:
2905:
2901:
2898:
2897:
2893:
2890:
2889:
2888:Nguyen v. INS
2885:
2882:
2881:
2877:
2874:
2873:
2869:
2866:
2865:
2861:
2858:
2857:
2853:
2850:
2849:
2845:
2842:
2841:
2837:
2834:
2833:
2829:
2826:
2825:
2821:
2818:
2817:
2813:
2810:
2809:
2805:
2802:
2801:
2797:
2794:
2793:
2789:
2786:
2785:
2781:
2778:
2777:
2773:
2770:
2769:
2765:
2762:
2761:
2757:
2754:
2753:
2749:
2746:
2745:
2741:
2738:
2737:
2733:
2730:
2729:
2725:
2722:
2721:
2717:
2714:
2713:
2709:
2706:
2705:
2701:
2698:
2697:
2693:
2690:
2689:
2685:
2682:
2681:
2677:
2674:
2673:
2669:
2666:
2665:
2661:
2658:
2657:
2653:
2650:
2649:
2645:
2642:
2641:
2637:
2634:
2633:
2629:
2626:
2625:
2621:
2618:
2617:
2613:
2610:
2609:
2605:
2602:
2601:
2597:
2594:
2593:
2589:
2586:
2585:
2581:
2578:
2577:
2573:
2572:
2569:
2565:
2560:
2556:
2539:
2538:
2537:Vega v. Tekoh
2534:
2531:
2530:
2526:
2523:
2522:
2518:
2515:
2514:
2510:
2507:
2506:
2502:
2499:
2498:
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2490:
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2446:
2443:
2442:
2438:
2435:
2434:
2430:
2427:
2426:
2422:
2419:
2418:
2414:
2411:
2410:
2406:
2403:
2402:
2398:
2395:
2394:
2390:
2387:
2386:
2382:
2379:
2378:
2374:
2371:
2370:
2366:
2363:
2362:
2358:
2355:
2354:
2350:
2347:
2346:
2342:
2339:
2338:
2334:
2331:
2330:
2326:
2325:
2322:
2318:
2313:
2309:
2294:
2293:
2289:
2286:
2285:
2281:
2278:
2277:
2273:
2270:
2269:
2265:
2262:
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2257:
2254:
2253:
2249:
2248:
2246:
2242:
2235:
2234:
2230:
2227:
2226:
2222:
2219:
2218:
2214:
2211:
2210:
2206:
2203:
2202:
2198:
2195:
2194:
2190:
2187:
2186:
2182:
2179:
2178:
2174:
2171:
2170:
2166:
2165:
2163:
2159:
2152:
2151:
2147:
2146:
2144:
2140:
2133:
2132:
2128:
2125:
2124:
2120:
2117:
2116:
2112:
2109:
2108:
2104:
2101:
2100:
2096:
2095:
2093:
2089:
2082:
2081:
2077:
2074:
2073:
2069:
2066:
2065:
2061:
2058:
2057:
2053:
2050:
2049:
2045:
2042:
2041:
2037:
2036:
2034:
2030:
2023:
2022:
2018:
2015:
2014:
2010:
2007:
2006:
2002:
1999:
1998:
1994:
1991:
1990:
1986:
1983:
1982:
1978:
1975:
1974:
1970:
1967:
1966:
1962:
1959:
1958:
1954:
1953:
1951:
1947:
1940:
1939:
1935:
1932:
1931:
1927:
1924:
1923:
1919:
1916:
1915:
1911:
1910:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1891:
1887:
1876:
1875:
1871:
1868:
1867:
1863:
1860:
1859:
1855:
1852:
1851:
1847:
1844:
1843:
1839:
1836:
1835:
1834:Ex parte Bain
1831:
1828:
1827:
1823:
1822:
1819:
1814:
1809:
1805:
1800:
1797:
1790:
1785:
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1749:
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1706:
1704:
1701:
1699:
1696:
1694:
1691:
1689:
1686:
1684:
1681:
1679:
1678:Ward Connerly
1676:
1674:
1671:
1669:
1666:
1664:
1661:
1660:
1658:
1654:
1647:
1643:
1640:
1637:
1633:
1632:Referendum 88
1630:
1627:
1623:
1620:
1617:
1613:
1610:
1607:
1603:
1600:
1597:
1593:
1590:
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1577:
1573:
1570:
1567:
1563:
1560:
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1535:
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1508:
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1505:
1503:
1498:
1493:
1482:
1481:
1477:
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1473:
1469:
1466:
1465:
1461:
1458:
1457:
1453:
1450:
1449:
1445:
1442:
1441:
1437:
1434:
1433:
1429:
1426:
1425:
1421:
1418:
1417:
1413:
1410:
1409:
1405:
1402:
1401:
1397:
1396:
1394:
1386:
1379:
1378:
1374:
1371:
1370:
1366:
1363:
1362:
1358:
1355:
1354:
1350:
1347:
1346:
1342:
1339:
1338:
1334:
1331:
1330:
1326:
1323:
1322:
1318:
1315:
1314:
1310:
1307:
1306:
1302:
1299:
1298:
1294:
1291:
1290:
1286:
1283:
1282:
1278:
1275:
1274:
1270:
1267:
1266:
1262:
1261:
1259:
1255:
1248:
1247:
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1235:
1232:
1231:
1227:
1224:
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1216:
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1211:
1208:
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1203:
1200:
1199:
1195:
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1191:
1187:
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1171:
1168:
1167:
1163:
1160:
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1155:
1152:
1151:
1147:
1144:
1143:
1139:
1138:
1136:
1132:
1129:
1124:
1123:Supreme Court
1120:
1116:
1109:
1104:
1102:
1097:
1095:
1090:
1089:
1086:
1080:
1078:
1074:
1069:
1060:
1051:
1042:
1033:
1024:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1004:
1000:
993:
991:
984:
982:
978:
966:
962:
956:
953:
941:
935:
932:
928:(2): 303–401.
927:
923:
922:
917:
913:
912:Bybee, Jay S.
907:
905:
901:
896:
890:
886:
885:
877:
874:
862:
858:
852:
849:
837:
833:
827:
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821:
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796:
792:
789:
785:
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773:
766:
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746:
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688:
686:
682:
677:
673:
669:
665:
661:
653:
648:
646:
642:
640:
636:
632:
631:Federico Peña
628:
624:
621:In 1989, the
618:
614:
612:
611:disadvantaged
608:
604:
600:
596:
593:
589:
585:
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779:
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761:Michael Yaki
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703:and Justice
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674:and Justice
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1554:initiatives
1497:legislation
970:January 11,
945:January 11,
866:January 29,
841:January 29,
633:was the US
444:Concurrence
436:Concurrence
291:, 169 F.3d
260:. granted,
3502:Categories
1813:Grand Jury
1673:Carl Cohen
1582:Proposal 2
1257:Employment
965:Justia Law
861:Justia Law
836:Justia Law
767:References
670:, Justice
601:to employ
595:incentives
590:contained
588:government
570:Background
534:government
273:Subsequent
197:U.S. LEXIS
195:158; 1995
79:newspapers
46:references
1134:Education
719:issued a
668:Rehnquist
592:financial
576:contracts
307:granted,
286:sub. nom.
252:10th Cir.
237:sub. nom.
193:L. Ed. 2d
173:Citations
1801:case law
1757:case law
1495:Federal
1006:Text of
701:Ginsburg
695:Justice
660:O'Connor
654:Majority
629:because
597:for the
586:federal
580:agencies
523:landmark
428:Majority
282:D. Colo.
233:D. Colo.
226:F. Supp.
1713:Ron Unz
1628:, 2012)
1618:, 2010)
1608:, 2008)
1588:, 2006)
1578:, 1998)
1568:, 1996)
1518:of the
1388:Grants,
1032:Findlaw
1023:Cornell
990:Adarand
757:Adarand
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729:Adarand
725:Adarand
697:Stevens
691:Dissent
664:Kennedy
649:Opinion
582:of the
578:led by
559:Adarand
546:Justice
468:Dissent
460:Dissent
452:Dissent
338:Holding
254:1994);
93:scholar
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1829:(1884)
1815:Clause
1656:People
1552:State
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1528:(1961)
1522:(1868)
1502:edicts
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1145:(1974)
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1050:Justia
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1038:
1035:
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807:,
782:,
745:Energy
721:report
705:Breyer
676:Scalia
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510:(1990)
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243:, 16
218:Prior
100:JSTOR
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1500:and
1016:U.S.
972:2022
947:2022
889:ISBN
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788:U.S.
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313:U.S.
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257:cert
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245:F.3d
186:more
178:U.S.
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