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feed cycle may be too long or the pause cycle too short. Both scenarios discourage lateral root growth and root hair development. Optimal results are achieved when feed cycles are as short as possible, with roots remaining slightly damp but never excessively dry. A typical feed/pause cycle is less than 2 seconds of feeding followed by approximately 1.5-2 minutes of pause, maintained continuously. However, when an accumulator system is incorporated, cycle times can be further reduced to less than approximately 1 second of feeding and around 1 minute of pause.
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growing in the hobby market. The distinction between mist aeroponics and droplet aeroponics became blurred in the eyes of many. However, a UK firm called
Nutriculture conducted trials of true mist aeroponics, which showed positive results compared to traditional growing techniques like Nutrient Film Technique (NFT) and Ebb & Flood. Despite the drawbacks of cost and maintenance, Nutriculture developed a scalable, easy-to-use droplet-aeroponic system called the Amazon, acknowledging that better results could be achieved by
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eliminates the need for substrates and reduces the quantity of waste material that must be managed by other life support systems. By removing the substrate requirement, planting and harvesting processes are simplified, automation becomes easier, the weight and volume of expendable materials are reduced, and a potential pathway for pathogen transmission is eliminated. These advantages highlight the potential of aeroponic production in microgravity environments and its efficiency in food production for outer space.
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bacterial infections when propagated through cuttings, can now be successfully propagated in aeroponic systems. The success of propagation in aeroponics can be attributed to the highly aerated environment around the roots, promoting root hair development (Soffer and Burger, 1988), as well as enhanced root and overall growth due to nutrient supply through the aeroponic system (Santos and Fisher, 2009). Additionally, the absence of rooting media reduces the risk of root diseases (Mehandru et al., 2014).
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2126:, invented an innovative aeroponic system that utilizes micro fleece cloth to grow lettuces. AeroFarms, leveraging Harwood's patented aeroponic technology, currently operates the largest indoor vertical farm in the world based on its annual growing capacity in Newark, New Jersey. This state-of-the-art farm employs aeroponic technology to produce and distribute up to two million pounds of pesticide-free leafy greens each year.
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with distinct zones within the root area. Their results indicated that dissolved oxygen is crucial for root formation. Additionally, they found that in the misted section, where nutrient mist was provided, the number and length of roots were consistently greater compared to the submerged or un-misted sections. Even at the lowest oxygen concentration tested, the misted section demonstrated successful root development.
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in space also requires addressing issues like water management, minimizing water usage, and reducing system weight. Additionally, future food production on planetary bodies like the Moon and Mars will involve dealing with reduced gravity environments. Given the varying fluid dynamics at different levels of gravity, optimizing nutrient delivery systems has been a major focus in developing plant growth systems.
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Station (ISS) since 2018, exemplifies this approach. Equipped with over 180 sensors, the APA optimizes plant growth and health while decreasing the need for chemical additive biocontrols. The sensors monitor various environmental factors, including lighting intensity, spectrum, and photoperiod, temperature, CO2 levels, relative humidity, irrigation, as well as plant-derived ethylene and
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leaves, is reduced as the environment becomes less conducive to disease proliferation. Secondly, these controls create conditions that promote the plant's natural disease prevention mechanisms, indirectly inhibiting the effects of plant diseases. For instance, experiments with peppers conducted under blue light conditions have shown increased resilience to powdery mildew.
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been developed, including the nutrient film technique, ebb and flow, aeroponics, and others. Hydroponic systems, with their high nutrient solution throughput, can achieve rapid plant growth. However, this necessitates large volumes of water and significant recycling of the solution, which poses challenges for controlling solutions in microgravity conditions.
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II plantings into soil, which has been a challenge for tissue culture growers. In tissue culture, plants are initially planted in sterile media (stage I) and then transferred to sterile soil (stage II) before eventually being transplanted to field soil. This entire process is not only labor-intensive but also prone to disease, infection, and failure.
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This design allows maximum airflow around the plant by minimizing contact between the plant and the support structure. In long-term aeroponic cultivation, it is crucial to ensure that the root systems are unconstrained, allowing unrestricted growth, root expansion, unhindered access to pure water, adequate air exchange, and disease-free conditions.
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aeroponics enables a wider range of growth conditions compared to other nutrient delivery systems. For instance, the interval and duration of nutrient sprays can be finely adjusted to meet the specific requirements of a plant species. This means that the aboveground tissue can experience a different environment from that of the roots.
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environment. Its inflatable structure offers the advantage of being lightweight and can be deflated to occupy less volume during transportation and storage. This current version of AIS represents an improvement over previous designs that utilized rigid structures, which tend to be more costly to manufacture and transport.
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Several inventions have been developed to facilitate aeroponic spraying and misting. The size of the water droplet is critical for root development in an aeroponic environment. In commercial applications, a 360° hydro-atomizing spray is used, which utilizes air pressure misting to cover large areas of roots.
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conducted biocontrol experiments with Stoner's ODC solution. The experiments took place using BioServe Space
Technologies' GAP technology, which consisted of miniature growth chambers. Bean seeds were treated with the ODC solution in triplicate experiments conducted aboard the MIR space station, at the
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misting coverage, and possible leaching of foliar nutrients (Peterson et al., 2018). In essence, cloning has become easier with the use of aeroponic apparatus, as it initiates faster and cleaner root development through a sterile, nutrient-rich, highly oxygenated, and moist environment (Hughes, 1983).
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Through the implementation of advanced aeroponics techniques, Dr. Reese was able to harvest mature ears of genetically modified corn while effectively containing the corn pollen and spent effluent water, thus preventing their release into the environment. This containment ensures that the surrounding
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Aeroponic systems offer cost-effective advantages compared to other systems. The reduced volume of solution throughput, as mentioned earlier, translates to lower water and nutrient requirements in the system. Additionally, the elimination of substrates and the need for many moving parts contribute to
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Results from NASA's enclosed environment bean experiments on the MIR space station and shuttle confirmed that ODC promoted increased germination rates, better sprouting, enhanced growth, and activated natural plant disease mechanisms. Although initially developed for NASA, ODC is not limited to space
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Aeroponics made its transition from laboratories to the commercial cultivation sector. In 1966, Bruce Briggs, a pioneer in commercial aeroponics, successfully induced roots on hardwood cuttings through air-rooting. He discovered that air-rooted cuttings were more robust and hardened compared to those
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Atomization at pressures exceeding 65 pounds per square inch (450 kPa) increases the bioavailability of nutrients. Consequently, nutrient strength must be significantly reduced to prevent leaf and root burn. It's worth noting the large water droplets in the photo on the right, which indicate that the
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Aeroponic equipment employs sprayers, misters, foggers, or other devices to create a fine mist of solution for delivering nutrients to plant roots. Aeroponic systems are typically closed-looped systems designed to provide macro and micro-environments that sustain reliable and consistent air cultures.
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Aeroponics offers a solution to minimize the negative impact of pathogens in seed stocks. As previously mentioned, the separation of plants and the absence of a shared growth matrix contribute to this advantage. Moreover, aeroponics provides an enclosed and controlled environment, making it an ideal
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Research efforts have focused on identifying and developing technologies for rapid plant growth in different gravitational environments. Low-gravity environments present challenges such as efficient delivery of water and nutrients to plants, as well as the recovery of waste products. Food production
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These environmental controls serve two main purposes in inhibiting plant diseases. Firstly, they maintain environmental conditions that directly hinder the growth of diseases, fungi, and pests. By carefully regulating factors like temperature and humidity, the risk of infections, such as botrytis in
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Aeroponics plays a crucial role in propagating plants that have low success rates in vegetative propagation, plants with significant medicinal uses, high-demand plants, and in creating new cultivars of specific plant species. For instance, Leptadenia reticulata, an important medicinal plant with low
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Shortly after its development, aeroponics emerged as a valuable research tool, providing researchers with a non-invasive method to examine developing roots. This innovative technology expanded the possibilities for conducting experiments by offering a larger number of parameters and a wider range of
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Clean air plays a crucial role in purifying the environment for plants in aeroponics. Unrestricted access to air is necessary for natural plant growth and successful physiological development. If the support structure restricts the plant's natural growth, it can increase the risk of plant damage and
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Aeroponic bio-pharming is an innovative approach used to cultivate pharmaceutical medicines within plants. This technology provides complete containment, ensuring that effluents and by-products of biopharma crops are confined within a closed-loop facility. In a notable development in 2005, Dr. Neil
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Another advantage of the reduced throughput, particularly relevant for space applications, is the decreased water volume used. This reduction in water volume not only lightens the weight needed to sustain plant growth but also reduces the buffer volume. Additionally, the volume of effluent produced
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Plants grown using aeroponics spend 99.98% of their time in the air, with only 0.02% in direct contact with hydro-atomized nutrient solution. This minimal contact with water allows the roots to efficiently capture oxygen. Additionally, the hydro-atomized mist plays a significant role in effectively
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To overcome these limitations, NASA has developed specialized materials capable of withstanding the harsh space environment for inflatable habitats and structures. These materials, similar to aramid fibers, are currently being utilized in the development of expandable habitats by
Bigelow Aerospace.
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In order to enhance the resilience of hydroponic and aeroponic systems against plant diseases and reduce reliance on chemical additives, NASA explores the integration of environmental biocontrols into the design of these systems. The
Advanced Plant Habitat (APA), deployed on the International Space
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The efforts of GTi in developing an all-plastic aeroponic method and apparatus controlled by a microprocessor have ushered in a new era of artificial life support for plants, allowing them to grow naturally without the use of soil or traditional hydroponics. In fact, GTi obtained a patent for their
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Aeroponics has made significant advancements in tissue culture technology, enabling faster plant cloning and reducing the labor-intensive steps associated with traditional tissue culture techniques. One of the notable benefits of aeroponics is its ability to eliminate the need for stage I and stage
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reproductive rates through both seeds and cuttings, has found easier propagation through aeroponics (Mehandru et al., 2014). Aeroponics has also contributed to the availability of elm trees, including Ulmus
Americana cultivars, which were severely affected by Dutch elm disease (Oakes et al., 2012).
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of nutrient solution or inside a channel connected to a reservoir. A low-pressure pump is used to deliver the nutrient solution either through jets or ultrasonic transducers, and the excess solution then drips or drains back into the reservoir. However, as plants mature in these units, it is common
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Air cultures maximize air exposure to facilitate optimal plant growth. The materials and devices that hold and support aeroponically grown plants must be completely free from disease or pathogens. A vital characteristic of a genuine aeroponic culture and apparatus is minimal plant support features.
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Aeroponics represents a significant advancement in artificial life support for plants, offering benefits such as non-damaging plant support, efficient seed germination, precise environmental control, and unrestricted growth. In comparison to traditional agricultural techniques like hydroponics and
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The integration of aeroponics in
Vietnamese agriculture begins with the production of low-cost, certified disease-free organic minitubers. These minitubers then serve as a local supply for farmers engaged in field plantings of seed potatoes and commercial potatoes. The adoption of aeroponics will
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The design of an aeroponic system enables convenient handling of plants. This is due to the individual separation of plants and their suspension in the air, free from any matrix that could entrap the roots. As a result, harvesting each plant becomes a straightforward task. Similarly, removing any
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Aeroponics offers the flexibility to administer various nutrient solutions to the root zone without the need to flush out previous solutions or matrices. This high level of control is particularly valuable for studying the impact of different nutrient regimens on specific plant species. Moreover,
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In 1999, NASA allocated funding to support the development of an inflatable low-mass aeroponic system (AIS) for high-performance food production in both space and on Earth. The AIS is a self-contained and self-supporting system designed to deliver nutrients and mist to plant roots in an aeroponic
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Various nutrient delivery methods are currently employed, both on Earth and in low-gravity environments. Substrate-dependent methods include traditional soil cultivation, zeoponics, agar, and nutrient-loaded ion exchange resins. In addition to substrate-dependent approaches, non-soil methods have
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In the 1990s, General
Hydroponics (GHE) attempted to introduce aeroponics to the hobby hydroponics market and introduced the Aerogarden system. Although the Aerogarden did not meet the criteria of "true" aeroponics as it produced droplets instead of a fine mist, it created a demand for aeroponic
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Aeroponics serves as a more advantageous alternative to the traditional method of using overhead misters (Peterson et al., 2018). It boasts a higher success rate compared to overhead misters, which have drawbacks such as the need for large volumes of water, potential unsanitary conditions, uneven
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published an article titled "On Air Plant
Cultures" in the journal "Experienced Agronomy." In this article, he introduced his method of conducting physiological studies on root systems by spraying various substances in the surrounding air, which is now known as the aeroponics method. Artsikhovski
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Researchers have utilized aeroponics to study the impact of gas composition in the root zone on plant performance. Soffer and Burger (1988) conducted a study on the effects of dissolved oxygen concentrations in a system they termed "aero-hydroponics," which involved a 3-tier hydro and aero system
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In 1998, Stoner received funding from NASA to develop a high-performance aeroponic system suitable for use on Earth as well as in space. Through his research, Stoner demonstrated significant increases in growth rates of lettuce plants cultivated in aeroponic systems compared to other cultivation
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interface designed to deliver tap water and nutrients into an enclosed aeroponic chamber made of plastic. Stoner subsequently established several companies dedicated to researching and advancing aeroponic hardware, interfaces, biocontrols, and components for commercial aeroponic crop production.
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Aeroponics offers the advantage of limiting disease transmission since it reduces plant-to-plant contact, and each spray pulse can be kept sterile. In contrast, diseases can easily spread throughout soil, aggregate, or other growing media, affecting multiple plants. Traditional greenhouses often
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Aeroponic culturing has brought about a revolution in cloning (vegetative propagation) of plants. It has made the propagation of numerous plants, previously considered difficult or impossible, much easier through stem cuttings in aeroponics. Delicate hardwoods and cacti, which were sensitive to
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Aeroponic systems use hydro-atomized sprays to deliver nutrients, resulting in minimal water usage, enhanced root oxygenation, and excellent plant growth. The nutrient solution throughput of aeroponic systems is higher compared to other systems designed for low-gravity environments. Aeroponics
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exhibited decreased seedling, root, and shoot growth under low gravity conditions. However, lettuce grown on the Cosmos mission showed the opposite effect, displaying enhanced growth in space (Halstead and Scott, 1990). Mineral uptake in plants grown in space was also found to be affected. For
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has provided funding for research and development of new advanced materials aimed at improving the reliability and reducing maintenance in aeroponics. It has been determined that a high-pressure hydro-atomized mist with micro-droplets ranging from 5 to 50 micrometers is necessary for sustained
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efflux, and exploring the relationship between ion concentration and uptake. These findings highlight the potential of aeroponics not only as a valuable research tool for studying nutrient uptake but also as a means to monitor plant health and optimize crop cultivation in closed environments.
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Researchers have highlighted aeroponics as a valuable, simple, and rapid method for preliminary screening of genotypes for resistance to specific seedling blights or root rots. The isolating nature of aeroponic systems enables researchers to avoid complications encountered when studying these
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In 1996, Richard Stoner's research on organic disease control (ODC) received funding from NASA. The goal was to develop a natural liquid biocontrol solution for closed-loop hydroponic systems that could prevent plant diseases and increase yields without the need for pesticides. By 1997, NASA
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In 1985, GTi unveiled the second generation of aeroponics hardware, known as the "Genesis
Growing System". This new apparatus represented a significant advancement in aeroponics technology as it introduced a closed-loop system. The Genesis Growing System utilized recycled effluent, which was
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By utilizing aeroponics, growers can directly clone and transplant air-rooted plants into field soil. The aeroponic roots are more resistant to wilting, leaf loss, and transplant shock compared to traditional methods like hydroponics. Moreover, air-rooted plants tend to be healthier and less
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is crucial in aeroponics, and this includes maintaining the appropriate hydro-atomized droplet size. The degradation of the spray caused by mineralization of mist heads hampers the delivery of the water nutrient solution, resulting in an environmental imbalance within the air culture system.
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The precise control over root zone moisture levels and water delivery makes aeroponics particularly well-suited for studying water stress. K. Hubick evaluated aeroponics as a means to consistently produce plants with minimal water stress, which can be utilized in drought or flood physiology
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film tubes. The fog droplets used in these experiments were generated by equipment supplied by Mee
Industries of California. In collaboration with John Prewer, a commercial grower named Kings Nurseries on the Isle of Wight used a different design of aeroponics system in 1984 to grow
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industry. The ODC product line has been developed specifically for emerging agricultural crops like cannabis. The active ingredients in the ODC cannabis line include the original chitosan ingredient at a concentration of 0.25%, as well as 0.28% colloidal nitrogen and 0.05% calcium.
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This development holds significant historical importance as it marks the first time a nation has specifically prioritized aeroponics to bolster its agricultural sector, promote economic growth in farming, meet rising demands, improve food quality, and increase overall production.
1016:. However, since most aeroponic environments are not completely sealed off from the outside, pests and diseases can still pose a threat. Controlled environments facilitate the advancement of plant development, health, growth, flowering, and fruiting for various plant species and
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On Earth, the cost of materials and transportation can pose challenges to the economic viability of aeroponic systems for commercial growers. However, these challenges become even more pronounced when considering the limitations imposed by payload mass for space transportation.
1309:. The absence of aggregates enables researchers to easily access the entire, intact root structure without causing damage that may occur when removing roots from soils or aggregates. It has been observed that aeroponics yields more natural root systems compared to hydroponics.
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Mehandru, P., N. S Shekhawat, M. K. Rai, V. Kataria, H. S. Gehlot. (2014). Evaluation of aeroponics for clonal propagation of Caralluma edulis, Leptadenia reticulata and Tylophora indica – three threatened medicinal Asclepiads. Physiology and Molecular Biology of Plants.
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The discrete nature of interval and duration aeroponics allows for the measurement of nutrient uptake over time, even under varying conditions. Barak et al. conducted a study using an aeroponic system to non-destructively measure water and ion uptake rates in
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Water droplet size plays a vital role in maintaining aeroponic growth. Water droplets that are too large can limit the availability of oxygen to the root system. Conversely, excessively fine water droplets generated by ultrasonic misters can lead to excessive
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system for growing pathogen-free seed stocks. The enclosed growth chamber, combined with the isolation of plants from each other, serves to prevent initial contamination from external pathogens and limits the spread of any existing pathogens among plants.
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2200:"We have shown that aeroponics, more than any other form of agricultural technology, will significantly improve Vietnam's potato production. We have very little tillable land, aeroponics makes complete economic sense to us," affirmed Thach.
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In 1986, Stoner achieved a significant milestone by becoming the first person to successfully market fresh aeroponically grown food to a national grocery chain. His accomplishment garnered attention, and he was invited for an interview on
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In 1944, L.J. Klotz made an important discovery by misting citrus plants, which facilitated his research on diseases affecting citrus and avocado roots. In 1952, G.F. Trowel successfully grew apple trees using a spray culture technique.
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susceptible to pathogen infections. However, it is important to maintain the root chamber's relative humidity (RH) below 70 °F (21 °C) to prevent the development of issues like fungus gnats, algae, and anaerobic bacteria.
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Utilizing artificial lights for growth offers advantages such as increased growth rates and enhanced reliability compared to solar lighting. This lighting method can be effectively combined with aeroponics to optimize plant growth.
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In 1942, W. Carter conducted pioneering research on air culture growing and described a method for growing plants in water vapor to facilitate root examination. Since 2006, aeroponics has been widely used in agriculture worldwide.
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of ultrasonic transducers requires maintenance and presents a potential risk of component failure. This is also a drawback of metal spray jets and misters. Restricted access to water can cause plants to lose turgidity and wilt.
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In 1957, F. W. Went coined the term "aeroponics" to describe the air-growing process. He grew coffee plants and tomatoes with air-suspended roots, nourishing them through the application of a nutrient mist to the root section.
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materials have been developed and are utilized to prevent mineralization in the next generation of hydro-atomizing misting and spray jets. These materials help maintain the efficiency and effectiveness of the misting system.
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Aeroponics provides greater control over the environment surrounding the root zone compared to other plant growth systems like hydroponics. In aeroponics, the plant roots are not continuously surrounded by any medium.
2177:, in collaboration with Stoner, established a postgraduate doctoral program focused on aeroponics. The Agrobiotech Research Center, led by Professor Nguyen Quang Thach, is utilizing aeroponic laboratories to advance
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for certain sections of the root systems to become dry, which hinders proper nutrient uptake. These units typically lack the necessary features to purify the nutrient solution and effectively remove inconsistencies,
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precisely controlled by a microprocessor. With this innovation, aeroponics expanded its capabilities to include supporting seed germination, making GTi's system the world's first plant and harvest aeroponic system.
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High-pressure aeroponic techniques, which employ mist generation through high-pressure pump(s), are commonly employed in the cultivation of high value crops and plant specimens. The benefits of using this method in
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benefit potato farmers by providing them with disease-free seed potatoes grown without the use of pesticides. Importantly, it will also reduce their operational costs and increase their yields, according to Thach.
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The use of relatively small solution volumes in aeroponics, combined with the limited exposure of roots to the hydro-atomized mist, minimizes root-to-root contact and reduces the spread of pathogens among plants.
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Oakes, A. D., N. A. Kazcmar, C. A. Maynard, and W. R. Argo. (2009). Vegetative propagation of American elm (Ulmus americana) varieties from softwood cuttings. Journal of Environmental Horticulture, 30(2):73–76.
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formed in soil, and concluded that air-rooting was a sound principle. Briggs also found that air-rooted trees could be transplanted to soil without experiencing transplant shock, which is often observed in
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The system employed is described in detail in UK patent No.1 600 477 (filed 12 November 1976 - Complete Specification published 14 October 1981 - title IMPROVEMENTS IN AND RELATING TO THE PROPAGATION OF
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Subsequent research delved into investigating the impact of low gravity on plants at different levels, such as organismic, cellular, and subcellular. At the organismic level, several species including
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Stoner's company, Genesis Technology Inc, played a pioneering role in manufacturing, marketing, and applying large-scale closed-loop aeroponic systems in greenhouses for commercial crop production.
2104:) located on the campus of the University of Colorado in Boulder, Colorado. This research center focuses on the development and commercialization of aeroponic systems. Additionally, scientists at
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Close-up of the first patented aeroponic plant support structure (1983). Its unrestricted support of the plant allows for normal growth in the air/moisture environment, and is still in use today.
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Successful tests have been conducted in space with one of Bigelow's Expandable Activity Modules, demonstrating the feasibility of such inflatable structures in the space environment.
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Due to the disease-free environment unique to aeroponics, many plants can be grown at higher densities (plants per square meter) compared to more traditional cultivation methods like
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High-pressure aeroponics refers to the method of delivering nutrients to the roots using mist heads with a size range of 20-50 micrometers. This is achieved using a high-pressure
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Modern aeroponics allows high density companion planting of many food and horticultural crops without the use of pesticides - due to unique discoveries aboard the space shuttle
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In 1982, Isaac Nir in Israel developed a patent for an aeroponic apparatus that utilized compressed low-pressure air to deliver a nutrient solution to suspended plants held by
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Aeroponics has gained recognition as a time- and cost-saving technique. The economic application of aeroponics in agriculture is under development in the 21st century.
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Peterson, B. J., S. E. Burnett, O. Sanchez. (2018). Submist is effective for propagation of Korean lilac and inkberry by stem cuttings. HortTechnology. 28(3):378–381.
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Dr. Reese emphasizes that aeroponics offers the potential for economically viable bio-pharming practices, making it a promising avenue for pharmaceutical production.
1746:(for a comprehensive review of plant growth in space during the first 30 years, refer to Halstead and Scott, 1990). The Sputnik 4 mission involved carrying seeds of
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In 2000, Stoner was granted a patent for his organic disease control biocontrol technology, which enables pesticide-free cultivation in aeroponic systems.
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under total darkness conditions to eliminate light as a variable. The focus of the NASA experiment was solely on studying the benefits of the biocontrol.
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pertain to the specific environmental parameters required to sustain plant growth in an air culture, tailored to the needs of a particular plant species.
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measurements. Once their analytical method was verified, Barak et al. proceeded to gather additional data specific to cranberries. This included studying
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1382:. Due to their cost constraints, such units are often more suitable for small-scale benchtop growing and for demonstrating the principles of aeroponics.
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1908:(VOC) scrubbing. Additionally, the APA features leaf and root zone temperature sensors, root zone moisture sensors, and oxygen concentration meters.
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These commercial aeroponic systems, including the high-pressure devices, are primarily utilized for cultivating high-value crops, enabling multiple
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The reduced volume of nutrient throughput in aeroponics leads to a reduction in the overall amount of nutrients required for plant development.
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for heating and cooling, thermal control of solutions, efficient light arrays with optimized photon flux, spectrum filtration capabilities,
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The first commercially available aeroponic apparatus was manufactured and brought to market by GTi in 1983. At that time, it was named the
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To ensure long-term growth, the mist system must possess significant pressure to effectively penetrate the dense root system(s). Achieving
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1030:. This serves as a backup nutrition and water supply in case of any failure in the aeroponic system, acting as an emergency "crop saver."
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control systems, disease prevention measures, pathogen resistance mechanisms, precise timing and pressurization of nutrient solutions,
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1995:(NFT) reveals that aeroponics has a lower nutrient throughput of 1.5 milliliters per minute, in contrast to NFT's 1 liter per minute.
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in their branded X-stream aeroponic propagator and then transferring them to the specially designed droplet-aeroponic growing system.
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Aeroponics possesses numerous characteristics that contribute to its effectiveness and efficiency as a method of plant cultivation.
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1809:. Initial research findings shed light on how low gravity affected the orientation of roots and shoots (Halstead and Scott, 1990).
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solutions, they could accurately calculate the nutrient uptake rate. To validate their findings, they compared the results with N-
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Coston, D.C., G.W. Krewer, R.C. Owing and E.G. Denny (1983). "Air Rooting of Peach Semihardwood Cutting." HortScience 18(3): 323.
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is a controlled environment structure made of glass or plastic, equipped with the necessary tools to cultivate plants in an air/
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is often compressed around the lower stem and inserted into an opening in the aeroponic chamber. In the case of larger plants,
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NASA life support GAP technology with untreated beans (left tube) and biocontrol treated beans (right tube) returned from the
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of the nutrient solution provides greater oxygenation to the plant roots, stimulating growth and aiding in the prevention of
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from the plant support structure without disrupting or infecting other plants, thanks to the isolated nature of the system.
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The first successful cultivation of basil from seed in an aeroponic system inside a modern greenhouse was achieved in 1986.
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applications. Soil and hydroponics growers can also incorporate ODC into their planting techniques, as it complies with
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plants. The strawberries flourished, yielding a bountiful crop that was highly appreciated by customers, especially the
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1173:(NFT). Commercial aeroponic systems incorporate hardware features that accommodate the expanding root systems of crops.
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The fundamental principle of aeroponic growing entails suspending plants in a closed or semi-closed environment whilst
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of solid media after each crop, and sometimes these media are simply discarded and replaced with fresh, sterile ones.
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2315:"Evaluation of an Aeroponics System to Screen Maize Genotypes for Resistance to Fusarium graminearum Seedling Blight"
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drip irrigation, which have been in use for decades, aeroponics provides notable improvements in plant cultivation.
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by the plants is minimized in aeroponics, resulting in a reduced amount of water that requires treatment for reuse.
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1966:
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of water, almost any plant can thrive and reach maturity with an abundant supply of oxygen, water, and nutrients.
2492:"Effects of dissolved oxygen concentration in aero-hydroponics on the formation and growth of adventitious roots"
1905:
1881:
883:
577:
2927:, International Conference on Environmental Systems (ICES), American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics,
79:
3613:
3313:
1630:
1208:
840:
674:
587:
572:
510:
436:
3523:
3381:
3328:
3239:
1992:
1476:
1411:
1170:
738:
733:
624:
592:
2248:"Modern plant cultivation technologies in agriculture under controlled environment: a review on aeroponics"
228:
1419:
923:
835:
820:
691:
684:
446:
238:
3655:
3582:
3343:
3205:
1770:
1333:
refers to the collection of hardware and components designed to support plant growth in an air culture.
1265:
985:, extends above. The plant support structure keeps the roots separated. To minimize labor and expenses,
679:
505:
441:
414:
1738:
Plants had their first encounters with Earth's orbit back in 1960 during two separate missions, namely
1564:
1490:
1430:
Commercial aeroponic systems comprise high-pressure device hardware along with biological systems. The
1205:
growth without developing a lateral root system necessary for sustained growth in an aeroponic system.
3150:
3034:
2203:
2154:
Dr. Reese considers it a significant achievement to successfully grow corn in an aeroponic system for
1617:
1521:
1463:
Advanced commercial systems go a step further by incorporating data gathering, monitoring, analytical
1437:
Biological subsystems and hardware components encompass several features and functionalities, such as
1415:
1058:
3508:
3457:
3046:
2852:
2105:
1877:
1830:
1656:
In 1976, British researcher John Prewer conducted a series of aeroponic experiments in the UK, where
1306:
876:
629:
582:
251:
2246:
Lakhiar, Imran Ali; Gao, Jianmin; Syed, Tabinda Naz; Chandio, Farman Ali; Buttar, Noman Ali (2018).
3640:
3601:
3333:
3275:
2921:"Design, Development, and Testing of an Inflatable Habitat Element for NASA Lunar Analogue Studies"
955:
597:
2075:
1589:
1553:
1467:, and internet connectivity to various subsystems, enhancing overall efficiency and productivity.
1422:
delivery systems. These features enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of the aeroponic setup.
3376:
3303:
2775:
2513:
2113:
1545:
1501:
designed the first aeroponic systems and demonstrated their effectiveness for plant cultivation.
1407:
866:
830:
419:
301:
2301:
A High Performance, Gravity Insensitive, Enclosed Aeroponic System for Food Production in Space.
2184:
2053:
Close-up of aeroponically grown corn and roots inside an aeroponic (air-culture) apparatus, 2005
1777:
Following these early endeavors, plant experiments were conducted on various missions involving
1264:
In their research, the team found that by measuring the concentrations and volumes of input and
1434:
incorporates various enhancements aimed at extending plant life and promoting crop maturation.
3543:
3452:
3155:
3062:
2936:
2876:
2868:
2767:
2716:
2336:
2158:. Previous attempts at growing various types of corn using hydroponics had been unsuccessful.
1929:
techniques. NASA subsequently adopted many of the aeroponic advancements developed by Stoner.
1764:
1697:
1548:. It delivered a high-pressure hydro-atomized nutrient spray within an aeroponic chamber. The
1024:
748:
721:
669:
639:
488:
431:
394:
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1449:
sensors and protection mechanisms, reduced maintenance and labor-saving features, as well as
148:
3618:
3558:
3338:
3054:
2928:
2860:
2757:
2749:
2544:
2503:
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2041:
infected plant is easily done without the risk of uprooting or contaminating nearby plants.
1802:
1431:
986:
982:
726:
634:
619:
357:
316:
3594:
3035:"Methods of pre-basic seed potato production with special reference to aeroponics—A review"
2672:
1993 International Summer Meeting, Spokane, WA, American Society of Agricultural Engineers.
1726:
1481:
3538:
3348:
3174:
3162:
2668:
Dreschel, T.W., C.W. Carlson, H.W. Wells, K.F. Anderson, W.M. Knott and W. Munsey (1993).
2226:
2134:
2101:
1151:
1005:
696:
468:
453:
389:
372:
44:
3033:
Buckseth, Tanuja; Sharma, A. K.; Pandey, K. K.; Singh, B. P.; Muthuraj, R. (2016-06-02).
3050:
2856:
1320:
involves growing plants in an air culture, allowing them to develop and grow naturally.
3563:
2533:"Stem versus foliar uptake during propagation of Petunia x hybrida vegetative cuttings"
1688:
In 1986, the first commercial aeroponic greenhouse for food production was established.
1677:
1127:
1034:
978:
927:
495:
2840:
2815:
1568:
GTi's apparatus cut-away of vegetative cutting propagated aeroponically, achieved 1983
1390:
3634:
3487:
3396:
3308:
3298:
2864:
2779:
2753:
1743:
1457:
1228:
1088:
1013:
768:
701:
483:
384:
377:
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2108:
have conducted research on enclosed loop systems, investigating methods for growing
3528:
3472:
3401:
3293:
3228:
2122:
A notable milestone in aeroponics occurred in 2004 when Ed Harwood, the founder of
2018:
NASA aeroponic lettuce seed germination (close-up of root zone environment)- Day 19
1806:
1684:
1661:
1400:
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One significant benefit of aeroponic technology is the ability to quickly remove a
1045:
1012:, allowing the plants to thrive and grow faster than those cultivated in a growing
706:
664:
609:
567:
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90:
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Some growers prefer aeroponic systems over other hydroponic methods the increased
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3548:
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3462:
3431:
3426:
3358:
3323:
3270:
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2221:
2093:
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One notable example of ODC's expansion in agriculture is its application in the
1356:
refer to the root system that develops when plants are grown in an air culture.
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1027:
939:
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220:
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2895:
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1836:
1825:
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1643:
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1406:
High-pressure aeroponic systems incorporate advanced technologies for air and
1369:
In most low-pressure aeroponic gardens, the plant roots are suspended above a
1248:
994:
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659:
654:
537:
426:
404:
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A method of growing plants in water vapor to facilitate examination of roots.
2092:
Contemporary aeroponic techniques have been extensively researched at NASA's
3467:
3371:
3318:
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2123:
2109:
1856:
1852:
1840:
1821:
1739:
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1258:
1202:
1190:
959:
649:
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2403:
A comparison of two techniques for growing minimally water-stressed plants.
2355:
Measurement of short-term nutrient uptake rates in cranberry by aeroponics.
2340:
1556:
and an electrical outlet, providing the necessary resources for operation.
2841:"Spectral quality may be used to alter plant disease development in CELSS"
2640:
Low-mass, Inflatable Aeroponic System for High Performance Food Production
1273:
1023:
Due to the sensitivity of root systems, aeroponics is often combined with
3553:
3366:
1896:
1844:
1790:
1786:
1464:
1438:
1277:
1099:
1095:
1017:
943:
614:
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1326:
specifically refers to the process of growing plants in an air culture.
3406:
2189:
2178:
2155:
1848:
1798:
1670:
1657:
1544:
GTi's device featured an open-loop water-driven system controlled by a
1442:
1269:
1236:
1009:
970:
463:
409:
2464:
Environmental and Agricultural Resources NASA Spinoff 2006, pp. 68–72.
2181:'s minituber potato production for certified seed potato cultivation.
3411:
3386:
2991:
US Patent & Trademark Office, Patent Full Text and Image Database
2742:"Growth chambers on the International Space Station for large plants"
2368:
Root Wetting Experiments aboard NASA's KC-135 Microgravity Simulator.
1375:
1281:
1076:
907:
362:
3016:"Say Hello To The (Soon To Be) World's Largest Indoor Vertical Farm"
2659:, M. Asashima and G.M. Malacinski (eds.), pp. 9-19. Springer-Verlag.
3117:
external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into
2740:
Massa, G.D.; Wheeler, R.M.; Morrow, R.C.; Levine, H.G. (May 2016).
1305:
Aeroponics are a better choice when it comes to investigating root
1126:
levels in the system's air, which subsequently impacts the rate of
3477:
2202:
2183:
2133:
2074:
2048:
2013:
1981:
1965:
1919:
1782:
1759:
1755:
1747:
1725:
1683:
1616:
1588:
1563:
1520:
1480:
1389:
1247:
1156:
1057:
1044:
998:
478:
204:
1276:
variations in nutrient uptake, examining the correlation between
3421:
2919:
Di Capua, Massimiliano; Akin, David; Davis, Kevin (2011-07-17),
2670:
Physical Testing for the Microgravity Plant Nutrient Experiment.
1889:
1864:
1860:
1813:
1785:, and joint Soviet-American efforts, including Biosatellite II,
1633:
aeroponic systems continue to operate successfully to this day.
1341:
1220:
974:
962:
919:
915:
644:
344:
210:
3201:
3197:
1835:
instance, peas grown in space demonstrated increased levels of
973:
or sprayed form. The upper portion of the plant, including the
3081:
2614:
Apparatus and Method for Plant growth in Aeroponic Conditions.
2353:
Barak, P., J.D. Smith, A.R. Krueger and L.A. Peterson (1996).
1817:
1751:
1710:
1252:
Close-up of roots grown from wheat seed using aeroponics, 1998
1197:
to mist nutrient solutions in low-pressure aeroponic devices.
911:
120:
86:
59:
18:
2207:
Aeroponic greenhouse for potato minituber product Hanoi 2006
1991:
oxygenating the roots. A comparison between aeroponics and
1485:
3D Diagram of Standalone Commercial Aeroponics System, 2020
938:(labor, hardship, or toil). It falls under the category of
1774:
cells were taken into orbit on the Discoverer 17 mission.
1629:
It is worth noting that many of these early open-loop and
3156:
NASA Web Site: Aeroponic High Performance Food Production
2496:
Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science
1037:
operating at around 80 pounds per square inch (550 kPa).
926:
medium. The term "aeroponic" originates from the ancient
3185:
Astronaut Don Pettit Grows Zucchini on ISS Expedition 31
1621:
GTi's Aeroponic Growing System greenhouse facility, 1985
3106:
3101:
may not follow Knowledge (XXG)'s policies or guidelines
2586:
2584:
2192:
on day 3 after insertion in the aeroponic system, Hanoi
1867:
exhibited decreased levels (Halstead and Scott, 1990).
1734:
space station aboard the space shuttle – September 1997
144:
3180:"Re-examining Aeroponics for Spaceflight Plant Growth"
2925:
41st International Conference on Environmental Systems
1676:
In 1983, Richard Stoner filed a patent for the first
2564:
2562:
2560:
1403:
can compensate for the higher setup costs involved.
155:, and by adding encyclopedic content written from a
3496:
3440:
3357:
3286:
3248:
2472:
2470:
2401:Hubick, K.T., D.R. Drakeford and D.M. Reid (1982).
209:Lettuce and wheat grown in an aeroponic apparatus,
2634:
2632:
2295:
1660:were grown from seed to maturity in 22 days using
2390:Aeroponics Versus Bed and Hydroponic Propagation.
2293:
2291:
2289:
2287:
2285:
2283:
2281:
2279:
2277:
2275:
2162:environment remains free from GMO contamination.
1593:Cloned aeroponics transplanted directly into soil
1004:The goal is to maintain an environment free from
2681:Tibbitts, T.W., W. Cao and R.M. Wheeler (1994).
2462:Progressive Plant Growing Has Business Blooming.
2147:conducted GMO research using aeroponics to grow
1924:NASA aeroponic lettuce seed germination. Day 30.
1049:Many types of plants can be grown aeroponically.
942:, as water is employed in aeroponics to deliver
2696:"MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET Colloidal Chitosan"
2642:. Principal Investigator, NASA SBIR NAS10-00017
2456:
2454:
2452:
2450:
2448:
2446:
2313:du Toit LJ; Kirby HW & Pedersen WL (1997).
1986:NASA aeroponic lettuce seed germination- Day 12
2303:Principal Investigator, NASA SBIR NAS10-98030.
2112:in low-gravity environments to support future
1970:NASA aeroponic lettuce seed germination- Day 3
1541:was marketed as the "Genesis Rooting System."
1394:Roots inside a High-pressure Aeroponics System
3213:
2839:Schuerger, A. C.; Brown, C. S. (1994-11-01).
2801:National Aeronautics and Space Administration
884:
8:
2987:"Method and apparatus for aeroponic farming"
2963:"Robert Bigelow Talks Inflatable ISS Add-On"
1189:A variation of the mist technique, known as
1122:Aeroponics also entails the management of CO
2638:Stoner, R.J. and J.M. Clawson (1999–2000).
2384:
2382:
2380:
2378:
2376:
2299:Stoner, R.J. and J.M. Clawson (1997-1998).
2173:In 2006, the Institute of Biotechnology at
1453:design and long-term reliability features.
53:Learn how and when to remove these messages
3220:
3206:
3198:
2175:Vietnam National University of Agriculture
1962:Benefits of aeroponics for earth and space
969:with a nutrient-rich water solution in an
891:
877:
216:
89:. Please do not remove this message until
3137:Learn how and when to remove this message
2761:
2603:International Plant Propagators' Society.
2548:
2507:
2330:
2263:
993:is employed to support the weight of the
193:Learn how and when to remove this message
175:Learn how and when to remove this message
109:Learn how and when to remove this message
2357:Plant, Cell and Environment 19: 237–242.
2138:Aeroponically grown biopharma corn, 2005
1235:To address this issue, special low-mass
85:Relevant discussion may be found on the
2405:Canadian Journal of Botany 60: 219–223.
2238:
219:
2896:"NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS)"
918:environment, eliminating the need for
136:contains content that is written like
2651:T.W. Halstead and T.K. Scott (1990).
2531:Santos, K. M.; Fisher, P. R. (2009).
2169:Large scale integration of aeroponics
1606:innovative aeroponic system in 1985.
7:
3589:
2894:Pelt, Jennifer Van (3 August 2005).
2794:"NASA Facts: Advanced Plant Habitat"
2010:Greater control of plant environment
1181:Water and nutrient hydro-atomization
1892:NOP standards for organic farming.
1071:Benefits of oxygen in the root zone
3519:Controlled-environment agriculture
3168:NASA Web Site: Low Mass Aeroponics
2490:Soffer, H.; Burger, D. W. (1988).
2427:, Internal Report, Hauser Chemical
2425:Aeroponic Taxus Growth Experiment.
2392:Florists' Review Vol 1 173 (4477).
1552:was designed to be connected to a
1525:GTi's Genesis Rooting System, 1983
1460:on a continuous commercial scale.
14:
1978:Less nutrient solution throughout
34:This article has multiple issues.
3612:
3600:
3588:
3577:
3576:
3086:
2961:Belfiore, Michael (2013-01-31).
2754:10.17660/ActaHortic.2016.1134.29
860:
227:
125:
64:
23:
16:Mist-based plant growing process
3151:NASA Web Site: Aeroponic Plants
1653:inside large metal containers.
1560:Aeroponic propagation (cloning)
1535:Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan
846:Agriculture and the environment
312:British Agricultural Revolution
42:or discuss these issues on the
2685:NASA Contractor Report 177646.
2653:Experiments of plants in space
2480:Greenhouse Grower Vol I No. 11
1916:Aeroponics for Earth and space
1106:subsequent disease formation.
906:is the process of cultivating
292:Agriculture in the Middle Ages
1:
3059:10.1016/j.scienta.2016.03.041
2683:Growth of Potatoes for CELSS.
2657:Fundamentals of space biology
2601:An experiment in air-rooting.
2265:10.1080/17429145.2018.1472308
2252:Journal of Plant Interactions
2145:South Dakota State University
1177:infections in soil cultures.
3483:Ultrasonic hydroponic fogger
2865:10.1016/0273-1177(94)90327-1
2440:Phytopathology 732: 623–625.
2370:BioServe Space Technologies.
1613:Genesis Growing System, 1985
1261:(Barak, Smith et al. 1996).
297:Arab Agricultural Revolution
2814:Heiney, Anna (2019-04-09).
2094:BioServe Space Technologies
91:conditions to do so are met
3677:
3661:NASA spin-off technologies
3514:Aquaculture of sea sponges
2845:Advances in Space Research
2550:10.21273/HORTSCI.44.7.1974
2332:10.1094/pdis.1997.81.2.175
1945:NASA inflatable aeroponics
1474:
257:Agriculture in Mesoamerica
3646:Agricultural soil science
3572:
3235:
2816:"Growing Plants in Space"
2149:genetically modified corn
2027:Improved nutrient feeding
1906:volatile organic compound
1882:Colorado State University
1432:biological systems matrix
1298:experimental conditions.
1114:Other benefits of air (CO
784:Universities and colleges
744:Universities and colleges
3651:Horticultural techniques
2509:10.21273/JASHS.113.2.218
1704:Aeroponically grown food
1138:Disease-free cultivation
769:Agriculturist profession
588:Agricultural engineering
573:Agricultural cooperative
3524:Historical hydroculture
3382:Expanded clay aggregate
3329:Nutrient film technique
3240:Historical hydroculture
2717:"BEYOND Stoner 3x ODC™"
2088:Contemporary aeroponics
2071:21st century aeroponics
1993:Nutrient Film Technique
1533:, inspired by the film
1477:Historical hydroculture
1171:Nutrient Film Technique
739:Sustainable food system
734:Sustainable agriculture
625:Animal-free agriculture
593:Agricultural technology
3039:Scientia Horticulturae
2616:, Patent United States
2208:
2193:
2139:
2130:Aeroponic bio-pharming
2080:
2054:
2019:
1987:
1971:
1925:
1735:
1689:
1622:
1594:
1585:Air-rooted transplants
1569:
1526:
1486:
1412:nutrient sterilization
1395:
1253:
1162:
1083:) availability in the
1063:
1054:Increased air exposure
1050:
1041:Benefits and drawbacks
867:Agriculture portal
826:History of agriculture
811:Agriculture by country
806:Agricultural machinery
774:Agricultural machinery
692:Mechanised agriculture
262:Austronesian expansion
214:
3344:Sub-irrigated planter
2599:Briggs, B.A. (1966).
2436:Carter, W.A. (1942).
2423:Stoner, R.J. (1989).
2388:Stoner, R.J. (1983).
2206:
2187:
2137:
2078:
2052:
2017:
1985:
1969:
1923:
1771:Chlorella pyrenoidosa
1729:
1687:
1620:
1592:
1567:
1524:
1517:Genesis Machine, 1983
1484:
1475:Further information:
1414:, the utilization of
1393:
1386:High-pressure devices
1318:Aeroponic cultivation
1251:
1160:
1061:
1048:
981:, referred to as the
816:Agriculture companies
779:Government ministries
578:Agricultural supplies
415:Convertible husbandry
208:
157:neutral point of view
3509:Aquaculture of coral
3458:Irrigation sprinkler
3107:improve this article
2476:Stoner, R.J (1983).
2460:NASA Spinoff (2006)
2106:Ames Research Center
1878:Kennedy Space Center
1871:Biocontrols in space
1831:Arabidopsis thaliana
1420:pressurized nutrient
1348:Aeroponic conditions
1338:aeroponic greenhouse
630:Cellular agriculture
583:Agricultural science
252:Neolithic Revolution
3334:Organic hydroponics
3190:AeroFarms (paywall)
3119:footnote references
3051:2016ScHor.204...79B
2933:10.2514/6.2011-5044
2857:1994AdSpR..14k.395S
2045:More cost effective
1717:Aeroponics in space
1360:Types of aeroponics
511:Steam sterilization
149:promotional content
78:of this article is
3377:Diatomaceous earth
3304:Deep water culture
3173:2012-03-26 at the
3161:2012-03-26 at the
2746:Acta Horticulturae
2721:www.aeroponics.com
2366:Hoehn, A. (1998).
2209:
2194:
2140:
2114:space colonization
2100:2018-06-15 at the
2081:
2062:Use of seed stocks
2055:
2036:More user-friendly
2020:
1988:
1972:
1926:
1736:
1698:propagating plants
1690:
1623:
1595:
1570:
1527:
1487:
1426:Commercial systems
1408:water purification
1396:
1365:Low-pressure units
1293:As a research tool
1254:
1224:aeroponic growth.
1216:Advanced materials
1195:ultrasonic foggers
1163:
1064:
1051:
420:Rotational grazing
302:Columbian exchange
215:
151:and inappropriate
3628:
3627:
3544:Plant propagation
3453:Hydroponic dosers
3147:
3146:
3139:
2967:Popular Mechanics
2942:978-1-60086-948-8
2748:(1134): 215–222.
2188:Aeroponic potato
1765:Nigella damascena
1637:Commercialization
1491:V.M. Artsikhovski
1416:low-mass polymers
901:
900:
749:Urban agriculture
722:Rice-duck farming
670:Intensive farming
640:Extensive farming
203:
202:
195:
185:
184:
177:
119:
118:
111:
57:
3668:
3616:
3604:
3592:
3591:
3580:
3579:
3559:Vertical farming
3497:Related concepts
3222:
3215:
3208:
3199:
3142:
3135:
3131:
3128:
3122:
3090:
3089:
3082:
3071:
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3030:
3024:
3023:
3022:. 17 March 2015.
3012:
3006:
3005:
3003:
3002:
2993:. Archived from
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2910:
2909:
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2784:
2783:
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2763:2060/20160006558
2737:
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2713:
2707:
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2700:
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2649:
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2627:
2623:
2617:
2612:Nir, I. (1982),
2610:
2604:
2597:
2591:
2588:
2579:
2576:
2570:
2566:
2555:
2554:
2552:
2543:(7): 1974–1977.
2528:
2522:
2521:
2511:
2487:
2481:
2474:
2465:
2458:
2441:
2434:
2428:
2421:
2415:
2412:
2406:
2399:
2393:
2386:
2371:
2364:
2358:
2351:
2345:
2344:
2334:
2310:
2304:
2297:
2270:
2269:
2267:
2243:
1499:
1331:aeroponic system
1324:Aeroponic growth
987:closed-cell foam
893:
886:
879:
865:
864:
863:
727:Rice-fish system
635:Contract farming
620:Animal husbandry
358:Animal husbandry
317:Green Revolution
268:Ancient history
231:
217:
198:
191:
180:
173:
169:
166:
160:
138:an advertisement
129:
128:
121:
114:
107:
103:
100:
94:
68:
67:
60:
49:
27:
26:
19:
3676:
3675:
3671:
3670:
3669:
3667:
3666:
3665:
3631:
3630:
3629:
3624:
3568:
3539:Plant nutrition
3492:
3436:
3353:
3282:
3244:
3231:
3226:
3195:
3175:Wayback Machine
3163:Wayback Machine
3143:
3132:
3126:
3123:
3104:
3095:This article's
3091:
3087:
3080:
3075:
3074:
3032:
3031:
3027:
3014:
3013:
3009:
3000:
2998:
2985:
2984:
2980:
2971:
2969:
2960:
2959:
2955:
2947:
2945:
2943:
2918:
2917:
2913:
2904:
2902:
2893:
2892:
2888:
2851:(11): 395–398.
2838:
2837:
2833:
2824:
2822:
2813:
2812:
2808:
2796:
2792:
2791:
2787:
2739:
2738:
2734:
2725:
2723:
2715:
2714:
2710:
2698:
2694:
2693:
2689:
2680:
2676:
2667:
2663:
2650:
2646:
2637:
2630:
2624:
2620:
2611:
2607:
2598:
2594:
2589:
2582:
2577:
2573:
2567:
2558:
2530:
2529:
2525:
2489:
2488:
2484:
2478:Rooting in Air.
2475:
2468:
2459:
2444:
2435:
2431:
2422:
2418:
2413:
2409:
2400:
2396:
2387:
2374:
2365:
2361:
2352:
2348:
2312:
2311:
2307:
2298:
2273:
2245:
2244:
2240:
2235:
2227:Plant nutrition
2218:
2171:
2132:
2102:Wayback Machine
2090:
2073:
2064:
2047:
2038:
2029:
2012:
1980:
1964:
1947:
1918:
1873:
1724:
1719:
1706:
1639:
1615:
1587:
1562:
1550:Genesis Machine
1539:Genesis Machine
1531:Genesis Machine
1519:
1493:
1479:
1473:
1428:
1388:
1367:
1362:
1354:Aeroponic roots
1315:
1295:
1246:
1244:Nutrient uptake
1218:
1183:
1140:
1125:
1120:
1117:
1082:
1073:
1056:
1043:
952:
946:to the plants.
897:
861:
859:
854:
853:
852:
851:
850:
841:Poultry farming
798:
790:
789:
788:
763:
755:
754:
753:
697:Organic farming
562:
554:
553:
552:
527:
517:
516:
515:
347:
337:
336:
335:
334:
333:
308:Modern history
288:Post-classical
241:
199:
188:
187:
186:
181:
170:
164:
161:
142:
130:
126:
115:
104:
98:
95:
84:
69:
65:
28:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3674:
3672:
3664:
3663:
3658:
3653:
3648:
3643:
3633:
3632:
3626:
3625:
3623:
3622:
3610:
3598:
3586:
3573:
3570:
3569:
3567:
3566:
3564:Water aeration
3561:
3556:
3551:
3546:
3541:
3536:
3531:
3526:
3521:
3516:
3511:
3506:
3500:
3498:
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3490:
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3465:
3460:
3455:
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3444:
3442:
3438:
3437:
3435:
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3429:
3424:
3419:
3414:
3409:
3404:
3399:
3394:
3389:
3384:
3379:
3374:
3369:
3363:
3361:
3355:
3354:
3352:
3351:
3346:
3341:
3336:
3331:
3326:
3321:
3316:
3311:
3306:
3301:
3296:
3294:Aquatic garden
3290:
3288:
3284:
3283:
3281:
3280:
3279:
3278:
3268:
3263:
3258:
3252:
3250:
3246:
3245:
3243:
3242:
3236:
3233:
3232:
3227:
3225:
3224:
3217:
3210:
3202:
3193:
3192:
3187:
3182:
3177:
3165:
3153:
3145:
3144:
3099:external links
3094:
3092:
3085:
3079:
3078:External links
3076:
3073:
3072:
3025:
3007:
2978:
2953:
2941:
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2831:
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2628:
2618:
2605:
2592:
2580:
2571:
2569:20(3):365–373.
2556:
2523:
2502:(2): 218–221.
2482:
2466:
2442:
2429:
2416:
2407:
2394:
2372:
2359:
2346:
2325:(2): 175–179.
2305:
2271:
2258:(1): 338–352.
2237:
2236:
2234:
2231:
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2224:
2217:
2214:
2170:
2167:
2131:
2128:
2089:
2086:
2072:
2069:
2063:
2060:
2058:cost savings.
2046:
2043:
2037:
2034:
2028:
2025:
2011:
2008:
1979:
1976:
1963:
1960:
1946:
1943:
1917:
1914:
1872:
1869:
1723:
1720:
1718:
1715:
1705:
1702:
1678:microprocessor
1638:
1635:
1614:
1611:
1586:
1583:
1561:
1558:
1518:
1515:
1472:
1469:
1458:crop rotations
1427:
1424:
1387:
1384:
1378:, and harmful
1366:
1363:
1361:
1358:
1314:
1311:
1294:
1291:
1245:
1242:
1217:
1214:
1209:Mineralization
1182:
1179:
1152:diseased plant
1139:
1136:
1128:photosynthesis
1123:
1119:
1115:
1112:
1080:
1072:
1069:
1055:
1052:
1042:
1039:
1035:diaphragm pump
951:
948:
899:
898:
896:
895:
888:
881:
873:
870:
869:
856:
855:
849:
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545:
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535:
529:
528:
523:
522:
519:
518:
514:
513:
508:
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498:
496:Slash-and-burn
493:
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285:
284:
279:
277:Ancient Greece
274:
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245:
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236:
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224:
223:
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183:
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153:external links
133:
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117:
116:
72:
70:
63:
58:
32:
31:
29:
22:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3673:
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3520:
3517:
3515:
3512:
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3502:
3501:
3499:
3495:
3489:
3488:Water chiller
3486:
3484:
3481:
3479:
3476:
3474:
3471:
3469:
3466:
3464:
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3459:
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3356:
3350:
3347:
3345:
3342:
3340:
3339:Organopónicos
3337:
3335:
3332:
3330:
3327:
3325:
3322:
3320:
3317:
3315:
3312:
3310:
3309:Kratky method
3307:
3305:
3302:
3300:
3299:Bottle garden
3297:
3295:
3292:
3291:
3289:
3285:
3277:
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3264:
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3157:
3154:
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3149:
3148:
3141:
3138:
3130:
3120:
3116:
3115:inappropriate
3112:
3108:
3102:
3100:
3093:
3084:
3083:
3077:
3068:
3064:
3060:
3056:
3052:
3048:
3044:
3040:
3036:
3029:
3026:
3021:
3020:modern farmer
3017:
3011:
3008:
2997:on 2017-01-18
2996:
2992:
2988:
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2964:
2957:
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2926:
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2900:ntrs.nasa.gov
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2602:
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2593:
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2557:
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2527:
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2363:
2360:
2356:
2350:
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2342:
2338:
2333:
2328:
2324:
2320:
2319:Plant Disease
2316:
2309:
2306:
2302:
2296:
2294:
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2150:
2146:
2136:
2129:
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2111:
2107:
2103:
2099:
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2087:
2085:
2077:
2070:
2068:
2061:
2059:
2051:
2044:
2042:
2035:
2033:
2026:
2024:
2016:
2009:
2007:
2003:
1999:
1996:
1994:
1984:
1977:
1975:
1968:
1961:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1944:
1942:
1938:
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1749:
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1744:Discoverer 17
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1679:
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1668:
1663:
1659:
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1647:
1646:transplants.
1645:
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1619:
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1385:
1383:
1381:
1377:
1372:
1364:
1359:
1357:
1355:
1351:
1349:
1345:
1344:environment.
1343:
1339:
1334:
1332:
1327:
1325:
1321:
1319:
1312:
1310:
1308:
1303:
1302:experiments.
1299:
1292:
1290:
1286:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1262:
1260:
1250:
1243:
1241:
1238:
1233:
1230:
1229:repeatability
1225:
1222:
1215:
1213:
1210:
1206:
1204:
1198:
1196:
1192:
1187:
1180:
1178:
1174:
1172:
1168:
1159:
1155:
1153:
1148:
1146:
1145:sterilization
1137:
1135:
1131:
1129:
1113:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1101:
1097:
1092:
1090:
1086:
1078:
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1068:
1060:
1053:
1047:
1040:
1038:
1036:
1031:
1029:
1026:
1021:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1002:
1000:
996:
992:
988:
984:
980:
976:
972:
968:
964:
961:
957:
949:
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941:
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933:
929:
925:
921:
917:
913:
909:
905:
894:
889:
887:
882:
880:
875:
874:
872:
871:
868:
858:
857:
847:
844:
842:
839:
837:
836:Meat industry
834:
832:
829:
827:
824:
822:
821:Biotechnology
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817:
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723:
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702:Paludiculture
700:
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603:Biotechnology
601:
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541:
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521:
520:
512:
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507:
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502:
499:
497:
494:
492:
491:
487:
485:
484:Sharecropping
482:
480:
477:
475:
472:
470:
467:
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3656:Hydroculture
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3529:Hydroponicum
3473:Spray nozzle
3402:Mineral wool
3314:Ebb and flow
3255:
3229:Hydroculture
3194:
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3124:
3109:by removing
3096:
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707:Permaculture
665:Horticulture
610:Agroforestry
568:Agribusiness
547:
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501:Smallholding
489:
282:Ancient Rome
189:
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147:by removing
143:Please help
135:
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3619:Wikiversity
3549:Rhizosphere
3504:Algaculture
3463:Leaf sensor
3441:Accessories
3427:Vermiculite
3324:Microponics
3271:Hydroponics
3266:Aquascaping
2537:HortScience
2222:Aerial root
2156:bio-massing
1824:, lettuce,
1631:closed-loop
1494: [
1313:Terminology
1280:uptake and
1259:cranberries
1193:, utilizes
1167:hydroponics
1130:in plants.
1102:formation.
1085:rhizosphere
1028:hydroponics
940:hydroponics
717:Polyculture
543:Hydroponics
533:Aquaculture
474:Paddy field
459:Monoculture
353:Agrivoltaic
327:Monoculture
248:Prehistory
221:Agriculture
3641:Aeroponics
3635:Categories
3534:Paludarium
3448:Grow light
3432:Wood fibre
3417:Rice hulls
3392:Growstones
3359:Substrates
3261:Aquaponics
3256:Aeroponics
3001:2016-03-06
2972:2020-12-06
2948:2020-12-06
2905:2020-12-06
2825:2020-12-06
2726:2020-12-06
2233:References
2110:food crops
1837:phosphorus
1779:Bangladesh
1667:strawberry
1644:hydroponic
1307:morphology
995:vegetation
991:trellising
965:and lower
934:(air) and
904:Aeroponics
797:Categories
712:Plantation
660:Free range
655:Feed ratio
548:Aeroponics
538:Aquaponics
405:Free-range
400:Fertilizer
165:March 2018
145:improve it
99:March 2018
76:neutrality
39:improve it
3607:Wikibooks
3397:Lava rock
3372:Coco peat
3319:Fogponics
3127:June 2023
3111:excessive
3067:0304-4238
3045:: 79–87.
2873:0273-1177
2780:132103806
2772:0567-7572
2143:Reese of
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2116:efforts.
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1857:manganese
1853:magnesium
1841:potassium
1822:mung bean
1758:, spring
1740:Sputnik 4
1651:styrofoam
1546:microchip
1489:In 1911,
1451:ergonomic
1447:fail-safe
1380:pathogens
1371:reservoir
1203:root hair
1191:fogponics
1075:Adequate
1018:cultivars
944:nutrients
924:aggregate
831:Livestock
650:Farmhouse
432:Intensive
395:Extensive
87:talk page
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3249:Types
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