924:
2454:
557:
Molybdenum sulfide catalysts have been well studied but have yet to find widespread use. These catalysts have been a focus of efforts at the U.S. Department of Energy's
Biomass Program in the Thermochemical Platform. Noble metal catalysts have also been shown to produce mixed alcohols. Most R&D in this area is concentrated in producing mostly ethanol. However, some fuels are marketed as mixed alcohols (see
1049:
703:. The oil is extracted and then added to unmodified diesel engines. Either new plants are used or planted to replace the old plants. The charcoal byproduct is put back into the soil as a fertilizer. According to the director Tom Adams since carbon is put back into the soil, this biofuel can actually be
781:
Municipal Solid Waste comprises a very large range of materials, and total waste arisings are increasing. In the UK, recycling initiatives decrease the proportion of waste going straight for disposal, and the level of recycling is increasing each year. However, there remains significant opportunities
419:
Hydrothermal liquefaction is a process similar to pyrolysis that can process wet materials. The process is typically at moderate temperatures up to 400 °C and higher than atmospheric pressures. The capability to handle a wide range of materials make hydrothermal liquefaction viable for producing fuel
1029:
Calgary, Alberta, 30 April 2012 – Iogen Energy
Corporation has agreed to a new plan with its joint owners Royal Dutch Shell and Iogen Corporation to refocus its strategy and activities. Shell continues to explore multiple pathways to find a commercial solution for the production of advanced biofuels
298:
These thermochemical processes yield a mixture of gases including hydrogen, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, methane and other hydrocarbons, and water. Pyrolysis also produces a solid char. The gas can be fermented or chemically synthesised into a range of fuels, including ethanol, synthetic diesel,
1025:
Helsinki, Finland, 1 February 2012 – UPM is to invest in a biorefinery producing biofuels from crude tall oil in
Lappeenranta, Finland. The industrial scale investment is the first of its kind globally. The biorefinery will produce annually approximately 100,000 tonnes of advanced second-generation
716:
To qualify as a second generation feedstock, a source must not be suitable for human consumption. Second-generation biofuel feedstocks include specifically grown inedible energy crops, cultivated inedible oils, agricultural and municipal wastes, waste oils, and algae. Nevertheless, cereal and sugar
909:
by 60–90% when compared with fossil petroleum (Börjesson.P. et al. 2013. Dagens och framtidens hållbara biodrivmedel), which is on par with the better of current biofuels of the first-generation, where typical best values currently is 60–80%. In 2010, average savings of biofuels used within EU was
278:
fuel to produce heat and power for the processing plant and possibly for surrounding homes and businesses. Thermochemical processes (liquefaction) in hydrothermal media can produce liquid oily products from a wide range of feedstock that has a potential to replace or augment fuels. However, these
561:
and E4 Envirolene) Mixed alcohols are superior to pure methanol or ethanol, in that the higher alcohols have higher energy content. Also, when blending, the higher alcohols increase compatibility of gasoline and ethanol, which increases water tolerance and decreases evaporative emissions. In
556:
with several classes of catalysts. Some have employed catalysts similar to those used for methanol. Molybdenum sulfide catalysts were discovered at Dow
Chemical and have received considerable attention. Addition of cobalt sulfide to the catalyst formulation was shown to enhance performance.
466:
The following second-generation biofuels are under development, although most or all of these biofuels are synthesized from intermediary products such as syngas using methods that are identical in processes involving conventional feedstocks, first-generation and second-generation biofuels. The
82:
The term second-generation biofuels is used loosely to describe both the 'advanced' technology used to process feedstocks into biofuel, but also the use of non-food crops, biomass and wastes as feedstocks in 'standard' biofuels processing technologies if suitable. This causes some considerable
434:
Chemical and biological processes that are currently used in other applications are being adapted for second-generation biofuels. Biochemical processes typically employ pre-treatment to accelerate the hydrolysis process, which separates out the lignin, hemicellulose and cellulose. Once these
910:
60% (Hamelinck.C. et al. 2013 Renewable energy progress and biofuels sustainability, Report for the
European Commission). In 2013, 70% of the biofuels used in Sweden reduced emissions with 66% or higher. (Energimyndigheten 2014. Hållbara biodrivmedel och flytande biobränslen 2013).
1037:(IOCL), HPCL and BPCL. In May 2018, the Government of India unveiled a biofuel policy wherein a sum of INR 5,000 crores was allocated to set-up 2G biorefineries. Indian oil marketing companies were in a process of constructing 12 refineries with a capex of INR 10,000 crores.
598:
is a gas-to-liquid (GtL) process. When biomass is the source of the gas production the process is also referred to as biomass-to-liquids (BTL). A disadvantage of this process is the high energy investment for the FT synthesis and consequently, the process is not yet economic.
1504:
Glezakou, Vassiliki-Alexandra, John E. Jaffe, Roger
Rousseau, Donghai Mei, Shawn M. Kathmann, Karl O. Albrecht, Michel J. Gray, and Mark A. Gerber. "The Role of Ir in Ternary Rh-Based Catalysts for Syngas Conversion to C 2+ Oxygenates." Topics in Catalysis (2012):
717:
crops are also used as feedstocks to second-generation processing technologies. Land use, existing biomass industries and relevant conversion technologies must be considered when evaluating suitability of developing biomass as feedstock for energy.
316:
Gasification technologies are well established for conventional feedstocks such as coal and crude oil. Second-generation gasification technologies include gasification of forest and agricultural residues, waste wood, energy crops and
958:. The demonstration-scale plant produces around 700,000 litres of bioethanol each year. A commercial plant is under construction. Many further lignocellulosic ethanol plants have been proposed in North America and around the world.
1026:
biodiesel for transport. Construction of the biorefinery will begin in the summer of 2012 at UPM’s Kaukas mill site and be completed in 2014. UPM's total investment will amount to approximately EUR 150 million.
1754:
1473:
Subramani, Velu; Gangwal, Santosh K.; "A Review of Recent
Literature to Search for an Efficient Catalytic Process for the Conversion of Syngas to Ethanol", Energy and Fuels, 31 January 2008, web publication.
156:. The concern is that if these food crops are used for biofuel production that food prices could rise and shortages might be experienced in some countries. Corn, wheat, and sugar beet can also require high
1464:
Quarderer, George J., Rex R. Stevens, Gene A. Cochran, and Craig B. Murchison. "Preparation of ethanol and higher alcohols from lower carbon number alcohols." U.S. Patent 4,825,013, issued April 25, 1989.
243:
from fruit pressing, etc. However, its production can serve as an obstacle because it's viewed as not cost-effective as well as modern technology being insufficient for its continual creation.
1482:
Zaman, Sharif, and Kevin J. Smith. "A Review of
Molybdenum Catalysts for Synthesis Gas Conversion to Alcohols: Catalysts, Mechanisms and Kinetics." Catalysis Reviews 54, no. 1 (2012): 41-132.
1888:
1389:
1003:
per year, replacing 2% of Sweden's imports of diesel fuel for transportation purposes. In May 2012 it was revealed that Domsjö pulled out of the project, effectively killing the effort.
1033:
In India, Indian Oil
Companies have agreed to build seven second generation refineries across the country. The companies who will be participating in building of 2G biofuel plants are
279:
liquid products fall short of diesel or biodiesel standards. Upgrading liquefaction products through one or many physical or chemical processes may improve properties for use as fuel.
75:
Second-generation biofuels are made from different feedstocks and therefore may require different technology to extract useful energy from them. Second generation feedstocks include
1344:
1014:
are developing advanced biofuel refineries, which are due to be built by 2013 and 2014 respectively. Under favourable economic conditions and strong improvements in policy support,
562:
addition, higher alcohols have also lower heat of vaporization than ethanol, which is important for cold starts. (For another method for producing mixed alcohols from biomass see
1452:
Lu, Yongwu, Fei Yu, Jin Hu, and Jian Liu. "Catalytic conversion of syngas to mixed alcohols over Zn-Mn promoted Cu-Fe based catalyst." Applied
Catalysis A: General (2012).
1030:
on an industrial scale, but the company will NOT pursue the project it has had under development to build a larger scale cellulosic ethanol facility in southern Manitoba.
246:
The problem that second-generation biofuel processes are addressing is to extract useful feedstocks from this woody or fibrous biomass, which is predominantly composed of
1731:
1751:
1159:
1564:
2331:
563:
1441:
Knight, R. "Green Gasoline from Wood Using Carbona Gasification and Topsoe TIGAS Processes." DOE Biotechnology Office (BETO) 2015 Project Peer Review (24 Mar 2015)
1841:
1867:
302:
There are also lower temperature processes in the region of 150–374 °C, that produce sugars by decomposing the biomass in water with or without additives.
113:
have been developed to enable the use of non-food biofuel feedstocks because of concerns to food security caused by the use of food crops for the production of
1947:
496:
can be produced from Biomethanol using catalytic dehydration or it can be produced directly from syngas using direct DME synthesis. DME can be used in the
387:
for fuel oil applications. Bio-oil typically requires significant additional treatment to render it suitable as a refinery feedstock to replace crude oil.
1667:
117:. The diversion of edible food biomass to the production of biofuels could theoretically result in competition with food and land uses for food crops.
2336:
1361:
1383:
1381:
689:(Hydro Thermal Upgrading) diesel is produced from wet biomass. It can be mixed with fossil diesel in any percentage without need for infrastructure.
383:. In second-generation biofuels applications forest and agricultural residues, wood waste and energy crops can be used as feedstock to produce e.g.
1909:
1249:
Peterson, Andrew (9 July 2008). "Thermochemical biofuel production in hydrothermal media: A review of sub- and supercritical water technologies".
79:
or woody crops, agricultural residues or waste, as well as dedicated non-food energy crops grown on marginal land unsuitable for food production.
83:
confusion. Therefore it is important to distinguish between second-generation feedstocks and second-generation biofuel processing technologies.
1581:
Oliver R. Inderwildi; Stephen J. Jenkins; David A. King (2008). "Mechanistic Studies of Hydrocarbon Combustion and Synthesis on Noble Metals".
1491:
News Release NR-2108, "Dow and NREL Partner to Convert Biomass to Ethanol and Other Chemical Building Blocks", July 16, 2008, downloaded from
1795:
1130:
295:
Carbon-based materials can be heated at high temperatures in the absence (pyrolysis) or presence of oxygen, air and/or steam (gasification).
1868:"European Commission - PRESS RELEASES - Press release - State aid: Commission approves Swedish €55 million aid for "Domsjö" R&D project"
2404:
1067:
1440:
1341:
401:
Torrefaction is a form of pyrolysis at temperatures typically ranging between 200–320 °C. Feedstocks and output are the same as for
1991:
1018:
projections suggest advanced biofuels could meet up to 4.3 per cent of the UK's transport fuel by 2020 and save 3.2 million tonnes of CO
511:. Bio-derived gasoline is chemically indistinguishable from petroleum-derived gasoline and thus can be blended into the gasoline pool.
1825:
270:, steam heating, or other pre-treatments. These sugars can then be fermented to produce ethanol in the same way as first-generation
707:
not just carbon neutral. Carbon negative decreases carbon dioxide in the air reversing the greenhouse effect not just reducing it.
438:
Feedstocks are energy crops, agricultural and forest residues, food industry and municipal biowaste and other biomass containing
1728:
624:
might be accomplished with some organisms that produce hydrogen directly under certain conditions. Biohydrogen can be used in
1747:
1724:
1663:
1337:
1321:
1163:
1933:
467:
distinguishing feature is the technology involved in producing the intermediary product, rather than the ultimate off-take.
1561:
2088:
1419:
871:
207:
that are left behind once the food crop has been extracted, as well as other crops that are not used for food purposes (
2351:
1642:
595:
589:
2434:
2424:
1077:
647:
497:
353:). Syngas can also be used in heat production and for generation of mechanical and electrical power via gas motors or
1771:
743:; second-generation technology uses one, two or all of these components. Common lignocellulosic energy crops include
1325:
1680:
Kosinkova, Jana; Doshi, Amar; Maire, Juliette; Ristovski, Zoran; Brown, Richard; Rainey, Thomas (September 2015).
2409:
2287:
545:
414:
1288:"A Review of Hydrothermal Liquefaction Bio-Crude Properties and Prospects for Upgrading to Transportation Fuels"
2483:
2383:
2356:
906:
686:
541:
258:
of sugar molecules) hemicellulose and cellulose, but made inaccessible for direct use by the phenolic polymer
1160:"International Biofuels Strategy Project. Liquid Transport Biofuels - Technology Status Report, NNFCC 08-017"
1984:
1752:"Evaluation of Opportunities for Converting Indigenous UK Wastes to Fuels and Energy (Report), NNFCC 09-012"
1089:
1054:
263:
76:
2341:
1258:
1180:
1034:
704:
1916:
1803:
1110:
696:
508:
350:
187:
The goal of second-generation biofuel processes is to extend the amount of biofuel that can be produced
1624:
490:
can be used in methanol motors or blended with petrol up to 10–20% without any infrastructure changes.
41:. Biomass in this context means plant materials and animal waste used especially as a source of fuel.
2117:
137:
125:
1263:
767:. However, each offers different opportunities and no one crop can be considered 'best' or 'worst'.
326:
2439:
1515:
813:
474:(GtL) process. When biomass is the source of the gas production the process is also referred to as
443:
173:
1792:
287:
The following subsections describe the main second-generation routes currently under development.
2457:
2258:
2083:
2071:
1977:
1835:
1704:
1606:
1136:
883:
102:
debate involves wide-ranging views, and is a long-standing, controversial one in the literature.
974:
970:
2478:
2378:
2270:
1821:
1682:"Measuring the regional availability of biomass for biofuels and the potential for microalgae"
1598:
1231:
1126:
955:
661:
577:
475:
1668:"Pathways to UK Biofuels: A Guide to Existing and Future Options for Transport, NNFCC 10-035"
2310:
2221:
2061:
1696:
1590:
1401:
1299:
1268:
1223:
1192:
1118:
376:
247:
2419:
2281:
2231:
2143:
1799:
1793:
Well-to-Wheels analysis of future automotive fuels and powertrains in the European context
1758:
1735:
1568:
1348:
1011:
776:
251:
937:
Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
897:
The yield of crude tall oil from process is in the range of 30 – 50 kg / ton pulp.
1122:
875:
471:
338:
275:
240:
165:
2472:
2429:
2095:
1708:
1212:"Enzymes for second generation biofuels: Recent developments and future perspectives"
1140:
863:
855:
736:
604:
372:
208:
192:
87:
1610:
2371:
2241:
2078:
2036:
2016:
1210:
Binod, Parameswaran; Gnansounou, Edgard; Sindhu, Raveendran; Pandey, Ashok (2019).
1072:
995:
technology. When commissioned in 2015 the biorefinery will produce 140,000 tons of
992:
989:
954:
An operating lignocellulosic ethanol production plant is located in Canada, run by
867:
845:
817:
749:
631:
455:
435:
ingredients are separated, the cellulose fractions can be fermented into alcohols.
429:
396:
318:
311:
177:
157:
607:
at any percentage without need for infrastructure change and moreover, synthetic
2414:
2366:
2361:
2346:
2154:
2132:
2105:
2066:
2051:
2026:
1227:
1048:
996:
982:
887:
791:
726:
692:
621:
514:
487:
354:
330:
274:
production. The by-product of this process is lignin. Lignin can be burned as a
212:
188:
161:
95:
17:
1700:
1681:
1492:
254:
the useful sugars of the cell wall are bound within the complex carbohydrates (
2305:
2275:
2211:
2056:
2021:
1211:
1062:
1044:
821:
755:
635:
625:
518:
346:
271:
228:
196:
153:
141:
121:
99:
65:
1541:
1427:
1342:"Review of Technologies for Gasification of Biomass and Wastes, NNFCC 09-008"
1235:
2399:
2315:
2216:
2041:
2000:
1650:
966:
833:
740:
700:
673:
366:
232:
169:
86:
The development of second-generation biofuels has seen a stimulus since the
69:
49:
1889:"UPM to build the world's first biorefinery producing wood-based biodiesel"
1820:. Papermaing Science and Technology. Vol. 3. Finland. pp. 73–76.
1602:
1594:
1779:
2299:
2264:
2189:
2179:
2122:
1083:
849:
665:
608:
537:
529:
504:
342:
255:
220:
181:
57:
1562:
Status And Perspectives of Biomass-To-Liquid Fuels in the European Union
1109:
Pishvaee, Mir Saman; Mohseni, Shayan; Bairamzadeh, Samira (2021-01-01),
470:
A process producing liquid fuels from gas (normally syngas) is called a
2206:
2200:
2149:
2031:
2008:
986:
829:
805:
760:
669:
651:
639:
573:
569:
558:
549:
533:
525:
451:
447:
384:
267:
129:
114:
91:
61:
45:
38:
1304:
1287:
1111:"Chapter 1 - An overview of biomass feedstocks for biofuel production"
2252:
2184:
2100:
2046:
1405:
1272:
1196:
1115:
Biomass to Biofuel Supply Chain Design and Planning Under Uncertainty
1000:
978:
962:
891:
879:
859:
825:
809:
797:
764:
732:
655:
553:
493:
380:
334:
322:
259:
184:, or other plant oils is also considered a first-generation biofuel.
1022:
each year, equivalent to taking nearly a million cars off the road.
231:
and cereals that bear little grain, and also industry waste such as
37:, are fuels that can be manufactured from various types of non-food
266:
is made by extracting sugar molecules from the carbohydrates using
2226:
2169:
2159:
2112:
1729:"Advanced Biofuels: The Potential for a UK Industry, NNFCC 11-011"
1015:
1007:
744:
643:
439:
224:
216:
149:
145:
53:
2194:
2164:
801:
236:
204:
200:
133:
1973:
1948:"New biofuels policy allocates â‚ą5,000 cr for 2G ethanol plants"
1286:
Ramirez, Jerome; Brown, Richard; Rainey, Thomas (1 July 2015).
2174:
1519:
917:
90:
dilemma regarding the risk of diverting farmland or crops for
782:
to convert this waste to fuel via gasification or pyrolysis.
1969:
1460:
1458:
676:
biomass-to-liquid process have increased its attractiveness.
1934:"Indian oil processors to build seven 2G bioethanol plants"
664:(2,5-Dimethylfuran). Recent advances in producing DMF from
140:). This requires the use of food and fodder crops, such as
1964:
646:, butanol and isobutanol may be significant products of
1854:
1625:"Butanol Production by Metabolically Engineered Yeast"
1910:"Iogen Energy to refocus its strategy and activities"
507:
can be produced from DME via high-pressure catalytic
638:
via recombinant pathways expressed in hosts such as
2392:
2324:
2240:
2131:
2007:
1915:. Calgary, Alberta. 30 April 2012. Archived from
1326:"NNFCC Newsletter – Issue 19. Advanced Biofuels"
854:Black liquor, the spent cooking liquor from the
2332:Bioconversion of biomass to mixed alcohol fuels
564:bioconversion of biomass to mixed alcohol fuels
345:via catalytic conversion of dimethyl ether, or
371:Pyrolysis is a well established technique for
1985:
48:are made from sugar-starch feedstocks (e.g.,
8:
1806:Well-to-Wheels Report Version 2c, March 2007
1493:http://www.nrel.gov/news/press/2008/617.html
1388:Oliver R. Inderwildi; David A. King (2009).
191:by using biomass consisting of the residual
379:at elevated temperatures in the absence of
27:Biofuels manufactured from non-food biomass
1992:
1978:
1970:
1840:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
132:, using a similar process to that used in
2337:Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage
1720:
1718:
1303:
1262:
64:oil), which are generally converted into
1689:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
524:Mixed Alcohols (i.e., mixture of mostly
1583:Angewandte Chemie International Edition
1101:
808:via different routes. Examples include
796:Green waste such as forest residues or
1833:
1317:
1315:
1174:
1172:
1166:, 2008-04-14. Retrieved on 2011-02-16.
695:. A new biofuel was developed by the
111:Second-generation biofuel technologies
7:
2405:Cellulosic ethanol commercialization
1068:Cellulosic ethanol commercialization
552:). Mixed alcohols are produced from
56:) and edible oil feedstocks (e.g.,
420:and chemical production feedstock.
1965:The National Non-Food Crops Centre
1251:Energy & Environmental Science
1185:Energy & Environmental Science
1123:10.1016/b978-0-12-820640-9.00001-5
25:
1117:, Academic Press, pp. 1–20,
905:Lignocellulosic biofuels reduces
584:From syngas using Fischer–Tropsch
168:reductions that can be achieved.
2453:
2452:
1772:"Green waste removal case study"
1047:
922:
329:products including diesel fuel,
299:synthetic gasoline or jet fuel.
195:parts of current crops, such as
1816:Stenius, Per, ed. (2000). "2".
878:reduction potential to produce
94:production to the detriment of
1748:National Non-Food Crops Centre
1725:National Non-Food Crops Centre
1664:National Non-Food Crops Centre
1338:National Non-Food Crops Centre
1322:National Non-Food Crops Centre
1216:Bioresource Technology Reports
1183:(2009). "Quo Vadis Biofuels".
1164:National Non-Food Crops Centre
402:
325:for further synthesis to e.g.
1:
804:waste may be used to produce
759:spp., short rotation coppice
712:Second Generation Feedstocks
603:FT diesel can be mixed with
596:Fischer–Tropsch (FT) process
283:Second-generation technology
2435:Issues relating to biofuels
2425:Energy return on investment
1228:10.1016/j.biteb.2018.06.005
858:that contains concentrated
498:compression ignition engine
482:From syngas using catalysis
2500:
1701:10.1016/j.rser.2015.04.084
1006:In the UK, companies like
843:
828:for further processing to
789:
774:
724:
587:
427:
412:
394:
364:
309:
31:Second-generation biofuels
2448:
2410:Energy content of biofuel
1818:Forest Products Chemistry
1761:, Retrieved on 2011-06-27
1738:, Retrieved on 2011-11-17
1670:, Retrieved on 2011-06-27
1351:, Retrieved on 2011-06-24
1328:, Retrieved on 2011-06-27
931:This section needs to be
814:biodegradable green waste
415:Hydrothermal liquefaction
409:Hydrothermal liquefaction
115:first-generation biofuels
2384:Thermal depolymerization
2357:Industrial biotechnology
1420:"Refuel.com biomethanol"
907:greenhouse gas emissions
901:Greenhouse gas emissions
458:for transportation use.
128:plant-derived sugars to
2352:Fischer–Tropsch process
2342:Biomass heating systems
1643:"Refuel.com HTU diesel"
1090:Renewable Fuel Standard
1055:Renewable energy portal
628:to produce electricity.
590:Fischer–Tropsch process
521:to produce electricity.
264:Lignocellulosic ethanol
77:lignocellulosic biomass
1595:10.1002/anie.200800685
1179:Oliver R. Inderwildi,
1035:Indian Oil Corporation
914:Commercial development
160:inputs in the form of
1390:"Quo vadis biofuels?"
872:conversion efficiency
771:Municipal solid waste
731:Plants are made from
697:University of Georgia
509:condensation reaction
351:synthetic natural gas
321:. Output is normally
291:Thermochemical routes
136:and wine-making (see
1855:http://www.iogen.ca/
1495:on 19 February 2013.
1362:"Renewable Methanol"
138:Ethanol fermentation
2440:Sustainable biofuel
1394:Energy Environ. Sci
999:or 100,000 tons of
442:. Products include
174:transesterification
1798:2011-03-04 at the
1757:2011-07-20 at the
1734:2016-01-31 at the
1567:2007-10-31 at the
1542:"standard-alcohol"
1347:2011-03-18 at the
658:and energy source.
476:biomass-to-liquids
424:Biochemical routes
164:, which limit the
98:. The biofuel and
2466:
2465:
2379:Sabatier reaction
1802:EUCAR / Concawe /
1516:"PowerEnergy.com"
1305:10.3390/en8076765
1132:978-0-12-820640-9
956:Iogen Corporation
952:
951:
578:Sabatier reaction
120:First-generation
72:, respectively.
44:First-generation
35:advanced biofuels
16:(Redirected from
2491:
2456:
2455:
2300:Pongamia pinnata
1994:
1987:
1980:
1971:
1952:
1951:
1944:
1938:
1937:
1930:
1924:
1923:
1921:
1914:
1906:
1900:
1899:
1897:
1895:
1885:
1879:
1878:
1876:
1874:
1864:
1858:
1852:
1846:
1845:
1839:
1831:
1813:
1807:
1790:
1784:
1783:
1778:. Archived from
1768:
1762:
1745:
1739:
1722:
1713:
1712:
1686:
1677:
1671:
1661:
1655:
1654:
1649:. Archived from
1639:
1633:
1632:
1621:
1615:
1614:
1578:
1572:
1559:
1553:
1552:
1550:
1548:
1538:
1532:
1531:
1529:
1527:
1518:. Archived from
1512:
1506:
1502:
1496:
1489:
1483:
1480:
1474:
1471:
1465:
1462:
1453:
1450:
1444:
1438:
1432:
1431:
1426:. Archived from
1416:
1410:
1409:
1406:10.1039/B822951C
1385:
1376:
1375:
1373:
1371:
1366:
1358:
1352:
1335:
1329:
1319:
1310:
1309:
1307:
1298:(7): 6765–6794.
1283:
1277:
1276:
1273:10.1039/b810100k
1266:
1246:
1240:
1239:
1207:
1201:
1200:
1197:10.1039/b822951c
1176:
1167:
1156:
1150:
1149:
1148:
1147:
1106:
1057:
1052:
1051:
947:
944:
938:
926:
925:
918:
462:Types of biofuel
377:organic material
248:plant cell walls
33:, also known as
21:
18:Advanced biofuel
2499:
2498:
2494:
2493:
2492:
2490:
2489:
2488:
2484:Renewable fuels
2469:
2468:
2467:
2462:
2444:
2420:Energy forestry
2388:
2320:
2282:Jatropha curcas
2243:
2236:
2144:Camelina sativa
2134:
2127:
2003:
1998:
1961:
1956:
1955:
1946:
1945:
1941:
1932:
1931:
1927:
1919:
1912:
1908:
1907:
1903:
1893:
1891:
1887:
1886:
1882:
1872:
1870:
1866:
1865:
1861:
1853:
1849:
1832:
1828:
1815:
1814:
1810:
1800:Wayback Machine
1791:
1787:
1770:
1769:
1765:
1759:Wayback Machine
1746:
1742:
1736:Wayback Machine
1723:
1716:
1684:
1679:
1678:
1674:
1662:
1658:
1641:
1640:
1636:
1623:
1622:
1618:
1580:
1579:
1575:
1569:Wayback Machine
1560:
1556:
1546:
1544:
1540:
1539:
1535:
1525:
1523:
1522:on 8 April 2013
1514:
1513:
1509:
1503:
1499:
1490:
1486:
1481:
1477:
1472:
1468:
1463:
1456:
1451:
1447:
1439:
1435:
1418:
1417:
1413:
1387:
1386:
1379:
1369:
1367:
1364:
1360:
1359:
1355:
1349:Wayback Machine
1336:
1332:
1320:
1313:
1285:
1284:
1280:
1264:10.1.1.467.3674
1248:
1247:
1243:
1209:
1208:
1204:
1178:
1177:
1170:
1157:
1153:
1145:
1143:
1133:
1108:
1107:
1103:
1098:
1053:
1046:
1043:
1021:
1012:British Airways
971:Domsjö Fabriker
948:
942:
939:
936:
927:
923:
916:
903:
870:with very high
852:
844:Main articles:
842:
794:
788:
779:
777:Waste to energy
773:
729:
723:
714:
705:carbon negative
683:
681:Other processes
618:
611:can be produced
592:
586:
517:can be used in
484:
464:
432:
426:
417:
411:
399:
393:
369:
363:
327:Fischer–Tropsch
314:
308:
293:
285:
252:vascular plants
124:is produced by
108:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2497:
2495:
2487:
2486:
2481:
2471:
2470:
2464:
2463:
2461:
2460:
2449:
2446:
2445:
2443:
2442:
2437:
2432:
2427:
2422:
2417:
2412:
2407:
2402:
2396:
2394:
2390:
2389:
2387:
2386:
2381:
2376:
2375:
2374:
2369:
2359:
2354:
2349:
2344:
2339:
2334:
2328:
2326:
2322:
2321:
2319:
2318:
2313:
2308:
2303:
2296:
2285:
2278:
2273:
2271:Chinese tallow
2268:
2261:
2256:
2248:
2246:
2238:
2237:
2235:
2234:
2229:
2224:
2219:
2214:
2209:
2204:
2197:
2192:
2187:
2182:
2177:
2172:
2167:
2162:
2157:
2152:
2147:
2139:
2137:
2129:
2128:
2126:
2125:
2120:
2118:Water hyacinth
2115:
2110:
2109:
2108:
2098:
2093:
2092:
2091:
2086:
2076:
2075:
2074:
2064:
2059:
2054:
2049:
2044:
2039:
2034:
2029:
2024:
2019:
2013:
2011:
2005:
2004:
1999:
1997:
1996:
1989:
1982:
1974:
1968:
1967:
1960:
1959:External links
1957:
1954:
1953:
1939:
1925:
1922:on 2012-05-22.
1901:
1880:
1859:
1847:
1826:
1808:
1785:
1782:on 2011-07-18.
1763:
1740:
1714:
1672:
1656:
1653:on 2006-07-13.
1634:
1616:
1589:(28): 5253–5.
1573:
1554:
1533:
1507:
1497:
1484:
1475:
1466:
1454:
1445:
1433:
1430:on 2006-07-13.
1411:
1400:(4): 343–346.
1377:
1353:
1330:
1311:
1278:
1241:
1202:
1168:
1151:
1131:
1100:
1099:
1097:
1094:
1093:
1092:
1087:
1080:
1075:
1070:
1065:
1059:
1058:
1042:
1039:
1019:
950:
949:
930:
928:
921:
915:
912:
902:
899:
876:greenhouse gas
841:
838:
812:captured from
790:Main article:
787:
784:
775:Main article:
772:
769:
725:Main article:
722:
719:
713:
710:
709:
708:
690:
682:
679:
678:
677:
659:
629:
617:
614:
613:
612:
588:Main article:
585:
582:
581:
580:
567:
522:
512:
501:
491:
483:
480:
463:
460:
428:Main article:
425:
422:
413:Main article:
410:
407:
395:Main article:
392:
389:
365:Main article:
362:
359:
339:dimethyl ether
310:Main article:
307:
304:
292:
289:
284:
281:
276:carbon neutral
209:non-food crops
166:greenhouse gas
107:
104:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2496:
2485:
2482:
2480:
2477:
2476:
2474:
2459:
2451:
2450:
2447:
2441:
2438:
2436:
2433:
2431:
2430:Food vs. fuel
2428:
2426:
2423:
2421:
2418:
2416:
2413:
2411:
2408:
2406:
2403:
2401:
2398:
2397:
2395:
2391:
2385:
2382:
2380:
2377:
2373:
2370:
2368:
2365:
2364:
2363:
2360:
2358:
2355:
2353:
2350:
2348:
2345:
2343:
2340:
2338:
2335:
2333:
2330:
2329:
2327:
2323:
2317:
2314:
2312:
2309:
2307:
2304:
2302:
2301:
2297:
2295:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2284:
2283:
2279:
2277:
2274:
2272:
2269:
2267:
2266:
2262:
2260:
2257:
2255:
2254:
2250:
2249:
2247:
2245:
2239:
2233:
2230:
2228:
2225:
2223:
2220:
2218:
2215:
2213:
2210:
2208:
2205:
2203:
2202:
2198:
2196:
2193:
2191:
2188:
2186:
2183:
2181:
2178:
2176:
2173:
2171:
2168:
2166:
2163:
2161:
2158:
2156:
2153:
2151:
2148:
2146:
2145:
2141:
2140:
2138:
2136:
2130:
2124:
2121:
2119:
2116:
2114:
2111:
2107:
2104:
2103:
2102:
2099:
2097:
2094:
2090:
2087:
2085:
2082:
2081:
2080:
2077:
2073:
2072:vegetable oil
2070:
2069:
2068:
2065:
2063:
2060:
2058:
2055:
2053:
2050:
2048:
2045:
2043:
2040:
2038:
2035:
2033:
2030:
2028:
2025:
2023:
2020:
2018:
2015:
2014:
2012:
2010:
2006:
2002:
1995:
1990:
1988:
1983:
1981:
1976:
1975:
1972:
1966:
1963:
1962:
1958:
1949:
1943:
1940:
1935:
1929:
1926:
1918:
1911:
1905:
1902:
1890:
1884:
1881:
1869:
1863:
1860:
1856:
1851:
1848:
1843:
1837:
1829:
1827:952-5216-03-9
1823:
1819:
1812:
1809:
1805:
1801:
1797:
1794:
1789:
1786:
1781:
1777:
1773:
1767:
1764:
1760:
1756:
1753:
1749:
1744:
1741:
1737:
1733:
1730:
1726:
1721:
1719:
1715:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1698:
1695:: 1271–1285.
1694:
1690:
1683:
1676:
1673:
1669:
1665:
1660:
1657:
1652:
1648:
1644:
1638:
1635:
1630:
1626:
1620:
1617:
1612:
1608:
1604:
1600:
1596:
1592:
1588:
1584:
1577:
1574:
1570:
1566:
1563:
1558:
1555:
1543:
1537:
1534:
1521:
1517:
1511:
1508:
1501:
1498:
1494:
1488:
1485:
1479:
1476:
1470:
1467:
1461:
1459:
1455:
1449:
1446:
1442:
1437:
1434:
1429:
1425:
1421:
1415:
1412:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1391:
1384:
1382:
1378:
1363:
1357:
1354:
1350:
1346:
1343:
1339:
1334:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1318:
1316:
1312:
1306:
1301:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1282:
1279:
1274:
1270:
1265:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1245:
1242:
1237:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1206:
1203:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1181:David A. King
1175:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1155:
1152:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1105:
1102:
1095:
1091:
1088:
1086:
1085:
1081:
1079:
1078:IEA Bioenergy
1076:
1074:
1071:
1069:
1066:
1064:
1061:
1060:
1056:
1050:
1045:
1040:
1038:
1036:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1004:
1002:
998:
994:
991:
988:
984:
980:
976:
972:
968:
964:
959:
957:
946:
934:
929:
920:
919:
913:
911:
908:
900:
898:
895:
893:
889:
885:
881:
877:
873:
869:
865:
864:hemicellulose
861:
857:
856:kraft process
851:
847:
839:
837:
835:
831:
827:
823:
819:
815:
811:
807:
803:
799:
793:
785:
783:
778:
770:
768:
766:
762:
758:
757:
752:
751:
746:
742:
738:
737:hemicellulose
734:
728:
720:
718:
711:
706:
702:
698:
694:
691:
688:
685:
684:
680:
675:
671:
667:
663:
660:
657:
653:
649:
645:
641:
637:
633:
630:
627:
623:
620:
619:
615:
610:
606:
605:fossil diesel
602:
601:
600:
597:
591:
583:
579:
575:
571:
568:
565:
560:
555:
551:
547:
543:
539:
535:
531:
527:
523:
520:
516:
513:
510:
506:
502:
499:
495:
492:
489:
486:
485:
481:
479:
477:
473:
472:gas-to-liquid
468:
461:
459:
457:
453:
449:
445:
441:
436:
431:
423:
421:
416:
408:
406:
404:
398:
390:
388:
386:
382:
378:
374:
373:decomposition
368:
360:
358:
356:
352:
348:
344:
340:
336:
332:
328:
324:
320:
313:
305:
303:
300:
296:
290:
288:
282:
280:
277:
273:
269:
265:
261:
257:
253:
249:
244:
242:
238:
234:
230:
226:
223:, whole crop
222:
218:
214:
210:
206:
202:
198:
194:
190:
185:
183:
179:
175:
171:
167:
163:
159:
155:
151:
147:
143:
139:
135:
131:
127:
123:
118:
116:
112:
105:
103:
101:
97:
93:
89:
88:food vs. fuel
84:
80:
78:
73:
71:
67:
63:
59:
55:
51:
47:
42:
40:
36:
32:
19:
2298:
2292:
2288:
2280:
2263:
2259:Big bluestem
2251:
2244:energy crops
2199:
2142:
1942:
1928:
1917:the original
1904:
1894:22 September
1892:. Retrieved
1883:
1873:22 September
1871:. Retrieved
1862:
1850:
1817:
1811:
1788:
1780:the original
1776:winwaste.com
1775:
1766:
1743:
1692:
1688:
1675:
1659:
1651:the original
1646:
1637:
1628:
1619:
1586:
1582:
1576:
1557:
1547:22 September
1545:. Retrieved
1536:
1526:22 September
1524:. Retrieved
1520:the original
1510:
1500:
1487:
1478:
1469:
1448:
1436:
1428:the original
1423:
1414:
1397:
1393:
1368:. Retrieved
1356:
1333:
1295:
1291:
1281:
1257:(1): 32–65.
1254:
1250:
1244:
1219:
1215:
1205:
1188:
1184:
1154:
1144:, retrieved
1114:
1104:
1082:
1073:Food vs fuel
1032:
1028:
1024:
1005:
993:gasification
990:black liquor
975:Örnsköldsvik
960:
953:
940:
932:
904:
896:
882:for further
853:
846:Black liquor
840:Black liquor
818:gasification
795:
780:
754:
750:Arundo donax
748:
730:
721:Energy crops
715:
648:fermentation
616:Biocatalysis
593:
536:, with some
503:Bio-derived
469:
465:
456:hydrocarbons
454:) and other
437:
433:
430:Biochemistry
418:
400:
397:Torrefaction
391:Torrefaction
370:
355:gas turbines
319:black liquor
315:
312:Gasification
306:Gasification
301:
297:
294:
286:
245:
186:
178:rapeseed oil
172:produced by
158:agricultural
119:
110:
109:
106:Introduction
85:
81:
74:
43:
34:
30:
29:
2415:Energy crop
2362:Pellet fuel
2347:Biorefinery
2311:Switchgrass
2155:Coconut oil
2133:Energy from
2067:Cooking oil
2052:Biogasoline
2027:Babassu oil
1222:: 317–325.
997:biomethanol
983:biorefinery
981:develops a
888:biomethanol
836:processes.
792:Green waste
786:Green waste
727:Energy crop
693:Wood diesel
622:Biohydrogen
515:Biohydrogen
488:Biomethanol
331:biomethanol
213:switchgrass
211:), such as
189:sustainably
162:fertilizers
96:food supply
2473:Categories
2325:Technology
2306:Salicornia
2289:Miscanthus
2212:Sugar beet
2084:cellulosic
2057:Bioliquids
2037:Biobutanol
1191:(4): 343.
1158:Evans, G.
1146:2021-01-11
1096:References
1063:Algae fuel
965:specialty
943:April 2017
822:hydrolysis
756:Miscanthus
636:Isobutanol
626:fuel cells
576:) via the
570:Biomethane
519:fuel cells
347:biomethane
272:bioethanol
229:miscanthus
154:sugar beet
142:sugar cane
126:fermenting
122:bioethanol
100:food price
66:bioethanol
2400:Agflation
2293:giganteus
2222:Sunflower
2217:Sugarcane
2135:foodstock
2042:Biodiesel
2001:Bioenergy
1836:cite book
1709:109204896
1647:refuel.eu
1424:refuel.eu
1259:CiteSeerX
1236:2589-014X
1141:230567249
987:Chemrec's
967:cellulose
884:synthesis
866:, may be
834:catalytic
741:cellulose
701:woodchips
674:catalytic
446:(such as
403:pyrolysis
367:Pyrolysis
361:Pyrolysis
250:. In all
233:woodchips
170:Biodiesel
70:biodiesel
50:sugarcane
2479:Biofuels
2458:Category
2393:Concepts
2276:Duckweed
2265:Camelina
2242:Non-food
2190:Rapeseed
2180:Palm oil
2123:Wood gas
2096:Methanol
2089:mixtures
2009:Biofuels
1796:Archived
1755:Archived
1732:Archived
1629:wipo.int
1611:34524430
1603:18528839
1565:Archived
1345:Archived
1292:Energies
1084:Jatropha
1041:See also
1010:Bio and
886:to e.g.
868:gasified
850:Tall oil
830:biofuels
666:fructose
609:kerosene
546:heptanol
538:pentanol
530:propanol
505:gasoline
444:alcohols
343:gasoline
256:polymers
221:jatropha
193:non-food
182:palm oil
92:biofuels
58:rapeseed
46:biofuels
2207:Soybean
2201:Sorghum
2150:Cassava
2079:Ethanol
2062:Biomass
2032:Bagasse
2017:Alcohol
963:Swedish
933:updated
806:biofuel
747:straw,
670:glucose
652:glucose
640:E. coli
632:Butanol
574:Bio-SNG
559:Ecalene
550:octanol
542:hexanol
534:butanol
526:ethanol
478:(BTL).
452:butanol
448:ethanol
385:bio-oil
268:enzymes
130:ethanol
62:soybean
39:biomass
2253:Arundo
2185:Potato
2101:Stover
2047:Biogas
1824:
1707:
1609:
1601:
1571:(PDF).
1370:19 May
1261:
1234:
1139:
1129:
1001:BioDME
985:using
979:Sweden
892:BioDME
880:syngas
860:lignin
826:syngas
816:, and
810:Biogas
798:garden
765:willow
761:poplar
733:lignin
672:using
656:carbon
650:using
554:syngas
548:, and
532:, and
494:BioDME
440:sugars
381:oxygen
335:BioDME
323:syngas
260:lignin
201:leaves
152:, and
2372:stove
2227:Wheat
2170:Maize
2160:Grape
2113:Straw
2022:Algae
1920:(PDF)
1913:(PDF)
1857:IOGEN
1705:S2CID
1685:(PDF)
1607:S2CID
1365:(PDF)
1137:S2CID
1016:NNFCC
1008:INEOS
969:mill
745:wheat
699:from
654:as a
644:yeast
237:skins
225:maize
217:grass
205:husks
197:stems
176:from
150:wheat
2367:mill
2316:Wood
2195:Rice
2165:Hemp
2106:corn
1896:2015
1875:2015
1842:link
1822:ISBN
1599:PMID
1549:2015
1528:2015
1505:1-6.
1372:2021
1232:ISSN
1127:ISBN
961:The
874:and
862:and
848:and
832:via
802:park
763:and
739:and
668:and
642:and
634:and
594:The
572:(or
450:and
241:pulp
239:and
203:and
146:corn
134:beer
68:and
60:and
54:corn
52:and
2232:Yam
2175:Oat
1804:JRC
1697:doi
1591:doi
1402:doi
1300:doi
1269:doi
1224:doi
1193:doi
1119:doi
973:in
890:or
824:to
820:or
800:or
687:HTU
662:DMF
375:of
341:),
2475::
2291:Ă—
1838:}}
1834:{{
1774:.
1750:.
1727:.
1717:^
1703:.
1693:49
1691:.
1687:.
1666:.
1645:.
1627:.
1605:.
1597:.
1587:47
1585:.
1457:^
1422:.
1396:.
1392:.
1380:^
1340:.
1324:.
1314:^
1294:.
1290:.
1267:.
1253:.
1230:.
1218:.
1214:.
1187:.
1171:^
1162:,
1135:,
1125:,
1113:,
977:,
894:.
753:,
735:,
544:,
540:,
528:,
405:.
357:.
333:,
262:.
235:,
227:,
219:,
215:,
199:,
180:,
148:,
144:,
1993:e
1986:t
1979:v
1950:.
1936:.
1898:.
1877:.
1844:)
1830:.
1711:.
1699::
1631:.
1613:.
1593::
1551:.
1530:.
1443:.
1408:.
1404::
1398:2
1374:.
1308:.
1302::
1296:8
1275:.
1271::
1255:1
1238:.
1226::
1220:5
1199:.
1195::
1189:2
1121::
1020:2
945:)
941:(
935:.
566:)
500:.
349:(
337:(
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.