Adult stem cell - Knowledge (XXG)

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the preferred method of treatment, as vascular delivery suffers from a "pulmonary first pass effect" where intravenously injected cells are sequestered in the lungs. Clinical case reports in orthopedic applications have been published. Wakitani has published a small case series of nine defects in five knees involving surgical transplantation of mesenchymal stem cells with coverage of the treated chondral defects. Centeno et al. have reported high-field MRI evidence of increased cartilage and meniscus volume in individual human clinical subjects as well as a large n=227 safety study. Many other stem cell-based treatments are operating outside the US, with much controversy being reported regarding these treatments as some feel more regulation is needed as clinics tend to exaggerate claims of success and minimize or omit risks.

210: 975:. Some types of adult stem cells are more capable of transdifferentiation than others, but for many there is no evidence that such a transformation is possible. Consequently, adult stem therapies require a stem cell source of the specific lineage needed, and harvesting and/or culturing them up to the numbers required is a challenge. Additionally, cues from the immediate environment (including how stiff or porous the surrounding structure/ 42: 4805: 413:. As BLSCs and VSEL cells are present in virtually all adult tissues, including the lungs, brain, kidneys, muscles, and pancreas, co-purification of BLSCs and VSEL cells with other populations of adult stem cells may explain the apparent pluripotency of adult stem cell populations. However, recent studies have shown that both human and murine VSEL cells lack stem cell characteristics and are not pluripotent. 686:. Bioactive mediators that favor local cell growth are also secreted by MSCs. Anti-inflammatory effects on the local microenvironment, which promote tissue healing, are also observed. The inflammatory response can be modulated by adipose-derived regenerative cells (ADRC) including mesenchymal stem cells and regulatory 739:, continues into adulthood in rats. The presence of stem cells in the mature primate brain was first reported in 1967. It has since been shown that new neurons are generated in adult mice, songbirds, and primates, including humans. Normally, adult neurogenesis is restricted to two areas of the brain – the 1024:

In recent years, acceptance of the concept of adult stem cells has increased. There is now a hypothesis that stem cells reside in many adult tissues and that these unique reservoirs of cells not only are responsible for the normal reparative and regenerative processes but are also considered to be a

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Adult stem cells can, however, be artificially reverted to a state where they behave like embryonic stem cells (including the associated DNA repair mechanisms). This was done with mice as early as 2006 with prospects to slow down human aging substantially. Such cells are one of the various classes of

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Stem Cells are relatively more numerous in men than in women of reproductive age group among spinal cord Injury victims. Other early commercial applications have focused on Mesenchymal Stem Cells (MSCs). For both cell lines, direct injection or placement of cells into a site in need of repair may be

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Stem cell function becomes impaired with age, and this contributes to progressive deterioration of tissue maintenance and repair. A likely important cause of increasing stem cell dysfunction is an age-dependent accumulation of DNA damage in both stem cells and the cells that comprise the stem cell

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or by transplanting them to an organ of the body different from the one they were originally isolated from. There is yet no consensus among biologists on the prevalence and physiological and therapeutic relevance of stem cell plasticity. More recent findings suggest that pluripotent stem cells may

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cells, which are found in the lining of the nose and are involved in the sense of smell. If they are given the right chemical environment, these cells have the same ability as embryonic stem cells to develop into many different cell types. Olfactory stem cells hold the potential for therapeutic

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regulate this transition. The ability to regulate the cell cycle in response to external cues helps prevent stem cell exhaustion or the gradual loss of stem cells following an altered balance between dormant and active states. Infrequent cell divisions also help reduce the risk of acquiring DNA

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of laboratory mice by scientists in Germany and the United States, and, a year later, researchers from Germany and the United Kingdom confirmed the same capability using cells from the testicles of humans. The extracted stem cells are known as human adult germline stem cells (GSCs)

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Subrammaniyan R, Amalorpavanathan J, Shankar R, Rajkumar M, Baskar S, Manjunath SR, et al. (September 2011). "Application of autologous bone marrow mononuclear cells in six patients with advanced chronic critical limb ischemia as a result of diabetes: our experience".

176:, as they are derived from adult tissue samples rather than human embryos designated for scientific research. The main functions of adult stem cells are to replace cells that are at risk of possibly dying as a result of disease or injury and to maintain a state of 384:

Discoveries in recent years have suggested that adult stem cells might have the ability to differentiate into cell types from different germ layers. For instance, neural stem cells from the brain, which are derived from ectoderm, can differentiate into ectoderm,

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applications and, in contrast to neural stem cells, can be harvested with ease without harm to the patient. This means they can be easily obtained from all individuals, including older patients who might be most in need of stem cell therapies.

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The therapeutic potential of adult stem cells is the focus of much scientific research, due to their ability to be harvested from the parent body that is females during the delivery. In common with embryonic stem cells, adult stem cells can

1007:, etc.). A great deal of adult stem cell research has focused on investigating their capacity to divide or self-renew indefinitely, and their differentiation potential. In mice, pluripotent stem cells can be directly generated from adult 3737:

Centeno CJ, Schultz JR, Cheever M, Robinson B, Freeman M, Marasco W (March 2010). "Safety and complications reporting on the re-implantation of culture-expanded mesenchymal stem cells using autologous platelet lysate technique".

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Srivastava A, Bapat M, Ranade S, Srinivasan V, Murugan P, Manjunath S, et al. (2010). "Multiple injections of in vitro expanded autologous bone marrow stem cells for cervical level spinal cord injury – a case report".

1073:, damages the lungs extensively in the presence of an overreactive immune response. Adult stem cells were extracted from deep lung biopsies and used to construct a complete lung model with both proximal and distal airway 708:

Endothelial stem cells are one of the three types of multipotent stem cells found in the bone marrow. They are a rare and controversial group with the ability to differentiate into endothelial cells, the cells that line

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into more than one cell type, but unlike the former they are often restricted to certain types or "lineages". The ability of a differentiated stem cell of one lineage to produce cells of a different lineage is called

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while still maintaining its undifferentiated state. Stem cells can replicate several times and can result in the formation of two stem cells, one stem cell more differentiated than the other, or two differentiated

393:. Stem cells from the bone marrow, which is derived from mesoderm, can differentiate into liver, lung, GI tract, and skin, which are derived from endoderm and mesoderm. This phenomenon is referred to as stem cell 3828:

Mimeault M, Hauke R, Batra SK (September 2007). "Stem cells: a revolution in therapeutics-recent advances in stem cell biology and their therapeutic applications in regenerative medicine and cancer therapies".

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Scientific interest in adult stem cells is centered around two main characteristics. The first of which is their ability to divide or self-renew indefinitely, and the second their ability to generate all the

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the stem cell is found in plays a large role in maintaining quiescence. Perturbed niches cause the stem cell to begin actively dividing again to replace lost or damaged cells until the niche is restored. In

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stem cells, i.e. cells that can give rise to any fetal or adult cell type, can be found in several tissues, including umbilical cord blood. Using genetic reprogramming, pluripotent stem cells equivalent to

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Terai S, Ishikawa T, Omori K, Aoyama K, Marumoto Y, Urata Y, et al. (October 2006). "Improved liver function in patients with liver cirrhosis after autologous bone marrow cell infusion therapy".

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reside in blood and adult tissues in a dormant state. These cells are referred to as "Blastomere Like Stem Cells" (BLSCs) and "very small embryonic-like" (VSEL) stem cells, and display pluripotency

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Centeno CJ, Busse D, Kisiday J, Keohan C, Freeman M, Karli D (December 2008). "Regeneration of meniscus cartilage in a knee treated with percutaneously implanted autologous mesenchymal stem cells".

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Srikanth L, Sunitha MM, Venkatesh K, Kumar PS, Chandrasekhar C, Vengamma B, Sarma PV (2015). "Anaerobic Glycolysis and HIF1α Expression in Haematopoietic Stem Cells Explains Its Quiescence Nature".

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from which they originate, potentially regenerating the entire organ from a few cells. Unlike embryonic stem cells, the use of human adult stem cells in research and therapy is not considered to be

3773: 3624:"Repair of articular cartilage defects in the patello-femoral joint with autologous bone marrow mesenchymal cell transplantation: three case reports involving nine defects in five knees" 216:: A – stem cells; B – progenitor cell; C – differentiated cell; 1 – symmetric stem cell division; 2 – asymmetric stem cell division; 3 – progenitor division; 4 – terminal differentiation 946:

Stem Cells have been clinically applied to treat various diseases including spinal cord injury, liver cirrhosis and Peripheral Vascular disease. Research has shown that CD34+

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Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) are stem cells that can differentiate into all blood cells. This process is called hematopoiesis. Hematopoietic stem cells are found in the

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Barker N, Ridgway RA, van Es JH, van de Wetering M, Begthel H, van den Born M, et al. (January 2009). "Crypt stem cells as the cells-of-origin of intestinal cancer".

288:, which is the term for cells that are restricted to producing a single cell type. However, some researchers do not consider multipotency to be essential and believe that 3019:

Bjornson CR, Rietze RL, Reynolds BA, Magli MC, Vescovi AL (January 1999). "Turning brain into blood: a hematopoietic fate adopted by adult neural stem cells in vivo".

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has been known to developmental biologists for decades. Its role in the control of stem cell proliferation has now been demonstrated for several cell types including

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within the cell. There are three main methods to determine if the adult stem cell is capable of becoming a specialized cell. The adult stem cell can be labeled

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Early regenerative applications of adult stem cells have focused on intravenous delivery of blood progenitors known as Hematopoietic Stem Cells (HSCs). CD34+

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Shi S, Bartold PM, Miura M, Seo BM, Robey PG, Gronthos S (August 2005). "The efficacy of mesenchymal stem cells to regenerate and repair dental structures".

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is well established, the presence of true self-renewing stem cells there has been debated. Under certain circumstances, such as following tissue damage in

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to produce the cells lining the surface of the small and large intestines. Intestinal stem cells reside near the base of the stem cell niche, called the

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Takahashi K, Yamanaka S (August 2006). "Induction of pluripotent stem cells from mouse embryonic and adult fibroblast cultures by defined factors".

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Clarke DL, Johansson CB, Wilbertz J, Veress B, Nilsson E, Karlström H, et al. (June 2000). "Generalized potential of adult neural stem cells".

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of dendritic and T-cell subsets. This results in a shift from a pro-inflammatory environment to an anti-inflammatory or tolerant cell environment.

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Chaudhary PM, Roninson IB (July 1991). "Expression and activity of P-glycoprotein, a multidrug efflux pump, in human hematopoietic stem cells".

3524:"Index of CD34+ Cells and Mononuclear Cells in the Bone Marrow of Spinal Cord Injury Patients of Different Age Groups: A Comparative Analysis" 2243: 903:

Multipotent stem cells with a claimed equivalency to embryonic stem cells have been derived from spermatogonial progenitor cells found in the

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Adult stem cell research has been focused on uncovering the general molecular mechanisms that control their self-renewal and differentiation.

3156:"Neural crest stem cells persist in the adult gut but undergo changes in self-renewal, neuronal subtype potential, and factor responsiveness" 2878:

Reynolds BA, Weiss S (March 1992). "Generation of neurons and astrocytes from isolated cells of the adult mammalian central nervous system".

1379: 4132: 1607:"Very small embryonic-like stem cells are present in adult murine organs: ImageStream-based morphological analysis and distribution studies" 4611: 4461:

Tindle C, Fuller M, Fonseca A, Taheri S, Ibeawuchi SR, Beutler N, et al. (August 2021). Radisic M, Van der Meer JW, Clevers H (eds.).

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Barrilleaux B, Phinney DG, Prockop DJ, O'Connor KC (November 2006). "Review: ex vivo engineering of living tissues with adult stem cells".

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and related bone/blood cancers utilizing bone marrow transplants. The use of adult stem cells in research and therapy is not considered as

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cells, and therefore behave as stem cells. However, some recent studies suggest that this behavior is induced by the culture conditions in

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aggregates of cells, containing a large proportion of stem cells. They can be propagated for extended periods and differentiated into both

2483:"Concise review: mesenchymal stem/multipotent stromal cells: the state of transdifferentiation and modes of tissue repair--current views" 2273: 1925:, Yamanaka S (August 2006). "Induction of pluripotent stem cells from mouse embryonic and adult fibroblast cultures by defined factors". 1101:

abilities, stem cell-based therapies have become a viable tool for the treatment of both acute and delayed phases of stroke. By inducing

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diagram). Symmetric division gives rise to two identical daughter stem cells, whereas asymmetric division produces one stem cell and one

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is challenging, and so considerable debate exists as to whether some proposed stem cell populations in the adult are indeed stem cells.

717:. Endothelial stem cells are an important aspect of the vascular network, even influencing the motion relating to white blood cells. 1206: 1715:"Murine bone marrow Lin⁻Sca⁻1⁺CD45⁻ very small embryonic-like (VSEL) cells are heterogeneous population lacking Oct-4A expression" 4113: 3708:"Increased knee cartilage volume in degenerative joint disease using percutaneously implanted, autologous mesenchymal stem cells" 999:, meaning there are several limited types of cell they can become, and are generally referred to by their tissue origin (such as 108: 46: 505: 347:

distinction between symmetric and asymmetric divisions lies in the differential segregation of cell membrane proteins (such as

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So WK, Cheung TH (2018). "Molecular Regulation of Cellular Quiescence: A Perspective from Adult Stem Cells and Its Niches".

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Altman J, Das GD (June 1965). "Autoradiographic and histological evidence of postnatal hippocampal neurogenesis in rats".

805:(HSCs). Remarkably, when injected into the blood, neurosphere-derived cells differentiate into various cell types of the 3373: 3236: 2392:

van der Flier LG, Clevers H (March 2009). "Stem cells, self-renewal, and differentiation in the intestinal epithelium".

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Alvarez-Buylla A, Seri B, Doetsch F (April 2002). "Identification of neural stem cells in the adult vertebrate brain".

2653:"Cell therapy using allogeneic bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells prevents tissue damage in collagen-induced arthritis" 1085:. These lung models were used to study the damage SARS-CoV-2 causes when applied to the apical side of the transwell. 1004: 4578: 3707: 1549:"A population of very small embryonic-like (VSEL) CXCR4(+)SSEA-1(+)Oct-4+ stem cells identified in adult bone marrow" 1053:

a diversity of organic molecules out of the cell. Many pharmaceuticals are exported by these transporters conferring

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Szade K, Bukowska-Strakova K, Nowak WN, Szade A, Kachamakova-Trojanowska N, Zukowska M, et al. (17 May 2013).

1042: 496: 423: 3294: 4036:"A hypothesis for an embryonic origin of pluripotent Oct-4(+) stem cells in adult bone marrow and other tissues" 845:

contain two types of stem cells, one of which appears to represent a remnant of the stem cells of the embryonic

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The existence of stem cells in the adult brain has been postulated following the discovery that the process of

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with limited self-renewal potential. Progenitors can go through several rounds of cell division before finally

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Beachy PA, Karhadkar SS, Berman DM (November 2004). "Tissue repair and stem cell renewal in carcinogenesis".

4720: 798:. Furthermore, neurosphere-derived cells do not behave as stem cells when transplanted back into the brain. 601: 553: 531: 364: 348: 209: 3575:"Pulmonary passage is a major obstacle for intravenous stem cell delivery: the pulmonary first-pass effect" 2972:"In vitro-derived "neural stem cells" function as neural progenitors without the capacity for self-renewal" 4836: 3872:

Christoforou N, Gearhart JD (May 2007). "Stem cells and their potential in cell-based cardiac therapies".

2539: 850: 794:, the progeny of stem cell division that normally undergo a strictly limited number of replication cycles 659: 4770: 4725: 4715: 4699: 3522:

Dedeepiya VD, Rao YY, Jayakrishnan GA, Parthiban JK, Baskar S, Manjunath SR, et al. (5 July 2012).

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Lewis PD (March 1968). "Mitotic activity in the primate subependymal layer and the genesis of gliomas".

2320: 1982:(November 2007). "Induction of pluripotent stem cells from adult human fibroblasts by defined factors". 1656:"Very small embryonic-like stem cells purified from umbilical cord blood lack stem cell characteristics" 1130: 1046: 1000: 928: 752: 703: 619: 613: 482: 431: 372: 173: 2575:

Bai X, Alt E (October 2010). "Myocardial regeneration potential of adipose tissue-derived stem cells".

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Sieber-Blum M, Hu Y (December 2008). "Epidermal neural crest stem cells (EPI-NCSC) and pluripotency".

2923:"EGF converts transit-amplifying neurogenic precursors in the adult brain into multipotent stem cells" 101: 3353:"A Source of Men's Stem Cells – Stem cells from human testes could be used for personalized medicine" 3028: 2887: 2744: 2436: 2199: 2095: 1726: 1667: 1461: 1315: 1054: 992: 976: 972: 932: 858: 651: 541: 394: 340: 186:

and tracked, it can be isolated and then transplanted back into the organism, and it can be isolated

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types of the gland and have been shown to have the ability to regenerate the entire organ in mice.

49: 604:. Intestinal stem cells are probably the source of most cancers of the small intestine and colon. 4443: 4324: 4142: 3967: 3854: 3653: 3573:

Fischer UM, Harting MT, Jimenez F, Monzon-Posadas WO, Xue H, Savitz SI, et al. (June 2009).

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Baumgartner C, Toifl S, Farlik M, Halbritter F, Scheicher R, Fischer I, et al. (June 2018).

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of the breast. Mammary stem cells have been isolated from human and mouse tissue as well as from

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Under normal conditions, tissue stem cells divide slowly and infrequently. They exhibit signs of

639: 3315:"Stem Cells in Adult Testes Provide Alternative to Embryonic Stem Cells for Organ Regeneration" 4765: 4545: 4494: 4435: 4400: 4359: 4316: 4271: 4222: 4173: 4057: 4016: 3959: 3942:

Smith S, Neaves W, Teitelbaum S (June 2007). "Adult versus embryonic stem cells: treatments".

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Zuba-Surma EK, Kucia M, Wu W, Klich I, Lillard JW, Ratajczak J, Ratajczak MZ (December 2008).

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Krause DS, Theise ND, Collector MI, Henegariu O, Hwang S, Gardner R, et al. (May 2001).

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Culurgioni S, Mari S, Bonetti P, Gallini S, Bonetto G, Brennich M, et al. (March 2018).

4730: 4644: 4535: 4525: 4484: 4474: 4427: 4390: 4351: 4306: 4298: 4261: 4253: 4212: 4204: 4165: 4047: 4006: 3998: 3951: 3916: 3881: 3838: 3800: 3747: 3680: 3635: 3594: 3586: 3545: 3535: 3488: 3444: 3175: 3167: 3120: 3075: 3036: 2983: 2934: 2895: 2850: 2842: 2795: 2752: 2701: 2664: 2623: 2584: 2549: 2494: 2444: 2401: 2364: 2354: 2215: 2207: 2158: 2150: 2103: 2058: 2048: 1999: 1991: 1942: 1934: 1894: 1886: 1842: 1834: 1793: 1785: 1744: 1734: 1685: 1675: 1626: 1618: 1560: 1508: 1469: 1424: 1416: 1367: 1331: 1323: 1274: 1173: 1163: 1098: 1050: 1030: 824: 726: 714: 591: 513: 368: 299: 3987:"Environmental physical cues determine the lineage specification of mesenchymal stem cells" 2037:"Role of Notch signaling in cell-fate determination of human mammary stem/progenitor cells" 1547:

Kucia M, Reca R, Campbell FR, Zuba-Surma E, Majka M, Ratajczak J, Ratajczak MZ (May 2006).

690:. The mesenchymal stem cells thus alter the outcome of the immune response by changing the 654:). MSCs are attractive for clinical therapy due to their ability to differentiate, provide 292:

self-renewing stem cells can exist. These properties can be illustrated with relative ease

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origin and may differentiate into a variety of tissues. MSCs have been isolated from the

4463:"Adult stem cell-derived complete lung organoid models emulate lung disease in COVID-19" 3062:

Murrell W, Féron F, Wetzig A, Cameron N, Splatt K, Bellette B, et al. (June 2005).

3032: 2891: 2748: 2440: 2203: 2099: 1730: 1671: 1465: 1319: 4780: 4775: 4742: 4540: 4513: 4489: 4462: 4266: 4241: 4217: 4208: 4192: 4076:"Me too, too – How to make human embryonic stem cells without destroying human embryos" 4011: 3986: 3805: 3788: 3599: 3574: 3550: 3523: 3337: 3180: 3155: 2855: 2830: 2369: 2342: 2220: 2187: 2163: 2138: 2063: 2036: 2035:

Dontu G, Jackson KW, McNicholas E, Kawamura MJ, Abdallah WM, Wicha MS (December 2004).

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Miyanishi M, Mori Y, Seita J, Chen JY, Karten S, Chan CK, et al. (6 August 2013).

1749: 1714: 1690: 1655: 1631: 1606: 1429: 1404: 1336: 1303: 1263:"Stem Cell Based Treatments and Novel Considerations for Conscience Clause Legislation" 1178: 1151: 1110: 818: 643: 627: 567: 465: 285: 199: 191: 132: 53: 41: 3171: 2939: 2922: 2921:

Doetsch F, Petreanu L, Caille I, Garcia-Verdugo JM, Alvarez-Buylla A (December 2002).

2799: 1513: 1496: 4825: 4431: 4257: 3352: 3259: 3255:"Promising New Source of Stem Cells: Mouse Testes Produce Wide Range of Tissue Types" 2553: 1821:

Miyanishi M, Mori Y, Seita J, Chen JY, Karten S, Chan CK, et al. (August 2013).

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and trophic factors, this transdifferentiation can form cells with a neural lineage.

947: 943: 874: 854: 842: 806: 779: 748: 687: 679: 559: 461: 452: 398: 310: 248: 136: 4584: 3971: 3858: 3657: 3508: 3140: 3097: 3005: 2815: 2721: 1582: 1530: 935:, because the production of adult stem cells does not require the destruction of an 4659: 4447: 4342:

Presnell SC, Petersen B, Heidaran M (October 2002). "Stem cells in adult tissues".

4328: 3955: 3789:"Adult stem or progenitor cells in treatment for type 1 diabetes: current progress" 3464: 2956: 2846: 2772: 2516: 2464: 2123: 2021: 1964: 1823:"Do pluripotent stem cells exist in adult mice as very small embryonic stem cells?" 1774:"Do pluripotent stem cells exist in adult mice as very small embryonic stem cells?" 1106: 1102: 1094: 870: 846: 837: 775: 732: 710: 671: 571: 402: 306: 257: 190:

and manipulated with growth hormones. They have mainly been studied in humans and

145: 1497:"Multi-organ, multi-lineage engraftment by a single bone marrow-derived stem cell" 1473: 490:

These developmental pathways are also strongly implicated as stem cell regulators.

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Cogle CR, Guthrie SM, Sanders RC, Allen WL, Scott EW, Petersen BE (August 2003).

4002: 3492: 3040: 2324: 2154: 1838: 1789: 1739: 1680: 1405:"An ERK-Dependent Feedback Mechanism Prevents Hematopoietic Stem Cell Exhaustion" 302:, where the progeny of a single cell is characterized. However, it is known that 89: 3448: 3203: 3154:

Kruger GM, Mosher JT, Bixby S, Joseph N, Iwashita T, Morrison SJ (August 2002).

2988: 2971: 2499: 2482: 1371: 996: 987: 878: 756: 647: 635: 537: 177: 17: 4302: 3885: 3776:(Press release). International Society for Stem Cell Research. 3 December 2008. 3751: 3684: 2628: 2611: 2588: 1995: 1938: 1420: 1327: 1236: 923:

Adult stem cell treatments have been used for many years to successfully treat

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Background information, research advances, and debates about stem cell science

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Wakitani S, Nawata M, Tensho K, Okabe T, Machida H, Ohgushi H (January 2007).

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Ratajczak MZ, Machalinski B, Wojakowski W, Ratajczak J, Kucia M (May 2007).

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Intestinal stem cells divide continuously throughout life and use a complex

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derived from the mammary gland. Single such cells can give rise to both the

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have been derived from human adult skin tissue. Other adult stem cells are

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Olfactory adult stem cells have been successfully harvested from the human

544:. The HSCs are generally dormant when found in adults due to their nature. 331:

To ensure self-renewal, stem cells undergo two types of cell division (see

4514:"Adult Stem Cells and Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells for Stroke Treatment" 4439: 3590: 3540: 3048: 2907: 2831:"The adult mouse hippocampal progenitor is neurogenic but not a stem cell" 2764: 2713: 2705: 3907:

Raff M (November 2003). "Adult stem cell plasticity: fact or artifact?".

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Centeno CJ, Busse D, Kisiday J, Keohan C, Freeman M, Karli D (May 2008).

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is) can alter or enhance the fate and differentiation of the stem cells.

924: 760: 623: 509: 390: 386: 355: 294: 4479: 3774:"The ISSCR Releases New Guidelines to Shape Future of Stem Cell Therapy" 2612:"Human mesenchymal stem cells modulate allogeneic immune cell responses" 2448: 2107: 1029:

changes, culminating in many abnormal conditions including cancer. (See

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Marshall GP, Laywell ED, Zheng T, Steindler DA, Scott EW (March 2006).

2211: 1947: 1304:"Insc:LGN tetramers promote asymmetric divisions of mammary stem cells" 473: 182: 2669: 2652: 2004: 309:

conditions can alter the behavior of cells, proving that a particular

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Mammary stem cells provide the source of cells for the growth of the

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Fernández-Susavila H, Bugallo-Casal A, Castillo J, Campos F (2019).

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Augello A, Tasso R, Negrini SM, Cancedda R, Pennesi G (April 2007).

2359: 1890: 763:, neurogenesis can be induced in other brain regions, including the 156:), they can be found in juvenile, adult animals, and humans, unlike 3640: 3623: 2053: 1057:

onto the cell. This complicates the design of drugs, for instance,

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Behrens A, van Deursen JM, Rudolph KL, Schumacher B (March 2014).

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cell-targeted therapies for the treatment of clinical depression.

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Takahashi K, Tanabe K, Ohnuki M, Narita M, Ichisaka T, Tomoda K,

1654:

Danova-Alt R, Heider A, Egger D, Cross M, Alt R (3 April 2012).

631: 135:, found throughout the body after development, that multiply by 4593: 3334:"Testicle Stem Cells Become Bone, Muscle in German Experiments" 2343:"Mammary stem cells, self-renewal pathways, and carcinogenesis" 1366:. Methods in Molecular Biology. Vol. 1686. pp. 1–25. 4589: 2274:"5. Hematopoietic Stem Cells [Stem Cell Information]" 4566: 351:) and their associated proteins between the daughter cells. 1875:"Impact of genomic damage and ageing on stem cell function" 3793:

Canadian Journal of Surgery. Journal Canadien de Chirurgie

4379:"An overview of stem cell research and regulatory issues" 4242:"Stem cells: potency, plasticity and public perception" 3628:

Journal of Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine

2137:

Sakaki-Yumoto M, Katsuno Y, Derynck R (February 2013).

4193:"Adipose-derived stem cells for regenerative medicine" 3991:

Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects

2143:

Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects

4581:

provides educational materials and research resources

4095:"Scientists Bypass Need for Embryo to Get Stem Cells" 3374:"U.S. Firm Says It Made Stem Cells From Human Testes" 376:

mutations that would be passed on to daughter cells.

3276:"Testicles yield stem cells in science breakthrough" 3064:"Multipotent stem cells from adult olfactory mucosa" 4753: 4658: 4627: 4114:"Stem-cell method hailed as 'massive breakthrough'" 2577:

Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications

1201: 1199: 1197: 911:Multipotent stem cells have also been derived from 95: 83: 71: 66: 61: 34: 397:or plasticity. It can be induced by modifying the 3410:Journal of Stem Cells & Regenerative Medicine 1117:restorative processes through the generation of 1081:were separated into individual cells to form 2D 755:. Although the generation of new neurons in the 139:to replenish dying cells and regenerate damaged 3909:Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology 3787:Liao YH, Verchere CB, Warnock GL (April 2007). 3295:"Testes May Prove Fertile Source of Stem Cells" 2336: 2334: 1542: 1540: 4786:Stem cell laws and policy in the United States 4585:Stem Cell Research at Johns Hopkins University 4605: 1065:Lung Organoid Model: Lung Disease in COVID-19 801:Neural stem cells share many properties with 8: 4344:Seminars in Cell & Developmental Biology 1207:"4. The Adult Stem Cell | stemcells.nih.gov" 1077:. After being developed in 3D cultures, the 343:into a mature cell. It is believed that the 4191:Gimble JM, Katz AJ, Bunnell BA (May 2007). 3950:(5830): 1422–1423, author reply 1422–1423. 4612: 4598: 4590: 2610:Aggarwal S, Pittenger MF (February 2005). 2192:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1868: 1866: 1097:, capacity to release growth factors, and 40: 4579:UMDNJ Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine 4539: 4529: 4488: 4478: 4394: 4310: 4265: 4216: 4051: 4010: 3804: 3639: 3598: 3549: 3539: 3179: 3079: 2987: 2938: 2854: 2668: 2627: 2543: 2498: 2368: 2358: 2219: 2162: 2062: 2052: 2003: 1946: 1898: 1846: 1797: 1748: 1738: 1689: 1679: 1630: 1564: 1512: 1428: 1335: 1278: 1177: 1167: 512:regulate the stemness of both normal and 52:of an adult stem cell displaying typical 4791:Epigenetics in stem cell differentiation 3921:10.1146/annurev.cellbio.19.111301.143037 3740:Current Stem Cell Research & Therapy 3218:"Study: Mice Testes Act Like Stem Cells" 2532:Orthodontics & Craniofacial Research 2481:Phinney DG, Prockop DJ (November 2007). 2188:"Niche heterogeneity in the bone marrow" 770:Neural stem cells are commonly cultured 313:of cells possesses stem cell properties 208: 2476: 2474: 1142: 849:. Similar cells have been found in the 27:Multipotent stem cell in the adult body 3985:Huang C, Dai J, Zhang XA (June 2015). 3831:Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 3282:. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 2829:Bull ND, Bartlett PF (November 2005). 2341:Liu S, Dontu G, Wicha MS (June 2005). 2186:Birbrair A, Frenette PS (April 2016). 2139:"TGF-β family signaling in stem cells" 1058: 333:Stem cell division and differentiation 243:is the ability to go through numerous 214:Stem cell division and differentiation 112: 31: 2406:10.1146/annurev.physiol.010908.163145 2244:"Medical Definition of Hematopoiesis" 1156:International Journal of Cell Biology 618:Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are of 7: 2694:The Journal of Comparative Neurology 1357: 1355: 4569:, a resource for stem cell research 3874:Progress in Cardiovascular Diseases 646:, and teeth (perivascular niche of 566:and play an important role in the 4567:NIH Stem Cell Information Resource 4209:10.1161/01.RES.0000265074.83288.09 3224:. Associated Press. 24 March 2006. 25: 3204:"Testicle cells may aid research" 358:or reversible growth arrest. The 4804: 4803: 4258:10.1046/j.1469-7580.2002.00029.x 2554:10.1111/j.1601-6343.2005.00331.x 1595:Am Surg. 2007 Nov; 73: 1106–1110 1069:The virus that causes COVID-19, 666:into various cell types such as 109:Anatomical terms of microanatomy 3293:Minkel JR (19 September 2007). 152:(from Greek σωματικóς, meaning 4650:Induced pluripotent stem cells 4133:"A Breakthrough on Stem Cells" 4112:McIlroy A (21 November 2007). 3956:10.1126/science.316.5830.1422b 3274:Miller B (20 September 2007). 2847:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3249-05.2005 2280:. 17 June 2001. Archived from 265:multidifferentiative potential 1: 4093:Kolata G (21 November 2007). 3397:Retrieved on 21 November 2008 3237:"Embryonic Stem Cell Success" 3172:10.1016/s0896-6273(02)00827-9 2940:10.1016/s0896-6273(02)01133-9 2800:10.1016/s0361-9230(01)00770-5 1514:10.1016/s0092-8674(01)00328-2 1474:10.1126/science.288.5471.1660 1025:prime target for genetic and 1003:, adipose-derived stem cell, 4432:10.1016/0092-8674(91)90141-k 4003:10.1016/j.bbagen.2015.02.011 3493:10.3109/14653249.2011.579961 3351:Schultz N (9 October 2008). 3041:10.1126/science.283.5401.534 2155:10.1016/j.bbagen.2012.08.008 1839:10.1016/j.stemcr.2013.07.001 1790:10.1016/j.stemcr.2013.07.001 1740:10.1371/journal.pone.0063329 1681:10.1371/journal.pone.0034899 857:, cardiac outflow tract and 4131:Park A (20 November 2007). 3449:10.1634/stemcells.2005-0542 3332:Waters R (8 October 2008). 2989:10.1634/stemcells.2005-0245 2835:The Journal of Neuroscience 2500:10.1634/stemcells.2007-0637 2394:Annual Review of Physiology 1372:10.1007/978-1-4939-7371-2_1 1047:ATP-binding cassette family 865:. These cells can generate 268:is the ability to generate 4853: 4303:10.1016/j.cell.2006.07.024 3886:10.1016/j.pcad.2007.02.006 3752:10.2174/157488810790442796 3685:10.1016/j.mehy.2008.06.042 3579:Stem Cells and Development 2629:10.1182/blood-2004-04-1559 2589:10.1016/j.bbrc.2010.09.012 1996:10.1016/j.cell.2007.11.019 1939:10.1016/j.cell.2006.07.024 1421:10.1016/j.stem.2018.05.003 1328:10.1038/s41467-018-03343-4 1261:Mlsna L (1 January 2011). 1131:Induced somatic stem cells 958: 915:found in human testicles. 892: 835: 816: 813:Olfactory adult stem cells 724: 701: 611: 589: 551: 529: 424:DNA damage theory of aging 234:possesses two properties: 4799: 4573:Nature Reports Stem Cells 4356:10.1016/s1084952102000939 4240:Gardner RL (March 2002). 3235:Weiss R (25 March 2006). 3125:10.1007/s12015-008-9042-0 1267:Indiana Health Law Review 1041:Adult stem cells express 107: 39: 4761:Cellular differentiation 4531:10.3389/fneur.2019.00908 4170:10.1089/ten.2006.12.3007 2657:Arthritis and Rheumatism 899:Spermatogonial stem cell 803:hematopoietic stem cells 526:Hematopoietic stem cells 365:hematopoietic stem cells 298:, using methods such as 4721:Hematopoietic stem cell 4383:Mayo Clinic Proceedings 3843:10.1038/sj.clpt.6100301 2900:10.1126/science.1553558 2788:Brain Research Bulletin 832:Neural crest stem cells 554:Breast cancer stem cell 532:Hematopoietic stem cell 422:environment. (See also 4518:Frontiers in Neurology 4053:10.1038/sj.leu.2404630 3395:Bone Marrow Transplant 3372:Fox M (2 April 2006). 3068:Developmental Dynamics 2347:Breast Cancer Research 2041:Breast Cancer Research 1566:10.1038/sj.leu.2404171 1113:as well as activating 851:gastrointestinal tract 698:Endothelial stem cells 660:innate immune response 658:support, and modulate 608:Mesenchymal stem cells 217: 4771:Stem cell controversy 4726:Mesenchymal stem cell 4716:Endothelial stem cell 3591:10.1089/scd.2008.0253 2706:10.1002/cne.901240303 2305:Journal of Stem Cells 1308:Nature Communications 1005:endothelial stem cell 1001:mesenchymal stem cell 919:Clinical significance 753:hippocampal formation 704:Endothelial stem cell 614:Mesenchymal stem cell 586:Intestinal stem cells 373:PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway 212: 4635:Embryonic stem cells 4197:Circulation Research 4145:on 21 November 2007. 3528:Bone Marrow Research 3321:. 20 September 2007. 3263:. 24 September 2007. 1623:10.1002/cyto.a.20667 1169:10.1155/2016/6940283 1055:multidrug resistance 1037:Multidrug resistance 993:embryonic stem cells 977:extracellular matrix 973:transdifferentiation 933:embryonic stem cells 652:periodontal ligament 602:crypts of Lieberkuhn 542:umbilical cord blood 401:when stem cells are 395:transdifferentiation 272:of several distinct 158:embryonic stem cells 78:cellula praecursoria 4695:Embryonic stem cell 4480:10.7554/eLife.66417 4082:. 22 November 2007. 3541:10.1155/2012/787414 3300:Scientific American 3033:1999Sci...283..534B 2892:1992Sci...255.1707R 2886:(5052): 1707–1710. 2841:(47): 10815–10821. 2749:1968Natur.217..974L 2449:10.1038/nature07602 2441:2009Natur.457..608B 2204:2016NYASA1370...82B 2108:10.1038/nature03100 2100:2004Natur.432..324B 1879:Nature Cell Biology 1731:2013PLoSO...863329S 1672:2012PLoSO...734899D 1466:2000Sci...288.1660C 1460:(5471): 1660–1663. 1364:Cellular Quiescence 1320:2018NatCo...9.1025C 1033:for more details.) 863:sympathetic ganglia 741:subventricular zone 735:, the birth of new 562:during puberty and 226:Defining properties 50:electron micrograph 4246:Journal of Anatomy 4158:Tissue Engineering 4099:The New York Times 3673:Medical Hypotheses 3319:Cornell University 3081:10.1002/dvdy.20360 2212:10.1111/nyas.13016 745:lateral ventricles 743:, which lines the 692:cytokine secretion 580:myoepithelial cell 548:Mammary stem cells 443:Signaling pathways 432:induced stem cells 218: 102:H1.00.01.0.00035 4819: 4818: 4766:Stem cell therapy 4645:Cancer stem cells 4252:(Pt 3): 277–282. 4164:(11): 3007–3019. 3443:(10): 2292–2298. 3358:Technology Review 3113:Stem Cell Reviews 3027:(5401): 534–537. 2743:(5132): 974–975. 2670:10.1002/art.22511 2493:(11): 2896–2902. 2435:(7229): 608–611. 2278:stemcells.nih.gov 2094:(7015): 324–331. 1827:Stem Cell Reports 1778:Stem Cell Reports 1617:(12): 1116–1127. 1611:Cytometry. 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Also known as 130:undifferentiated 126:Adult stem cells 115:edit on Wikidata 56:characteristics. 44: 32: 21: 18:Adult stem cells 4852: 4851: 4847: 4846: 4845: 4843: 4842: 4841: 4822: 4821: 4820: 4815: 4795: 4749: 4712:Progenitor cell 4654: 4623: 4618: 4563: 4558: 4557: 4511: 4510: 4506: 4460: 4459: 4455: 4417: 4416: 4412: 4389:(8): 993–1003. 4376: 4375: 4371: 4341: 4340: 4336: 4288: 4287: 4283: 4239: 4238: 4234: 4190: 4189: 4185: 4155: 4154: 4150: 4130: 4129: 4125: 4111: 4110: 4106: 4092: 4091: 4087: 4074: 4073: 4069: 4033: 4032: 4028: 3984: 3983: 3979: 3941: 3940: 3936: 3906: 3905: 3901: 3871: 3870: 3866: 3827: 3826: 3822: 3786: 3785: 3781: 3772: 3771: 3767: 3736: 3735: 3731: 3705: 3704: 3700: 3670: 3669: 3665: 3621: 3620: 3616: 3572: 3571: 3567: 3521: 3520: 3516: 3477: 3476: 3472: 3434: 3433: 3429: 3406: 3405: 3401: 3393: 3389: 3378:Washington Post 3371: 3370: 3366: 3350: 3349: 3345: 3331: 3330: 3326: 3313: 3312: 3308: 3292: 3291: 3287: 3273: 3272: 3268: 3253: 3252: 3248: 3241:Washington Post 3234: 3233: 3229: 3216: 3215: 3211: 3202: 3201: 3197: 3153: 3152: 3148: 3110: 3109: 3105: 3061: 3060: 3056: 3018: 3017: 3013: 2969: 2968: 2964: 2920: 2919: 2915: 2877: 2876: 2872: 2828: 2827: 2823: 2785: 2784: 2780: 2734: 2733: 2729: 2691: 2690: 2686: 2650: 2649: 2645: 2609: 2608: 2604: 2574: 2573: 2569: 2545:10.1.1.456.7504 2529: 2528: 2524: 2480: 2479: 2472: 2426: 2425: 2421: 2391: 2390: 2386: 2360:10.1186/bcr1021 2340: 2339: 2332: 2302: 2301: 2297: 2287: 2285: 2272: 2271: 2267: 2257: 2255: 2242: 2241: 2237: 2185: 2184: 2180: 2136: 2135: 2131: 2085: 2084: 2080: 2034: 2033: 2029: 1977: 1976: 1972: 1921: 1920: 1916: 1891:10.1038/ncb2928 1872: 1871: 1864: 1820: 1819: 1815: 1771: 1770: 1766: 1712: 1711: 1707: 1653: 1652: 1648: 1604: 1603: 1599: 1594: 1590: 1546: 1545: 1538: 1494: 1493: 1489: 1451: 1450: 1446: 1402: 1401: 1397: 1382: 1361: 1360: 1353: 1301: 1300: 1296: 1260: 1259: 1255: 1245: 1243: 1235: 1234: 1230: 1220: 1218: 1217:on 29 July 2018 1205: 1204: 1195: 1149: 1148: 1144: 1139: 1127: 1091: 1067: 1039: 1022: 1017: 985: 963: 957: 921: 901: 891: 840: 834: 821: 815: 729: 723: 706: 700: 680:neuroectodermal 640:Wharton's jelly 616: 610: 598:genetic program 594: 588: 556: 550: 534: 528: 523: 445: 440: 419: 382: 341:differentiating 337:progenitor cell 329: 324: 276:, (for example 228: 223: 192:model organisms 119: 57: 54:ultrastructural 35:Adult stem cell 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4850: 4848: 4840: 4839: 4834: 4824: 4823: 4817: 4816: 4814: 4813: 4800: 4797: 4796: 4794: 4793: 4788: 4783: 4781:Stem cell laws 4778: 4776:Stem cell line 4773: 4768: 4763: 4757: 4755: 4751: 4750: 4748: 4747: 4746: 4745: 4743:Precursor cell 4735: 4734: 4733: 4728: 4723: 4718: 4704: 4703: 4702: 4697: 4687: 4686: 4685: 4680: 4675: 4664: 4662: 4656: 4655: 4653: 4652: 4647: 4642: 4637: 4631: 4629: 4625: 4624: 4619: 4617: 4616: 4609: 4602: 4594: 4588: 4587: 4582: 4576: 4570: 4562: 4561:External links 4559: 4556: 4555: 4504: 4453: 4410: 4369: 4350:(5): 369–376. 4334: 4297:(4): 663–676. 4281: 4232: 4183: 4148: 4123: 4118:Globe and Mail 4104: 4085: 4067: 4046:(5): 860–867. 4026: 3977: 3934: 3899: 3880:(6): 396–413. 3864: 3837:(3): 252–264. 3820: 3799:(2): 137–142. 3779: 3765: 3729: 3718:(3): 343–353. 3712:Pain Physician 3698: 3679:(6): 900–908. 3663: 3641:10.1002/term.8 3614: 3585:(5): 683–692. 3565: 3514: 3487:(8): 993–999. 3470: 3427: 3416:(3): 175–176. 3399: 3387: 3364: 3343: 3338:Bloomberg News 3324: 3306: 3285: 3266: 3246: 3227: 3209: 3195: 3166:(4): 657–669. 3146: 3119:(4): 256–260. 3103: 3074:(2): 496–515. 3054: 3011: 2982:(3): 731–738. 2962: 2913: 2870: 2821: 2794:(6): 751–758. 2778: 2727: 2700:(3): 319–335. 2684: 2643: 2602: 2583:(3): 321–326. 2567: 2538:(3): 191–199. 2522: 2470: 2419: 2400:(1): 241–260. 2384: 2330: 2295: 2284:on 5 June 2014 2265: 2235: 2178: 2129: 2078: 2054:10.1186/bcr920 2027: 1990:(5): 861–872. 1970: 1933:(4): 663–676. 1914: 1885:(3): 201–207. 1862: 1833:(2): 198–208. 1813: 1784:(2): 198–208. 1764: 1705: 1646: 1597: 1588: 1559:(5): 857–869. 1536: 1507:(3): 369–377. 1487: 1444: 1409:Cell Stem Cell 1395: 1380: 1351: 1294: 1253: 1228: 1193: 1141: 1140: 1138: 1135: 1134: 1133: 1126: 1123: 1111:synaptogenesis 1090: 1087: 1066: 1063: 1038: 1035: 1021: 1018: 1016: 1013: 984: 981: 959:Main article: 956: 953: 931:as the use of 920: 917: 890: 887: 875:myofibroblasts 843:Hair follicles 833: 830: 819:Stratum basale 814: 811: 725:Main article: 722: 719: 702:Main article: 699: 696: 662:. These cells 644:umbilical cord 628:adipose tissue 612:Main article: 609: 606: 590:Main article: 587: 584: 568:carcinogenesis 549: 546: 530:Main article: 527: 524: 522: 519: 518: 517: 501: 500: 492: 491: 487: 486: 478: 477: 457: 456: 444: 441: 439: 436: 418: 415: 381: 378: 328: 325: 323: 320: 319: 318: 253: 227: 224: 222: 219: 121: 120: 111: 105: 104: 99: 93: 92: 87: 81: 80: 75: 69: 68: 64: 63: 59: 58: 45: 37: 36: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4849: 4838: 4837:Biotechnology 4835: 4833: 4830: 4829: 4827: 4812: 4811: 4802: 4801: 4798: 4792: 4789: 4787: 4784: 4782: 4779: 4777: 4774: 4772: 4769: 4767: 4764: 4762: 4759: 4758: 4756: 4752: 4744: 4741: 4740: 4739: 4736: 4732: 4729: 4727: 4724: 4722: 4719: 4717: 4713: 4710: 4709: 4708: 4705: 4701: 4698: 4696: 4693: 4692: 4691: 4688: 4684: 4681: 4679: 4676: 4674: 4671: 4670: 4669: 4666: 4665: 4663: 4661: 4657: 4651: 4648: 4646: 4643: 4641: 4638: 4636: 4633: 4632: 4630: 4628:Sources/types 4626: 4622: 4615: 4610: 4608: 4603: 4601: 4596: 4595: 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Canada. 2540:CiteSeerX 1119:cytokines 1079:organoids 1075:epithelia 955:Therapies 905:testicles 895:Germ cell 765:neocortex 642:from the 564:gestation 510:cytokines 349:receptors 345:molecular 290:unipotent 232:stem cell 221:Structure 4810:Category 4550:31555195 4499:34463615 4405:12911047 4364:12324219 4321:16904174 4276:12033732 4227:17495232 4178:17518617 4062:17344915 4040:Leukemia 4021:25727396 3972:12738214 3964:17556566 3929:14570561 3894:17498520 3859:12411918 3851:17671448 3815:17550719 3760:19951252 3724:18523506 3693:18786777 3658:24093117 3650:18038395 3609:19099374 3560:22830032 3509:27251276 3501:21671823 3457:16778155 3422:24693165 3280:ABC News 3222:CBS News 3190:12194866 3141:23267408 3133:18712509 3098:38561781 3090:15782416 3006:25223188 2998:16339644 2949:12495619 2865:16306394 2816:40684602 2808:12031271 2722:14121873 2679:17393437 2638:15494428 2597:20833143 2562:16022721 2509:17901396 2457:19092804 2414:18808327 2379:15987436 2321:ProQuest 2317:27125138 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