4268:
airway. The inhalable fraction of particles, defined as the proportion of particles originally in the air that can enter the nose or mouth, depends on external wind speed and direction and on the particle-size distribution by aerodynamic diameter. The thoracic fraction is the proportion of the particles in ambient aerosol that can reach the thorax or chest region. The respirable fraction is the proportion of particles in the air that can reach the alveolar region. To measure the respirable fraction of particles in air, a pre-collector is used with a sampling filter. The pre-collector excludes particles as the airways remove particles from inhaled air. The sampling filter collects the particles for measurement. It is common to use
740:
612:
3749:
7350:
495:
2942:
480:
246:
7312:
3228:>> 1; particles small compared to the mean free path of the suspending gas. In this regime, particles interact with the suspending gas through a series of "ballistic" collisions with gas molecules. As such, they behave similarly to gas molecules, tending to follow streamlines and diffusing rapidly through Brownian motion. The mass flux equation in the free molecular regime is:
52:
7360:
2676:
7341:
7333:
7325:
3103:
261:
2937:{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial {n_{i}}}{\partial {t}}}=-\nabla \cdot n_{i}\mathbf {q} +\nabla \cdot D_{p}\nabla _{i}n_{i}+\left({\frac {\partial {n_{i}}}{\partial {t}}}\right)_{\mathrm {growth} }+\left({\frac {\partial {n_{i}}}{\partial {t}}}\right)_{\mathrm {coag} }-\nabla \cdot \mathbf {q} _{F}n_{i}}
4264:. The location of deposition of aerosol particles within the respiratory system strongly determines the health effects of exposure to such aerosols. This phenomenon led people to invent aerosol samplers that select a subset of the aerosol particles that reach certain parts of the respiratory system.
757:
with the area of each bar representing the proportion of particles in that size bin, usually normalised by dividing the number of particles in a bin by the width of the interval so that the area of each bar is proportionate to the number of particles in the size range that it represents. If the width
3764:
from an aerosol surface, respectively. Condensation of mass causes the mode of the particle-size distributions of the aerosol to increase; conversely, evaporation causes the mode to decrease. Nucleation is the process of forming aerosol mass from the condensation of a gaseous precursor, specifically
752:
describe the sizes of the particles in a polydisperse aerosol. This distribution defines the relative amounts of particles, sorted according to size. One approach to defining the particle size distribution uses a list of the sizes of every particle in a sample. However, this approach proves tedious
743:
The same hypothetical log-normal aerosol distribution plotted, from top to bottom, as a number vs. diameter distribution, a surface area vs. diameter distribution, and a volume vs. diameter distribution. Typical mode names are shown at the top. Each distribution is normalized so that the total area
716:
Aerosols in the 20 μm range show a particularly long persistence time in air conditioned rooms due to their "jet rider" behaviour (move with air jets, gravitationally fall out in slowly moving air); as this aerosol size is most effectively adsorbed in the human nose, the primordial infection
193:
The warming caused by human-produced greenhouse gases has been somewhat offset by the cooling effect of human-produced aerosols. In 2020, regulations on fuel significantly cut sulfur dioxide emissions from international shipping by approximately 80%, leading to an unexpected global geoengineering
4267:
Examples of these subsets of the particle-size distribution of an aerosol, important in occupational health, include the inhalable, thoracic, and respirable fractions. The fraction that can enter each part of the respiratory system depends on the deposition of particles in the upper parts of the
3109:
As particles and droplets in an aerosol collide with one another, they may undergo coalescence or aggregation. This process leads to a change in the aerosol particle-size distribution, with the mode increasing in diameter as total number of particles decreases. On occasion, particles may shatter
1708:
describes the force of resistance on a solid spherical particle in a fluid. However, Stokes' law is only valid when the velocity of the gas at the surface of the particle is zero. For small particles (< 1 μm) that characterize aerosols, however, this assumption fails. To account for this
1414:
of larger particles. Also for a quantity that varies over a large range, as many aerosol sizes do, the width of the distribution implies negative particles sizes, which is not physically realistic. However, the normal distribution can be suitable for some aerosols, such as test aerosols, certain
676:
There is evidence to suggest that anthropogenic aerosols actually offset the effects of greenhouse gases in some areas, which is why the
Northern Hemisphere shows slower surface warming than the Southern Hemisphere, although that just means that the Northern Hemisphere will absorb the heat later
660:
effect is that aerosols scatter and absorb incoming solar radiation. This will mainly lead to a cooling of the surface (solar radiation is scattered back to space) but may also contribute to a warming of the surface (caused by the absorption of incoming solar energy). This will be an additional
306:
Key aerosol groups include sulfates, organic carbon, black carbon, nitrates, mineral dust, and sea salt, they usually clump together to form a complex mixture. Various types of aerosol, classified according to physical form and how they were generated, include dust, fume, mist, smoke and fog.
672:
effects refer to the aerosol interfering with formations that interact directly with radiation. For example, they are able to modify the size of the cloud particles in the lower atmosphere, thereby changing the way clouds reflect and absorb light and therefore modifying the Earth's energy
1594:
164:, primarily from burning oil and coal, affect the behavior of clouds. When aerosols absorb pollutants, it facilitates the deposition of pollutants to the surface of the earth as well as to bodies of water. This has the potential to be damaging to both the environment and human health.
2636:
One can apply the aerodynamic diameter to particulate pollutants or to inhaled drugs to predict where in the respiratory tract such particles deposit. Pharmaceutical companies typically use aerodynamic diameter, not geometric diameter, to characterize particles in inhalable drugs.
3358:
706:. More and more water accumulates on the seed until a visible cloud is formed. In the case of ship tracks, the cloud seeds are stretched over a long narrow path where the wind has blown the ship's exhaust, so the resulting clouds resemble long strings over the ocean.
190:. More and more water accumulates on the seed until a visible cloud is formed. In the case of ship tracks, the cloud seeds are stretched over a long narrow path where the wind has blown the ship's exhaust, so the resulting clouds resemble long strings over the ocean.
3799:. This process causes the diameter at the mode of particle-size distribution to increase with constant number concentration. With sufficiently high supersaturation and no suitable surfaces, particles may condense in the absence of a pre-existing surface, known as
270:
Aerosol is defined as a suspension system of solid or liquid particles in a gas. An aerosol includes both the particles and the suspending gas, which is usually air. Meteorologists usually refer to them as particle matter - PM2.5 or PM10, depending on their size.
724:
Aerosol particles with an effective diameter smaller than 10 μm can enter the bronchi, while the ones with an effective diameter smaller than 2.5 μm can enter as far as the gas exchange region in the lungs, which can be hazardous to human health.
508:
Several types of atmospheric aerosol have a significant effect on Earth's climate: volcanic, desert dust, sea-salt, that originating from biogenic sources and human-made. Volcanic aerosol forms in the stratosphere after an eruption as droplets of
154:
Several types of atmospheric aerosol have a significant effect on Earth's climate: volcanic, desert dust, sea-salt, that originating from biogenic sources and human-made. Volcanic aerosol forms in the stratosphere after an eruption as droplets of
3539:
2631:
367:
to characterize the properties of various shapes of solid particles, some very irregular. The equivalent diameter is the diameter of a spherical particle with the same value of some physical property as the irregular particle. The
3414:<< 1. In this regime, the particles are big compared to the mean free path of the suspending gas, meaning that the suspending gas acts as a continuous fluid flowing round the particle. The molecular flux in this regime is:
753:
to ascertain in aerosols with millions of particles and awkward to use. Another approach splits the size range into intervals and finds the number (or proportion) of particles in each interval. These data can be presented in a
2649:
explains the evolution of complete aerosol populations. The concentrations of particles will change over time as a result of many processes. External processes that move particles outside a volume of gas under study include
4045:
1397:
1288:
513:
that can prevail for up to two years, and reflect sunlight, lowering temperature. Desert dust, mineral particles blown to high altitudes, absorb heat and may be responsible for inhibiting storm cloud formation. Human-made
159:
that can prevail for up to two years, and reflect sunlight, lowering temperature. Desert dust, mineral particles blown to high altitudes, absorb heat and may be responsible for inhibiting storm cloud formation. Human-made
3728:
1436:
642:
When aerosols absorb pollutants, it facilitates the deposition of pollutants to the surface of the earth as well as to bodies of water. This has the potential to be damaging to both the environment and human health.
2022:
The terminal velocity can also be derived for other kinds of forces. If Stokes' law holds, then the resistance to motion is directly proportional to speed. The constant of proportionality is the mechanical mobility
3902:
7061:
2099:
2658:
and other external forces that cause particle migration. A second set of processes internal to a given volume of gas include particle formation (nucleation), evaporation, chemical reaction, and coagulation.
7286:
2207:
1104:
1980:
7281:
2499:
3234:
826:
2372:
3614:≈ 1. The forces experienced by a particle are a complex combination of interactions with individual gas molecules and macroscopic interactions. The semi-empirical equation describing mass flux is:
5017:
2409:
The aerodynamic diameter of an irregular particle is defined as the diameter of the spherical particle with a density of 1000 kg/m and the same settling velocity as the irregular particle.
1775:
5565:
Landgrebe, James D.; Pratsinis, Sotiris E. (1990). "A discrete-sectional model for particulate production by gas-phase chemical reaction and aerosol coagulation in the free-molecular regime".
1175:
4656:
525:, solid and liquid, can be described as aerosols, a distinction is commonly made between such dispersions (i.e. clouds) containing activated drops and crystals, and aerosol particles. The
3168:
4533:
Yuan, Tianle; Song, Hua; Oreopoulos, Lazaros; Wood, Robert; Bian, Huisheng; Breen, Katherine; Chin, Mian; Yu, Hongbin; Barahona, Donifan; Meyer, Kerry; Platnick, Steven (2024-05-30).
677:
through ocean currents bringing warmer waters from the South. On a global scale however, aerosol cooling decreases greenhouse-gases-induced heating without offsetting it completely.
973:
709:
The warming caused by human-produced greenhouse gases has been somewhat offset by the cooling effect of human-produced aerosols. In 2020, regulations on fuel significantly cut
3091:
887:
1662:
5041:
Hunziker, Patrick (2020-12-16). "Minimizing exposure to respiratory droplets, 'jet riders' and aerosols in air-conditioned hospital rooms by a 'Shield-and-Sink' strategy".
3740:
is the mass flux in the continuum regime. This formula is called the Fuchs-Sutugin interpolation formula. These equations do not take into account the heat release effect.
3025:
2535:
2310:
is applied to Stokes' law. It is defined as the ratio of the resistive force of the irregular particle to that of a spherical particle with the same volume and velocity:
3191:
1010:
1620:
2016:
3932:
3054:
2982:
2398:
2300:
2271:
1885:
1830:
1808:
941:
914:
859:
2242:
7299:
4296:
3420:
4320:
3215:
3002:
2547:
1856:
6994:
5062:
Kesavanathan, Jana; Swift, David L. (1998). "Human Nasal
Passage Particle Deposition: The Effect of Particle Size, Flow Rate, and Anatomical Factors".
3961:
1303:
1194:
5731:
Yu, Mingzhou; Lin, Jianzhong (2009). "Taylor-expansion moment method for agglomerate coagulation due to
Brownian motion in the entire size regime".
3620:
7233:
5678:
Yu, Mingzhou; Lin, Jianzhong; Chan, Tatleung (2008). "A New Moment Method for
Solving the Coagulation Equation for Particles in Brownian Motion".
1589:{\displaystyle \mathrm {d} f={\frac {1}{d_{p}\sigma {\sqrt {2\pi }}}}e^{-{\frac {(ln(d_{p})-{\bar {d_{p}}})^{2}}{2\sigma ^{2}}}}\mathrm {d} d_{p}}
1672:
The log-normal distribution has no negative values, can cover a wide range of values, and fits many observed size distributions reasonably well.
611:
7276:
6030:
6011:
5973:
4666:
4514:
4436:
3110:
apart into numerous smaller particles; however, this process usually occurs primarily in particles too large for consideration as aerosols.
748:
For a monodisperse aerosol, a single number—the particle diameter—suffices to describe the size of the particles. However, more complicated
739:
6564:
6376:
7336:
4831:"Indicators of Global Climate Change 2022: annual update of large-scale indicators of the state of the climate system and human influence"
4600:"Minimising exposure to respiratory droplets, 'jet riders' and aerosols in air-conditioned hospital rooms by a 'Shield-and-Sink' strategy"
3833:
6529:
6422:
6092:
5641:
Marchisio, Daniele L.; Fox, Rodney O. (2005). "Solution of population balance equations using the direct quadrature method of moments".
2033:
7294:
7271:
6450:
6110:
3815:, usually in the context of forming a cloud droplet (such as natural cloud seeding by aerosols from trees in a forest). Following the
3057:
3795:
There are two types of nucleation processes. Gases preferentially condense onto surfaces of pre-existing aerosol particles, known as
2118:
1679:, applied to coarsely dispersed dusts and sprays; the Nukiyama–Tanasawa distribution, for sprays of extremely broad size ranges; the
1026:
7083:
6969:
6463:
6458:
5992:
3353:{\displaystyle I={\frac {\pi a^{2}}{k_{b}}}\left({\frac {P_{\infty }}{T_{\infty }}}-{\frac {P_{A}}{T_{A}}}\right)\cdot C_{A}\alpha }
1905:
2429:
1713:, always greater than 1. Including this factor, one finds the relation between the resisting force on a particle and its velocity:
7263:
4535:"Abrupt reduction in shipping emission as an inadvertent geoengineering termination shock produces substantial radiative warming"
3403:
is mass accommodation coefficient. The derivation of this equation assumes constant pressure and constant diffusion coefficient.
7344:
363:
colloidal systems, exhibit a range of particle sizes. Liquid droplets are almost always nearly spherical, but scientists use an
7009:
6746:
6136:
4380:
4146:
768:
713:
emissions from international shipping by approximately 80%, leading to an unexpected global geoengineering termination shock.
558:
97:
5912:
5397:"Particle Morphology and Density Characterization by Combined Mobility and Aerodynamic Diameter Measurements. Part 1: Theory"
4158:
4140:
2316:
320:
4170:
7319:
6624:
4323:
replaced the older standards for particulate matter based on Total
Suspended Particulate with another standard based on PM
4176:
1719:
379:) is defined as the diameter of a sphere of the same volume as that of the irregular particle. Also commonly used is the
7393:
6795:
6544:
6524:
6276:
4360:
1710:
4955:"Anthropogenic Aerosols, Greenhouse Gases, and the Uptake, Transport, and Storage of Excess Heat in the Climate System"
7413:
6900:
6554:
4951:
Anthropogenic
Aerosols, Greenhouse Gases, and the Uptake, Transport, and Storage of Excess Heat in the Climate System
4187:
4164:
4309:
particles which pass through a size-selective inlet with a 50% efficiency cut-off at 2.5 μm aerodynamic diameter
4301:
particles which pass through a size-selective inlet with a 50% efficiency cut-off at 10 μm aerodynamic diameter
1119:
615:
Aerosols have a cooling effect that is small compared to the radiative forcing (warming effect) of greenhouse gases.
7228:
7151:
6559:
6389:
6219:
5886:
5643:
5105:
McNeill VF (June 2022). "Airborne
Transmission of SARS-CoV-2: Evidence and Implications for Engineering Controls".
749:
3128:
7031:
6989:
6951:
6516:
6310:
4134:
3935:
4152:
2412:
Neglecting the slip correction, the particle settles at the terminal velocity proportional to the square of the
37:
This article is about a suspension of particulates in a gas. For details on atmospheric particulate matter, see
7026:
6549:
6490:
6401:
1684:
328:), defined as the mass of particulate matter per unit volume, in units such as μg/m. Also commonly used is the
647:
7403:
7238:
7004:
6534:
6085:
6050:
1427:
264:
45:
3803:. This results in the addition of very small, rapidly growing particles to the particle-size distribution.
2670:(GDE) characterizes the evolution of the number density of particles in an aerosol due to these processes.
498:
Overview of large clouds of aerosols around Earth (green: smoke, blue: salt, yellow: dust, white: sulfuric)
7388:
7197:
6587:
5018:"Changing the sky: FSU researchers examine how aerosols from ships affect cloud formation, climate change"
4830:
4199:
4193:
4089:
to the general dynamic equation (GDE); common methods used to solve the general dynamic equation include:
202:
71:
341:
Particle size has a major influence on particle properties, and the aerosol particle radius or diameter (
7167:
6999:
6875:
6783:
6473:
6366:
6166:
2663:
311:
7328:
946:
597:
The presence of aerosols in the Earth's atmosphere can influence its climate, as well as human health.
5004:
3067:
359:
aerosol, producible in the laboratory, contains particles of uniform size. Most aerosols, however, as
6974:
6629:
6325:
5740:
5687:
5652:
5613:
5574:
5464:
5408:
5071:
5042:
4966:
4845:
4546:
4424:
4350:
4257:
4225:
3787:
The addition of additional vapor to the system may lower the equilibrium vapor pressure according to
1676:
1185:
866:
465:
315:
284:
4878:
4470:
4182:
2306:
To account for the effect of the shape of non-spherical particles, a correction factor known as the
1631:
7041:
6979:
6946:
6885:
6817:
6682:
6677:
6655:
6229:
4269:
1403:
759:
534:
526:
424:
272:
5457:
Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences
3122:
of the particle define three different dynamical regimes that govern the behaviour of an aerosol:
3008:
7418:
7354:
7315:
7248:
7223:
7218:
7036:
6913:
6707:
6579:
6343:
6214:
6141:
6078:
5713:
5496:
5130:
4829:
Forster, Piers M.; Smith, Christopher J.; Walsh, Tristram; Lamb, William F.; et al. (2023).
4261:
4253:
2510:
1623:
5452:
5047:
4428:
4417:
7398:
7383:
7243:
7103:
6923:
6832:
6800:
6717:
6670:
6597:
6569:
6338:
6333:
6131:
6026:
6007:
5988:
5969:
5488:
5480:
5122:
5087:
4662:
4637:
4619:
4580:
4562:
4510:
4432:
3824:
3820:
3176:
2105:
1892:
979:
662:
628:
541:
494:
256:
particles at 2,000× magnification. Most of the particles in this aerosol are nearly spherical.
128:
5118:
1605:
7408:
7349:
7187:
7088:
7046:
7014:
6908:
6862:
6822:
6729:
6697:
6665:
6650:
6634:
6609:
6394:
6348:
5779:
5748:
5703:
5695:
5660:
5621:
5582:
5547:
5472:
5416:
5114:
5079:
4984:
4974:
4853:
4627:
4611:
4570:
4554:
4502:
4086:
3770:
3534:{\displaystyle I_{cont}\sim {\frac {4\pi aM_{A}D_{AB}}{RT}}\left(P_{A\infty }-P_{AS}\right)}
3060:
1991:
624:
338:), the number of particles per unit volume, in units such as number per m or number per cm.
220:
4319:
corresponds to the "high-risk respirable convention" as defined in ISO 7708:1995, 7.1. The
3910:
3032:
2960:
2383:
2278:
2249:
1863:
1815:
1786:
919:
892:
837:
7423:
7051:
6961:
6927:
6812:
6766:
6692:
6619:
6539:
6442:
6384:
6239:
6054:
4277:
3952:
3816:
3784:
Chemical reactions may increase the partial pressure of a gas or lower its vapor pressure.
2948:
2655:
2626:{\displaystyle d_{a}=d_{e}\left({\frac {\rho _{p}}{\rho _{0}\chi }}\right)^{\frac {1}{2}}}
2218:
1701:
1665:
1406:
usually does not suitably describe particle size distributions in aerosols because of the
515:
451:
249:
161:
5175:
Jillavenkatesa, A; Dapkunas, SJ; Lin-Sien, Lum (2001). "Particle Size
Characterization".
3788:
2104:
A particle traveling at any reasonable initial velocity approaches its terminal velocity
1687:, applied to powdered materials; and for cloud droplets, the Khrgian–Mazin distribution.
5744:
5691:
5656:
5617:
5578:
5468:
5412:
5075:
4970:
4849:
4575:
4550:
4534:
7364:
7098:
6984:
6941:
6935:
6931:
6776:
6761:
6712:
6702:
6614:
6468:
6224:
6195:
4632:
4365:
4215:
4116:
3774:
3381:
are the pressures far from the droplet and at the surface of the droplet respectively,
3200:
3194:
3119:
2987:
1841:
1705:
710:
620:
431:
330:
124:
4904:
4685:
631:
into the atmosphere. These gases represent aerosols and eventually return to earth as
287:, clouds of microscopic particles in air. This term developed analogously to the term
7377:
7118:
7019:
6805:
6734:
6506:
6254:
6118:
5717:
5586:
5551:
5500:
5134:
4283:
Two alternative size-selective criteria, often used in atmospheric monitoring, are PM
4245:
3819:(based on the curvature of liquid droplets), smaller particles need a higher ambient
584:
522:
510:
446:
288:
210:
156:
85:
245:
7139:
7113:
7093:
6917:
6880:
6844:
6480:
6427:
6303:
6259:
6244:
6173:
5891:
Recognition, Evaluation, Control. News and views from
Diamond Environmental Limited
5752:
5664:
4345:
3757:
734:
606:
503:
460:
240:
105:
38:
5938:
5916:
4315:
corresponds to the "thoracic convention" as defined in ISO 7708:1995, Clause 6; PM
3607:
contains all the particles in between the free molecular and continuum regimes or
108:
in air, and not to the particulate matter alone. Examples of natural aerosols are
5149:
406:
instruments, performing research, and testing sampling equipment and air filters;
7076:
7071:
6756:
6751:
6722:
6687:
6660:
6190:
4615:
4599:
4375:
4241:
3761:
2413:
1180:
Assuming spherical aerosol particles, the aerosol surface area per unit volume (
699:
691:
683:
529:
contains aerosols of various types and concentrations, including quantities of:
403:
280:
228:
183:
175:
167:
121:
6064:
4558:
4506:
4040:{\displaystyle \ln {p_{s} \over p_{0}}={\frac {2\sigma M}{RT\rho \cdot r_{p}}}}
1392:{\displaystyle V=\pi /6\int _{0}^{\infty }N(d_{p})d_{p}^{3}\,\mathrm {d} d_{p}}
1283:{\displaystyle S=\pi /2\int _{0}^{\infty }N(d_{p})d_{p}^{2}\,\mathrm {d} d_{p}}
197:
The liquid or solid particles in an aerosol have diameters typically less than
7253:
6870:
6185:
6178:
6161:
6146:
5699:
5626:
5601:
5083:
4858:
4355:
4273:
4237:
3823:
to maintain equilibrium than larger particles do. The following formula gives
3723:{\displaystyle I=I_{cont}\cdot {\frac {1+K_{n}}{1+1.71K_{n}+1.33{K_{n}}^{2}}}}
1675:
Other distributions sometimes used to characterise particle size include: the
703:
488:
435:
352:
198:
187:
132:
5484:
5091:
4623:
4566:
7182:
7134:
7108:
7056:
6890:
6852:
6602:
6592:
6264:
6126:
6101:
5421:
5396:
4501:. Vol. 1005. Washington, DC: American Chemical Society. pp. 1–10.
4370:
2651:
1833:
1680:
1411:
754:
636:
632:
570:
455:
410:
214:
148:
5492:
5476:
5126:
4641:
4584:
4099:
Quadrature method of moments/Taylor-series expansion method of moments, and
479:
5784:
5767:
4272:
for the pre-collector, but other techniques include impactors, horizontal
2645:
The previous discussion focused on single aerosol particles. In contrast,
6827:
6771:
6432:
6281:
6249:
5154:
Earth Observation Data Group, Department of Physics, University of Oxford
4979:
4954:
4252:(the head airways region), deeper within the respiratory tract (from the
2951:+ gas-particle interactions + coagulation + migration by external forces
1896:
1895:
of a particle undergoing gravitational settling in still air. Neglecting
1407:
718:
695:
553:
179:
78:
5538:
Hulburt, H.M.; Katz, S. (1964). "Some problems in particle technology".
4499:
Atmospheric aerosols: Characterization, chemistry, modeling, and climate
3748:
201:. Larger particles with a significant settling speed make the mixture a
17:
6788:
6269:
6156:
6151:
4419:
Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics: From Air Pollution to Climate Change
4340:
4112:
3945:
is the saturation vapor pressure (flat surface of the same liquid) and
562:
292:
253:
136:
51:
31:
5708:
4989:
4928:
3102:
1016:
Therefore, the area under the frequency curve between two sizes a and
518:, primarily from burning oil and coal, affect the behavior of clouds.
7192:
7172:
7066:
6741:
6234:
5602:"Description of Aerosol Dynamics by the Quadrature Method of Moments"
5451:
Spracklen, Dominick V; Bonn, Boris; Carslaw, Kenneth S (2008-12-28).
4879:"Atmospheric Aerosols: What Are They, and Why Are They So Important?"
4471:"Atmospheric Aerosols: What Are They, and Why Are They So Important?"
4249:
1416:
545:
224:
82:
5005:
https://www.ipcc.ch/report/sixth-assessment-report-working-group-i/
3897:{\displaystyle RH={\frac {p_{s}}{p_{0}}}\times 100\%=S\times 100\%}
1020:
represents the total fraction of the particles in that size range:
260:
7202:
7144:
6485:
6417:
6315:
6207:
5375:
Baron, P. A. & Willeke, K. (2001). "Gas and Particle Motion".
4220:
3938:
above a particle at equilibrium (around a curved liquid droplet),
3766:
3747:
3101:
1420:
738:
687:
610:
549:
493:
484:
478:
414:
259:
244:
171:
140:
75:
50:
6047:
3781:
Lowering the temperature of the system lowers the vapor pressure.
2094:{\displaystyle B={\frac {V}{F_{D}}}={\frac {C_{c}}{3\pi \eta d}}}
7177:
6298:
6286:
6202:
5453:"Boreal forests, aerosols and the impacts on clouds and climate"
590:
144:
117:
113:
55:
6074:
3600:
are the pressures at infinite and at the surface respectively.
2202:{\displaystyle V(t)=V_{f}-(V_{f}-V_{0})e^{-{\frac {t}{\tau }}}}
1109:
It can also be formulated in terms of the total number density
1099:{\displaystyle f_{ab}=\int _{a}^{b}f(d_{p})\,\mathrm {d} d_{p}}
1975:{\displaystyle V_{TS}={\frac {\rho _{p}d^{2}gC_{c}}{18\eta }}}
109:
93:
89:
59:
27:
Suspension of fine solid particles or liquid droplets in a gas
5377:
Aerosol Measurement: Principles, Techniques, and Applications
2494:{\displaystyle V_{TS}={\frac {\rho _{0}d_{a}^{2}g}{18\eta }}}
6070:
3769:. Net condensation of the vapor requires supersaturation, a
1293:
And the third moment gives the total volume concentration (
3093:
is the particle velocity associated with an external force
398:
People generate aerosols for various purposes, including:
205:, but the distinction is not clear. In everyday language,
3955:
for saturation vapor pressure above a curved surface is:
821:{\displaystyle \mathrm {d} f=f(d_{p})\,\mathrm {d} d_{p}}
3586:
is the temperature (in absolute units like kelvin), and
1402:
The particle size distribution can be approximated. The
665:
and therefore contributing to the global climate change.
5797:
5795:
5434:
5432:
4130:
Some available in situ measurement techniques include:
2367:{\displaystyle \chi ={\frac {F_{D}}{3\pi \eta Vd_{e}}}}
6059:
5985:
Smoke, Dust and Haze: Fundamentals of Aerosol Behavior
5319:
5317:
5232:
5230:
5200:
5198:
5107:
Annual Review of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering
4764:
4762:
4497:
Kommalapati, Raghava R.; Valsaraj, Kalliat T. (2009).
3217:
is the diameter of the particle. For particles in the
889:
is the fraction of particles having diameters between
735:
Particulates § Size, shape, and solubility matter
5346:
5344:
5217:
5215:
5213:
4713:
4711:
4658:
Surgical Technology – E-Book: Principles and Practice
4450:
4448:
3964:
3913:
3836:
3623:
3423:
3237:
3203:
3179:
3131:
3070:
3035:
3011:
2990:
2963:
2679:
2550:
2513:
2432:
2386:
2319:
2281:
2252:
2221:
2121:
2036:
1994:
1908:
1866:
1844:
1818:
1789:
1722:
1634:
1608:
1439:
1306:
1197:
1122:
1029:
982:
949:
922:
895:
869:
840:
771:
310:
There are several measures of aerosol concentration.
4398:
4396:
1683:, occasionally applied to atmospheric aerosols; the
299:
contain particles introduced directly into the gas;
151:, and medical treatments for respiratory illnesses.
7262:
7211:
7160:
7127:
6960:
6899:
6861:
6843:
6643:
6578:
6515:
6441:
6410:
6375:
6359:
6324:
6117:
5987:(2nd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.
4953:Irving, D. B.; Wijffels, S.; Church, J. A. (2019).
1770:{\displaystyle F_{D}={\frac {3\pi \eta Vd}{C_{c}}}}
348:) is a key property used to characterise aerosols.
4416:
4039:
3926:
3896:
3722:
3533:
3352:
3209:
3185:
3162:
3085:
3048:
3019:
2996:
2976:
2936:
2625:
2529:
2493:
2392:
2366:
2294:
2265:
2236:
2201:
2093:
2018:is the terminal settling velocity of the particle.
2010:
1974:
1879:
1850:
1824:
1802:
1769:
1656:
1614:
1588:
1391:
1282:
1169:
1098:
1004:
967:
935:
908:
881:
853:
820:
694:released by ships into the still ocean air. Water
178:released by ships into the still ocean air. Water
6023:Aerosols, An Industrial and Environmental Science
4331:(also known as fine particulate matter) in 1997.
537:materials: fine dust, sea salt, or water droplets
4729:
2984:is number density of particles of size category
721:, such aerosols may contribute to the pandemic.
252:made with a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM):
5964:Colbeck, Ian; Lazaridis, Mihalis, eds. (2014).
4929:"Fifth Assessment Report - Climate Change 2013"
3811:Water coats particles in aerosols, making them
3570:is the diffusion coefficient between particles
5390:
5388:
5386:
2541:This equation gives the aerodynamic diameter:
1810:is the resisting force on a spherical particle
1170:{\displaystyle dN=N(d_{p})\,\mathrm {d} d_{p}}
6086:
4492:
4490:
4488:
4321:United States Environmental Protection Agency
2537:= standard particle density (1000 kg/m).
8:
5966:Aerosol Science: Technology and Applications
4327:in 1987 and then introduced standards for PM
3163:{\displaystyle K_{n}={\frac {2\lambda }{d}}}
2112:-folding time equal to the relaxation time:
619:Volcanic eruptions release large amounts of
120:. Examples of human caused aerosols include
96:. Aerosols can be generated from natural or
5525:
4473:. NASA Langley Research Center. 22 Apr 2008
295:system with water as the dispersed medium.
6093:
6079:
6071:
1696:Terminal velocity of a particle in a fluid
470:Vibrating orifice aerosol generator (VOAG)
442:Some devices for generating aerosols are:
420:for dispersal and agricultural application
6060:American Association for Aerosol Research
5783:
5707:
5625:
5420:
5046:
4988:
4978:
4857:
4631:
4574:
4028:
3998:
3987:
3977:
3971:
3963:
3918:
3912:
3862:
3852:
3846:
3835:
3711:
3704:
3699:
3686:
3665:
3652:
3634:
3622:
3517:
3501:
3472:
3462:
3446:
3428:
3422:
3341:
3321:
3311:
3305:
3294:
3284:
3278:
3265:
3254:
3244:
3236:
3202:
3178:
3145:
3136:
3130:
3077:
3072:
3069:
3040:
3034:
3012:
3010:
2989:
2968:
2962:
2928:
2918:
2913:
2887:
2886:
2874:
2862:
2857:
2851:
2821:
2820:
2808:
2796:
2791:
2785:
2771:
2761:
2751:
2733:
2727:
2703:
2691:
2686:
2680:
2678:
2612:
2596:
2585:
2579:
2568:
2555:
2549:
2521:
2512:
2471:
2466:
2456:
2449:
2437:
2431:
2385:
2355:
2332:
2326:
2318:
2286:
2280:
2257:
2251:
2220:
2187:
2183:
2170:
2157:
2141:
2120:
2069:
2063:
2052:
2043:
2035:
1999:
1993:
1955:
1942:
1932:
1925:
1913:
1907:
1871:
1865:
1843:
1817:
1794:
1788:
1759:
1736:
1727:
1721:
1642:
1636:
1635:
1633:
1607:
1580:
1571:
1560:
1545:
1529:
1523:
1522:
1510:
1491:
1487:
1470:
1461:
1451:
1440:
1438:
1383:
1374:
1373:
1367:
1362:
1349:
1333:
1328:
1316:
1305:
1274:
1265:
1264:
1258:
1253:
1240:
1224:
1219:
1207:
1196:
1161:
1152:
1151:
1142:
1121:
1090:
1081:
1080:
1071:
1055:
1050:
1034:
1028:
993:
981:
959:
950:
948:
927:
921:
900:
894:
871:
870:
868:
845:
839:
812:
803:
802:
793:
772:
770:
380:
303:form through gas-to-particle conversion.
5887:"Particulate pollution – PM10 and PM2.5"
5567:Journal of Colloid and Interface Science
5119:10.1146/annurev-chembioeng-092220-111631
4081:Solution to the general dynamic equation
2947:Change in time = Convective transport +
417:, and other consumer products in sprays;
213:that delivers a consumer product from a
7234:Pollutant release and transfer register
6048:International Aerosol Research Assembly
4872:
4870:
4392:
1704:(<1), true for most aerosol motion,
561:products of combustion such as: smoke,
6006:(2nd ed.). Wiley - Interscience.
4844:(6). Copernicus Programme: 2295–2327.
4686:"Aerosols: Tiny Particles, Big Impact"
4680:
4678:
4539:Communications Earth & Environment
4171:Micro-Orifice Uniform Deposit Impactor
3559:is the molecular mass of the particle
650:in two ways, directly and indirectly.
5873:
5861:
5849:
5837:
5825:
5813:
5801:
5438:
5362:
5335:
5323:
5308:
5296:
5284:
5272:
5260:
5248:
5236:
5204:
5189:
4780:
4768:
4753:
4741:
4717:
4655:Fuller, Joanna Kotcher (2017-01-31).
4423:(2nd ed.). Hoboken, New Jersey:
4402:
3777:. This can happen for three reasons:
7:
7324:
6565:Electromagnetic radiation and health
5768:"Modelling of Particulate Processes"
5513:
5350:
5221:
4816:
4804:
4792:
4702:
4528:
4526:
4465:
4463:
4454:
3756:Aerosol partitioning theory governs
1887:is the Cunningham correction factor.
7340:
7332:
6423:Radium and radon in the environment
5968:. John Wiley & Sons - Science.
4211:Remote sensing approaches include:
698:collect around the tiny particles (
639:on the environment and human life.
607:Particulates § Climate effects
182:collect around the tiny particles (
6067:(see chapters on aerosol sampling)
6065:NIOSH Manual of Analytical Methods
4200:Centrifugal Particle Mass Analyser
3891:
3876:
3505:
3295:
3285:
2906:
2897:
2894:
2891:
2888:
2871:
2854:
2837:
2834:
2831:
2828:
2825:
2822:
2805:
2788:
2758:
2741:
2717:
2700:
2683:
1572:
1441:
1375:
1334:
1266:
1225:
1153:
1082:
951:
872:
804:
773:
223:by means of small droplets in the
104:commonly refers to the mixture of
25:
968:{\displaystyle \mathrm {d} d_{p}}
7358:
7348:
7339:
7331:
7323:
7311:
7310:
5772:KONA Powder and Particle Journal
4598:Hunziker, Patrick (2021-10-01).
4188:Electrical low pressure impactor
4165:Wide range particle spectrometer
3086:{\displaystyle \mathbf {q} _{F}}
3073:
3013:
2914:
2734:
2668:Aerosol General Dynamic Equation
1891:This allows us to calculate the
861:is the diameter of the particles
483:Aerosol pollution over northern
6137:Atmospheric dispersion modeling
4381:Stratospheric aerosol injection
4147:Electrical aerosol spectrometer
4111:Aerosol can either be measured
2244:is the particle speed at time t
1709:failure, one can introduce the
1430:gives the number frequency as:
882:{\displaystyle \,\mathrm {d} f}
573:in various forms, for example:
569:Aerosols can be found in urban
275:presumably first used the term
5753:10.1016/j.jaerosci.2009.03.001
5680:Aerosol Science and Technology
5665:10.1016/j.jaerosci.2004.07.009
5606:Aerosol Science and Technology
5401:Aerosol Science and Technology
5064:Aerosol Science and Technology
4903:Highwood, Ellie (2018-09-05).
4194:Aerosol particle mass-analyser
4159:Aerodynamic aerosol classifier
4141:Differential mobility analyzer
3548:is the radius of the particle
2654:, gravitational settling, and
2231:
2225:
2176:
2150:
2131:
2125:
1657:{\displaystyle {\bar {d_{p}}}}
1648:
1542:
1535:
1516:
1503:
1494:
1355:
1342:
1246:
1233:
1148:
1135:
1077:
1064:
999:
986:
799:
786:
1:
6625:Electrical resistance heating
5048:10.1101/2020.12.08.20233056v1
5022:Florida State University News
4415:Seinfeld J, Pandis S (1998).
4236:Particles can deposit in the
4177:Condensation particle counter
3399:is mean thermal velocity and
2302:is the initial particle speed
762:, the frequency function is:
127:, mist from the discharge at
6277:Persistent organic pollutant
5913:"Particulate Matter (PM-10)"
5587:10.1016/0021-9797(90)90445-T
5552:10.1016/0009-2509(64)85047-8
5540:Chemical Engineering Science
5016:Wellock, Bill (2024-01-17).
5003:GIEC AR6 WG1 - Figure SPM.2
4959:Geophysical Research Letters
4909:Royal Meteorological Society
4730:Colbeck & Lazaridis 2014
4661:. Elsevier Health Sciences.
4361:Deposition (Aerosol physics)
4061:surface tension of droplet,
3752:Condensation and evaporation
3020:{\displaystyle \mathbf {q} }
1711:Cunningham correction factor
1626:of the size distribution and
7287:Least polluted cities by PM
5983:Friedlander, S. K. (2000).
4616:10.1136/bmjopen-2020-047772
4096:Modal/sectional method, and
3582:is the ideal gas constant,
3388:is the Boltzmann constant,
2530:{\displaystyle \ \rho _{0}}
2400:is the dynamic shape factor
2273:is the final particle speed
1681:power function distribution
750:particle-size distributions
646:Aerosols interact with the
394:Generation and applications
7440:
7229:Pollution haven hypothesis
7152:Brain health and pollution
6390:Ecological light pollution
6220:Internal combustion engine
6002:Hinds, William C. (1999).
5733:Journal of Aerosol Science
5644:Journal of Aerosol Science
4559:10.1038/s43247-024-01442-3
4507:10.1021/bk-2009-1005.ch001
4153:Aerodynamic particle sizer
3197:of the suspending gas and
1677:Rosin-Rammler distribution
732:
604:
501:
370:equivalent volume diameter
238:
43:
36:
29:
7308:
7032:Nonpoint source pollution
6952:War and environmental law
6311:Volatile organic compound
6108:
5700:10.1080/02786820802232972
5627:10.1080/02786829708965471
5084:10.1080/02786829808965537
4859:10.5194/essd-15-2295-2023
4838:Earth System Science Data
4690:earthobservatory.nasa.gov
4135:Aerosol mass spectrometer
3949:is the saturation ratio.
3936:saturation vapor pressure
1184:) is given by the second
1012:is the frequency function
702:) from exhaust to form a
423:for medical treatment of
186:) from exhaust to form a
6491:Marine mammals and sonar
6402:Radio spectrum pollution
6021:Hidy, George M. (1984).
5177:NIST Special Publication
3797:heterogeneous nucleation
3367:is the particle radius,
3186:{\displaystyle \lambda }
3027:is the particle velocity
1858:is the particle velocity
1685:exponential distribution
1005:{\displaystyle f(d_{p})}
30:Not to be confused with
7337:WikiProject Environment
7295:Most polluted countries
7239:Polluter pays principle
6970:Agricultural wastewater
6025:. Academic Press, Inc.
5600:McGraw, Robert (1997).
5422:10.1080/027868290903907
4232:Size selective sampling
4207:Remote sensing approach
1615:{\displaystyle \sigma }
1428:log-normal distribution
593:or fumes in car exhaust
351:Aerosols vary in their
46:Aerosol spray dispenser
44:For the spray can, see
7355:Environment portal
6588:Agricultural pollution
5766:Kraft, Murkus (2005).
5477:10.1098/rsta.2008.0201
5395:DeCarlo, P.F. (2004).
5156:. University of Oxford
4905:"Aerosols and Climate"
4041:
3928:
3898:
3801:homogeneous nucleation
3753:
3724:
3535:
3354:
3211:
3187:
3164:
3106:
3087:
3050:
3021:
2998:
2978:
2938:
2627:
2531:
2495:
2394:
2368:
2296:
2267:
2238:
2203:
2095:
2012:
2011:{\displaystyle V_{TS}}
1976:
1881:
1852:
1826:
1804:
1771:
1700:For low values of the
1658:
1616:
1590:
1393:
1284:
1171:
1100:
1006:
969:
937:
910:
883:
855:
822:
745:
616:
499:
491:
267:
257:
137:perfume from atomizers
63:
7010:Industrial wastewater
6876:Clutter (advertising)
6784:Municipal solid waste
6630:Soil guideline values
6474:Sustainable transport
6367:Information pollution
6167:Open burning of waste
5785:10.14356/kona.2005007
4425:John Wiley & Sons
4085:There are no general
4042:
3929:
3927:{\displaystyle p_{s}}
3899:
3751:
3725:
3536:
3406:Particles are in the
3355:
3219:free molecular regime
3212:
3188:
3165:
3105:
3088:
3051:
3049:{\displaystyle D_{p}}
3022:
2999:
2979:
2977:{\displaystyle n_{i}}
2939:
2664:differential equation
2628:
2532:
2496:
2395:
2393:{\displaystyle \chi }
2369:
2297:
2295:{\displaystyle V_{0}}
2268:
2266:{\displaystyle V_{f}}
2239:
2204:
2096:
2013:
1977:
1882:
1880:{\displaystyle C_{c}}
1853:
1827:
1825:{\displaystyle \eta }
1805:
1803:{\displaystyle F_{D}}
1772:
1659:
1617:
1591:
1426:A more widely chosen
1394:
1285:
1172:
1101:
1007:
970:
938:
936:{\displaystyle d_{p}}
911:
909:{\displaystyle d_{p}}
884:
856:
854:{\displaystyle d_{p}}
823:
742:
690:that form around the
648:Earth's energy budget
635:, having a number of
614:
497:
482:
402:as test aerosols for
312:Environmental science
263:
248:
174:that form around the
54:
7282:Most polluted cities
6975:Biological pollution
6886:Overhead power lines
5150:"Volcanic Emissions"
4980:10.1029/2019GL082015
4351:Aerosol transmission
4258:terminal bronchioles
4226:Imaging spectroscopy
4077:molar gas constant.
3962:
3911:
3834:
3621:
3421:
3392:is the temperature,
3235:
3201:
3177:
3129:
3068:
3033:
3009:
2988:
2961:
2677:
2548:
2511:
2430:
2405:Aerodynamic diameter
2384:
2317:
2308:dynamic shape factor
2279:
2250:
2237:{\displaystyle V(t)}
2219:
2119:
2034:
1992:
1906:
1864:
1842:
1816:
1787:
1720:
1632:
1606:
1437:
1304:
1297:) of the particles:
1195:
1120:
1027:
980:
947:
920:
893:
867:
838:
769:
466:Electronic cigarette
381:aerodynamic diameter
331:number concentration
316:environmental health
283:to describe an aero-
7394:Colloidal chemistry
7345:WikiProject Ecology
7042:Ocean acidification
6947:Unexploded ordnance
6818:Post-consumer waste
6678:Foam food container
6656:Biodegradable waste
6230:Global distillation
5939:"Basic Information"
5919:on 1 September 2012
5745:2009JAerS..40..549Y
5692:2008AerST..42..705Y
5657:2005JAerS..36...43M
5618:1997AerST..27..255M
5579:1990JCIS..139...63L
5469:2008RSPTA.366.4613S
5463:(1885): 4613–4626.
5413:2004AerST..38.1185D
5076:1998AerST..28..457K
4971:2019GeoRL..46.4894I
4850:2023ESSD...15.2295F
4551:2024ComEE...5..281Y
4270:cyclonic separation
4102:Monte Carlo method.
4065:density of liquid,
2476:
1404:normal distribution
1372:
1338:
1263:
1229:
1060:
527:atmosphere of Earth
425:respiratory disease
365:equivalent diameter
273:Frederick G. Donnan
227:, sometimes called
221:Diseases can spread
194:termination shock.
7414:Physical chemistry
7365:Ecology portal
7249:Waste minimisation
7224:Industrial ecology
7219:Cleaner production
7037:Nutrient pollution
6914:Herbicidal warfare
6708:Construction waste
6344:Introduced species
6215:Indoor air quality
6142:Chlorofluorocarbon
6053:2020-01-21 at the
6004:Aerosol Technology
4732:, p. Ch. 1.1.
4692:. 2 November 2010.
4037:
3924:
3894:
3754:
3720:
3531:
3350:
3207:
3183:
3160:
3107:
3083:
3046:
3017:
2994:
2974:
2949:brownian diffusion
2934:
2623:
2527:
2491:
2462:
2390:
2364:
2292:
2263:
2234:
2199:
2091:
2008:
1972:
1899:effects, we find:
1877:
1848:
1822:
1800:
1767:
1654:
1624:standard deviation
1612:
1586:
1410:associated with a
1389:
1358:
1324:
1280:
1249:
1215:
1167:
1096:
1046:
1002:
965:
933:
906:
879:
851:
818:
746:
617:
544:materials: smoke,
500:
492:
434:systems and other
321:mass concentration
301:secondary aerosols
268:
258:
209:often refers to a
149:sprayed pesticides
129:hydroelectric dams
64:
7371:
7370:
7244:Pollution control
6924:Nuclear holocaust
6833:Thermal treatment
6801:Plastic pollution
6718:Mercury poisoning
6671:Battery recycling
6570:Radioactive waste
6339:Genetic pollution
6334:Biological hazard
6132:Air quality index
6032:978-0-12-412336-6
6013:978-0-471-19410-1
5975:978-1-119-97792-6
5407:(12): 1185–1205.
5263:, pp. 104–5.
5192:, pp. 75–77.
4744:, pp. 10–11.
4668:978-0-323-43056-2
4516:978-0-8412-2482-7
4438:978-0-471-17816-3
4276:, and large pore
4073:temperature, and
4035:
3993:
3868:
3825:relative humidity
3821:relative humidity
3773:greater than its
3718:
3605:transition regime
3490:
3327:
3300:
3271:
3210:{\displaystyle d}
3158:
2997:{\displaystyle i}
2880:
2814:
2709:
2620:
2606:
2516:
2489:
2362:
2195:
2089:
2058:
2027:) of a particle:
1970:
1893:terminal velocity
1851:{\displaystyle V}
1765:
1651:
1567:
1538:
1481:
1478:
729:Size distribution
663:greenhouse effect
629:hydrochloric acid
475:In the atmosphere
265:Aerosol spray can
211:dispensing system
16:(Redirected from
7431:
7363:
7362:
7361:
7353:
7352:
7343:
7342:
7335:
7334:
7327:
7326:
7314:
7313:
7188:Legacy pollution
7047:Oil exploitation
6909:Chemical warfare
6823:Waste management
6730:Industrial waste
6698:Biomedical waste
6666:Electronic waste
6651:Advertising mail
6635:Phytoremediation
6610:Land degradation
6395:Overillumination
6349:Invasive species
6095:
6088:
6081:
6072:
6036:
6017:
5998:
5979:
5950:
5949:
5947:
5945:
5935:
5929:
5928:
5926:
5924:
5915:. Archived from
5909:
5903:
5902:
5900:
5898:
5883:
5877:
5871:
5865:
5859:
5853:
5847:
5841:
5835:
5829:
5823:
5817:
5811:
5805:
5799:
5790:
5789:
5787:
5763:
5757:
5756:
5728:
5722:
5721:
5711:
5675:
5669:
5668:
5638:
5632:
5631:
5629:
5597:
5591:
5590:
5562:
5556:
5555:
5535:
5529:
5526:Friedlander 2000
5523:
5517:
5511:
5505:
5504:
5448:
5442:
5436:
5427:
5426:
5424:
5392:
5381:
5380:
5372:
5366:
5360:
5354:
5348:
5339:
5333:
5327:
5321:
5312:
5306:
5300:
5294:
5288:
5282:
5276:
5275:, p. 44-49.
5270:
5264:
5258:
5252:
5246:
5240:
5234:
5225:
5219:
5208:
5202:
5193:
5187:
5181:
5180:
5172:
5166:
5165:
5163:
5161:
5145:
5139:
5138:
5102:
5096:
5095:
5059:
5053:
5052:
5050:
5038:
5032:
5031:
5029:
5028:
5013:
5007:
5001:
4995:
4994:
4992:
4982:
4965:(9): 4894–4903.
4949:
4943:
4942:
4940:
4939:
4925:
4919:
4918:
4916:
4915:
4900:
4894:
4893:
4891:
4889:
4874:
4865:
4863:
4861:
4835:
4826:
4820:
4814:
4808:
4802:
4796:
4790:
4784:
4778:
4772:
4766:
4757:
4751:
4745:
4739:
4733:
4727:
4721:
4715:
4706:
4700:
4694:
4693:
4682:
4673:
4672:
4652:
4646:
4645:
4635:
4595:
4589:
4588:
4578:
4530:
4521:
4520:
4494:
4483:
4482:
4480:
4478:
4467:
4458:
4452:
4443:
4442:
4422:
4412:
4406:
4400:
4278:membrane filters
4057:droplet radius,
4046:
4044:
4043:
4038:
4036:
4034:
4033:
4032:
4010:
3999:
3994:
3992:
3991:
3982:
3981:
3972:
3933:
3931:
3930:
3925:
3923:
3922:
3903:
3901:
3900:
3895:
3869:
3867:
3866:
3857:
3856:
3847:
3827:at equilibrium:
3771:partial pressure
3729:
3727:
3726:
3721:
3719:
3717:
3716:
3715:
3710:
3709:
3708:
3691:
3690:
3671:
3670:
3669:
3653:
3648:
3647:
3540:
3538:
3537:
3532:
3530:
3526:
3525:
3524:
3509:
3508:
3491:
3489:
3481:
3480:
3479:
3467:
3466:
3447:
3442:
3441:
3408:continuum regime
3359:
3357:
3356:
3351:
3346:
3345:
3333:
3329:
3328:
3326:
3325:
3316:
3315:
3306:
3301:
3299:
3298:
3289:
3288:
3279:
3272:
3270:
3269:
3260:
3259:
3258:
3245:
3216:
3214:
3213:
3208:
3192:
3190:
3189:
3184:
3169:
3167:
3166:
3161:
3159:
3154:
3146:
3141:
3140:
3114:Dynamics regimes
3092:
3090:
3089:
3084:
3082:
3081:
3076:
3056:is the particle
3055:
3053:
3052:
3047:
3045:
3044:
3026:
3024:
3023:
3018:
3016:
3003:
3001:
3000:
2995:
2983:
2981:
2980:
2975:
2973:
2972:
2943:
2941:
2940:
2935:
2933:
2932:
2923:
2922:
2917:
2902:
2901:
2900:
2885:
2881:
2879:
2878:
2869:
2868:
2867:
2866:
2852:
2842:
2841:
2840:
2819:
2815:
2813:
2812:
2803:
2802:
2801:
2800:
2786:
2776:
2775:
2766:
2765:
2756:
2755:
2737:
2732:
2731:
2710:
2708:
2707:
2698:
2697:
2696:
2695:
2681:
2656:electric charges
2647:aerosol dynamics
2632:
2630:
2629:
2624:
2622:
2621:
2613:
2611:
2607:
2605:
2601:
2600:
2590:
2589:
2580:
2573:
2572:
2560:
2559:
2536:
2534:
2533:
2528:
2526:
2525:
2514:
2500:
2498:
2497:
2492:
2490:
2488:
2480:
2475:
2470:
2461:
2460:
2450:
2445:
2444:
2399:
2397:
2396:
2391:
2373:
2371:
2370:
2365:
2363:
2361:
2360:
2359:
2337:
2336:
2327:
2301:
2299:
2298:
2293:
2291:
2290:
2272:
2270:
2269:
2264:
2262:
2261:
2243:
2241:
2240:
2235:
2208:
2206:
2205:
2200:
2198:
2197:
2196:
2188:
2175:
2174:
2162:
2161:
2146:
2145:
2100:
2098:
2097:
2092:
2090:
2088:
2074:
2073:
2064:
2059:
2057:
2056:
2044:
2017:
2015:
2014:
2009:
2007:
2006:
1981:
1979:
1978:
1973:
1971:
1969:
1961:
1960:
1959:
1947:
1946:
1937:
1936:
1926:
1921:
1920:
1886:
1884:
1883:
1878:
1876:
1875:
1857:
1855:
1854:
1849:
1831:
1829:
1828:
1823:
1809:
1807:
1806:
1801:
1799:
1798:
1776:
1774:
1773:
1768:
1766:
1764:
1763:
1754:
1737:
1732:
1731:
1663:
1661:
1660:
1655:
1653:
1652:
1647:
1646:
1637:
1621:
1619:
1618:
1613:
1595:
1593:
1592:
1587:
1585:
1584:
1575:
1570:
1569:
1568:
1566:
1565:
1564:
1551:
1550:
1549:
1540:
1539:
1534:
1533:
1524:
1515:
1514:
1492:
1482:
1480:
1479:
1471:
1466:
1465:
1452:
1444:
1398:
1396:
1395:
1390:
1388:
1387:
1378:
1371:
1366:
1354:
1353:
1337:
1332:
1320:
1289:
1287:
1286:
1281:
1279:
1278:
1269:
1262:
1257:
1245:
1244:
1228:
1223:
1211:
1176:
1174:
1173:
1168:
1166:
1165:
1156:
1147:
1146:
1105:
1103:
1102:
1097:
1095:
1094:
1085:
1076:
1075:
1059:
1054:
1042:
1041:
1011:
1009:
1008:
1003:
998:
997:
974:
972:
971:
966:
964:
963:
954:
942:
940:
939:
934:
932:
931:
915:
913:
912:
907:
905:
904:
888:
886:
885:
880:
875:
860:
858:
857:
852:
850:
849:
827:
825:
824:
819:
817:
816:
807:
798:
797:
776:
625:hydrogen sulfide
516:sulfate aerosols
297:Primary aerosols
162:sulfate aerosols
21:
7439:
7438:
7434:
7433:
7432:
7430:
7429:
7428:
7374:
7373:
7372:
7367:
7359:
7357:
7347:
7304:
7290:
7258:
7207:
7156:
7123:
7062:Pharmaceuticals
7052:Oil exploration
6956:
6928:Nuclear fallout
6895:
6857:
6839:
6813:Packaging waste
6767:Deep sea mining
6693:Hazardous waste
6639:
6620:Open defecation
6574:
6540:Nuclear fallout
6535:Nuclear fission
6511:
6437:
6406:
6377:Electromagnetic
6371:
6355:
6320:
6240:Ozone depletion
6113:
6104:
6099:
6055:Wayback Machine
6044:
6039:
6033:
6020:
6014:
6001:
5995:
5982:
5976:
5963:
5959:
5954:
5953:
5943:
5941:
5937:
5936:
5932:
5922:
5920:
5911:
5910:
5906:
5896:
5894:
5885:
5884:
5880:
5872:
5868:
5860:
5856:
5848:
5844:
5836:
5832:
5824:
5820:
5812:
5808:
5800:
5793:
5765:
5764:
5760:
5730:
5729:
5725:
5677:
5676:
5672:
5640:
5639:
5635:
5599:
5598:
5594:
5564:
5563:
5559:
5537:
5536:
5532:
5524:
5520:
5512:
5508:
5450:
5449:
5445:
5437:
5430:
5394:
5393:
5384:
5374:
5373:
5369:
5361:
5357:
5349:
5342:
5334:
5330:
5322:
5315:
5307:
5303:
5295:
5291:
5283:
5279:
5271:
5267:
5259:
5255:
5247:
5243:
5235:
5228:
5220:
5211:
5203:
5196:
5188:
5184:
5174:
5173:
5169:
5159:
5157:
5148:Grainger, Don.
5147:
5146:
5142:
5104:
5103:
5099:
5061:
5060:
5056:
5040:
5039:
5035:
5026:
5024:
5015:
5014:
5010:
5002:
4998:
4952:
4950:
4946:
4937:
4935:
4927:
4926:
4922:
4913:
4911:
4902:
4901:
4897:
4887:
4885:
4876:
4875:
4868:
4833:
4828:
4827:
4823:
4815:
4811:
4803:
4799:
4791:
4787:
4779:
4775:
4767:
4760:
4752:
4748:
4740:
4736:
4728:
4724:
4716:
4709:
4701:
4697:
4684:
4683:
4676:
4669:
4654:
4653:
4649:
4610:(10): e047772.
4597:
4596:
4592:
4532:
4531:
4524:
4517:
4496:
4495:
4486:
4476:
4474:
4469:
4468:
4461:
4453:
4446:
4439:
4414:
4413:
4409:
4401:
4394:
4389:
4337:
4330:
4326:
4318:
4314:
4306:
4294:
4290:
4286:
4262:alveolar region
4234:
4209:
4128:
4109:
4083:
4055:
4024:
4011:
4000:
3983:
3973:
3960:
3959:
3953:Kelvin equation
3944:
3914:
3909:
3908:
3858:
3848:
3832:
3831:
3817:Kelvin equation
3809:
3746:
3739:
3700:
3698:
3682:
3672:
3661:
3654:
3630:
3619:
3618:
3612:
3598:
3591:
3568:
3557:
3513:
3497:
3496:
3492:
3482:
3468:
3458:
3448:
3424:
3419:
3418:
3413:
3397:
3386:
3379:
3373:
3337:
3317:
3307:
3290:
3280:
3277:
3273:
3261:
3250:
3246:
3233:
3232:
3226:
3199:
3198:
3175:
3174:
3147:
3132:
3127:
3126:
3116:
3100:
3071:
3066:
3065:
3058:Stokes-Einstein
3036:
3031:
3030:
3007:
3006:
2986:
2985:
2964:
2959:
2958:
2924:
2912:
2870:
2858:
2853:
2847:
2846:
2804:
2792:
2787:
2781:
2780:
2767:
2757:
2747:
2723:
2699:
2687:
2682:
2675:
2674:
2643:
2592:
2591:
2581:
2575:
2574:
2564:
2551:
2546:
2545:
2517:
2509:
2508:
2481:
2452:
2451:
2433:
2428:
2427:
2421:
2407:
2382:
2381:
2351:
2338:
2328:
2315:
2314:
2282:
2277:
2276:
2253:
2248:
2247:
2217:
2216:
2179:
2166:
2153:
2137:
2117:
2116:
2075:
2065:
2048:
2032:
2031:
1995:
1990:
1989:
1962:
1951:
1938:
1928:
1927:
1909:
1904:
1903:
1867:
1862:
1861:
1840:
1839:
1832:is the dynamic
1814:
1813:
1790:
1785:
1784:
1755:
1738:
1723:
1718:
1717:
1702:Reynolds number
1698:
1693:
1666:arithmetic mean
1638:
1630:
1629:
1604:
1603:
1576:
1556:
1552:
1541:
1525:
1506:
1493:
1483:
1457:
1456:
1435:
1434:
1379:
1345:
1302:
1301:
1270:
1236:
1193:
1192:
1157:
1138:
1118:
1117:
1086:
1067:
1030:
1025:
1024:
989:
978:
977:
955:
945:
944:
923:
918:
917:
896:
891:
890:
865:
864:
841:
836:
835:
808:
789:
767:
766:
737:
731:
661:element to the
637:adverse effects
609:
603:
580:Cigarette smoke
506:
477:
452:Atomizer nozzle
396:
388:
377:
346:
250:Photomicrograph
243:
237:
133:irrigation mist
49:
42:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
7437:
7435:
7427:
7426:
7421:
7416:
7411:
7406:
7404:Fluid dynamics
7401:
7396:
7391:
7386:
7376:
7375:
7369:
7368:
7309:
7306:
7305:
7303:
7302:
7297:
7292:
7288:
7284:
7279:
7277:Law by country
7274:
7268:
7266:
7260:
7259:
7257:
7256:
7251:
7246:
7241:
7236:
7231:
7226:
7221:
7215:
7213:
7209:
7208:
7206:
7205:
7200:
7195:
7190:
7185:
7180:
7175:
7170:
7164:
7162:
7158:
7157:
7155:
7154:
7149:
7148:
7147:
7142:
7131:
7129:
7125:
7124:
7122:
7121:
7116:
7111:
7106:
7101:
7099:Surface runoff
7096:
7091:
7086:
7081:
7080:
7079:
7074:
7064:
7059:
7054:
7049:
7044:
7039:
7034:
7029:
7024:
7023:
7022:
7012:
7007:
7002:
6997:
6992:
6987:
6985:Eutrophication
6982:
6977:
6972:
6966:
6964:
6958:
6957:
6955:
6954:
6949:
6944:
6942:Scorched earth
6939:
6936:nuclear winter
6932:nuclear famine
6921:
6911:
6905:
6903:
6897:
6896:
6894:
6893:
6888:
6883:
6878:
6873:
6867:
6865:
6859:
6858:
6856:
6855:
6849:
6847:
6841:
6840:
6838:
6837:
6836:
6835:
6830:
6820:
6815:
6810:
6809:
6808:
6798:
6793:
6792:
6791:
6781:
6780:
6779:
6777:Uranium mining
6774:
6769:
6764:
6762:Surface mining
6759:
6754:
6744:
6739:
6738:
6737:
6727:
6726:
6725:
6720:
6715:
6713:Lead poisoning
6710:
6705:
6703:Chemical waste
6700:
6690:
6685:
6680:
6675:
6674:
6673:
6663:
6658:
6653:
6647:
6645:
6641:
6640:
6638:
6637:
6632:
6627:
6622:
6617:
6615:Bioremediation
6612:
6607:
6606:
6605:
6600:
6595:
6584:
6582:
6576:
6575:
6573:
6572:
6567:
6562:
6557:
6552:
6547:
6542:
6537:
6532:
6530:Bioremediation
6527:
6521:
6519:
6513:
6512:
6510:
6509:
6504:
6501:
6498:
6495:
6494:
6493:
6483:
6478:
6477:
6476:
6471:
6466:
6461:
6456:
6451:Transportation
6447:
6445:
6439:
6438:
6436:
6435:
6430:
6425:
6420:
6414:
6412:
6408:
6407:
6405:
6404:
6399:
6398:
6397:
6392:
6381:
6379:
6373:
6372:
6370:
6369:
6363:
6361:
6357:
6356:
6354:
6353:
6352:
6351:
6341:
6336:
6330:
6328:
6322:
6321:
6319:
6318:
6313:
6308:
6307:
6306:
6296:
6295:
6294:
6284:
6279:
6274:
6273:
6272:
6267:
6262:
6257:
6252:
6242:
6237:
6232:
6227:
6225:Global dimming
6222:
6217:
6212:
6211:
6210:
6200:
6199:
6198:
6196:Diesel exhaust
6188:
6183:
6182:
6181:
6171:
6170:
6169:
6164:
6159:
6154:
6144:
6139:
6134:
6129:
6123:
6121:
6115:
6114:
6109:
6106:
6105:
6100:
6098:
6097:
6090:
6083:
6075:
6069:
6068:
6062:
6057:
6043:
6042:External links
6040:
6038:
6037:
6031:
6018:
6012:
5999:
5993:
5980:
5974:
5960:
5958:
5955:
5952:
5951:
5930:
5904:
5878:
5876:, p. 252.
5866:
5864:, p. 250.
5854:
5852:, p. 254.
5842:
5840:, p. 246.
5830:
5828:, p. 244.
5818:
5816:, p. 249.
5806:
5804:, p. 233.
5791:
5758:
5739:(6): 549–562.
5723:
5686:(9): 705–713.
5670:
5633:
5612:(2): 255–265.
5592:
5557:
5546:(8): 555–574.
5530:
5518:
5506:
5443:
5441:, p. 288.
5428:
5382:
5367:
5365:, p. 260.
5355:
5340:
5328:
5313:
5311:, p. 115.
5301:
5289:
5277:
5265:
5253:
5241:
5226:
5209:
5194:
5182:
5167:
5140:
5113:(1): 123–140.
5097:
5070:(5): 457–463.
5054:
5033:
5008:
4996:
4944:
4920:
4895:
4866:
4821:
4819:, p. 278.
4809:
4807:, p. 274.
4797:
4795:, p. 255.
4785:
4783:, p. 428.
4773:
4758:
4746:
4734:
4722:
4707:
4695:
4674:
4667:
4647:
4590:
4522:
4515:
4484:
4459:
4457:, p. 254.
4444:
4437:
4407:
4391:
4390:
4388:
4385:
4384:
4383:
4378:
4373:
4368:
4366:Global dimming
4363:
4358:
4353:
4348:
4343:
4336:
4333:
4328:
4324:
4316:
4312:
4304:
4295:is defined by
4292:
4288:
4284:
4233:
4230:
4229:
4228:
4223:
4218:
4216:Sun photometer
4208:
4205:
4204:
4203:
4197:
4191:
4185:
4183:Epiphaniometer
4180:
4174:
4168:
4162:
4156:
4150:
4144:
4138:
4127:
4121:
4117:remote sensing
4108:
4105:
4104:
4103:
4100:
4097:
4094:
4082:
4079:
4053:
4048:
4047:
4031:
4027:
4023:
4020:
4017:
4014:
4009:
4006:
4003:
3997:
3990:
3986:
3980:
3976:
3970:
3967:
3942:
3921:
3917:
3905:
3904:
3893:
3890:
3887:
3884:
3881:
3878:
3875:
3872:
3865:
3861:
3855:
3851:
3845:
3842:
3839:
3808:
3805:
3793:
3792:
3785:
3782:
3775:vapor pressure
3745:
3742:
3737:
3731:
3730:
3714:
3707:
3703:
3697:
3694:
3689:
3685:
3681:
3678:
3675:
3668:
3664:
3660:
3657:
3651:
3646:
3643:
3640:
3637:
3633:
3629:
3626:
3610:
3596:
3589:
3566:
3555:
3542:
3541:
3529:
3523:
3520:
3516:
3512:
3507:
3504:
3500:
3495:
3488:
3485:
3478:
3475:
3471:
3465:
3461:
3457:
3454:
3451:
3445:
3440:
3437:
3434:
3431:
3427:
3411:
3395:
3384:
3377:
3371:
3361:
3360:
3349:
3344:
3340:
3336:
3332:
3324:
3320:
3314:
3310:
3304:
3297:
3293:
3287:
3283:
3276:
3268:
3264:
3257:
3253:
3249:
3243:
3240:
3224:
3206:
3195:mean free path
3182:
3171:
3170:
3157:
3153:
3150:
3144:
3139:
3135:
3120:Knudsen number
3115:
3112:
3099:
3096:
3095:
3094:
3080:
3075:
3063:
3043:
3039:
3028:
3015:
3004:
2993:
2971:
2967:
2945:
2944:
2931:
2927:
2921:
2916:
2911:
2908:
2905:
2899:
2896:
2893:
2890:
2884:
2877:
2873:
2865:
2861:
2856:
2850:
2845:
2839:
2836:
2833:
2830:
2827:
2824:
2818:
2811:
2807:
2799:
2795:
2790:
2784:
2779:
2774:
2770:
2764:
2760:
2754:
2750:
2746:
2743:
2740:
2736:
2730:
2726:
2722:
2719:
2716:
2713:
2706:
2702:
2694:
2690:
2685:
2642:
2639:
2634:
2633:
2619:
2616:
2610:
2604:
2599:
2595:
2588:
2584:
2578:
2571:
2567:
2563:
2558:
2554:
2539:
2538:
2524:
2520:
2502:
2501:
2487:
2484:
2479:
2474:
2469:
2465:
2459:
2455:
2448:
2443:
2440:
2436:
2419:
2406:
2403:
2402:
2401:
2389:
2375:
2374:
2358:
2354:
2350:
2347:
2344:
2341:
2335:
2331:
2325:
2322:
2304:
2303:
2289:
2285:
2274:
2260:
2256:
2245:
2233:
2230:
2227:
2224:
2210:
2209:
2194:
2191:
2186:
2182:
2178:
2173:
2169:
2165:
2160:
2156:
2152:
2149:
2144:
2140:
2136:
2133:
2130:
2127:
2124:
2102:
2101:
2087:
2084:
2081:
2078:
2072:
2068:
2062:
2055:
2051:
2047:
2042:
2039:
2020:
2019:
2005:
2002:
1998:
1983:
1982:
1968:
1965:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1945:
1941:
1935:
1931:
1924:
1919:
1916:
1912:
1889:
1888:
1874:
1870:
1859:
1847:
1837:
1821:
1811:
1797:
1793:
1778:
1777:
1762:
1758:
1753:
1750:
1747:
1744:
1741:
1735:
1730:
1726:
1697:
1694:
1692:
1689:
1670:
1669:
1650:
1645:
1641:
1627:
1611:
1597:
1596:
1583:
1579:
1574:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1548:
1544:
1537:
1532:
1528:
1521:
1518:
1513:
1509:
1505:
1502:
1499:
1496:
1490:
1486:
1477:
1474:
1469:
1464:
1460:
1455:
1450:
1447:
1443:
1400:
1399:
1386:
1382:
1377:
1370:
1365:
1361:
1357:
1352:
1348:
1344:
1341:
1336:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1315:
1312:
1309:
1291:
1290:
1277:
1273:
1268:
1261:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1243:
1239:
1235:
1232:
1227:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1203:
1200:
1178:
1177:
1164:
1160:
1155:
1150:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1134:
1131:
1128:
1125:
1107:
1106:
1093:
1089:
1084:
1079:
1074:
1070:
1066:
1063:
1058:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1040:
1037:
1033:
1014:
1013:
1001:
996:
992:
988:
985:
975:
962:
958:
953:
930:
926:
903:
899:
878:
874:
862:
848:
844:
829:
828:
815:
811:
806:
801:
796:
792:
788:
785:
782:
779:
775:
730:
727:
711:sulfur dioxide
681:
680:
679:
678:
674:
666:
621:sulphuric acid
602:
599:
595:
594:
588:
581:
578:
567:
566:
556:
538:
502:Main article:
476:
473:
472:
471:
468:
463:
458:
449:
440:
439:
432:fuel injection
428:
421:
418:
407:
395:
392:
386:
375:
344:
318:often use the
236:
233:
125:air pollutants
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7436:
7425:
7422:
7420:
7417:
7415:
7412:
7410:
7407:
7405:
7402:
7400:
7397:
7395:
7392:
7390:
7389:Air pollution
7387:
7385:
7382:
7381:
7379:
7366:
7356:
7351:
7346:
7338:
7330:
7321:
7317:
7307:
7301:
7298:
7296:
7293:
7291:
7285:
7283:
7280:
7278:
7275:
7273:
7270:
7269:
7267:
7265:
7261:
7255:
7252:
7250:
7247:
7245:
7242:
7240:
7237:
7235:
7232:
7230:
7227:
7225:
7222:
7220:
7217:
7216:
7214:
7210:
7204:
7201:
7199:
7196:
7194:
7191:
7189:
7186:
7184:
7181:
7179:
7176:
7174:
7171:
7169:
7166:
7165:
7163:
7159:
7153:
7150:
7146:
7143:
7141:
7138:
7137:
7136:
7133:
7132:
7130:
7126:
7120:
7119:Water quality
7117:
7115:
7112:
7110:
7107:
7105:
7102:
7100:
7097:
7095:
7092:
7090:
7087:
7085:
7082:
7078:
7075:
7073:
7070:
7069:
7068:
7065:
7063:
7060:
7058:
7055:
7053:
7050:
7048:
7045:
7043:
7040:
7038:
7035:
7033:
7030:
7028:
7025:
7021:
7018:
7017:
7016:
7013:
7011:
7008:
7006:
7003:
7001:
6998:
6996:
6993:
6991:
6988:
6986:
6983:
6981:
6978:
6976:
6973:
6971:
6968:
6967:
6965:
6963:
6959:
6953:
6950:
6948:
6945:
6943:
6940:
6937:
6933:
6929:
6925:
6922:
6919:
6915:
6912:
6910:
6907:
6906:
6904:
6902:
6898:
6892:
6889:
6887:
6884:
6882:
6881:Traffic signs
6879:
6877:
6874:
6872:
6869:
6868:
6866:
6864:
6860:
6854:
6851:
6850:
6848:
6846:
6842:
6834:
6831:
6829:
6826:
6825:
6824:
6821:
6819:
6816:
6814:
6811:
6807:
6806:Microplastics
6804:
6803:
6802:
6799:
6797:
6796:Nanomaterials
6794:
6790:
6787:
6786:
6785:
6782:
6778:
6775:
6773:
6770:
6768:
6765:
6763:
6760:
6758:
6755:
6753:
6750:
6749:
6748:
6745:
6743:
6740:
6736:
6735:Lead smelting
6733:
6732:
6731:
6728:
6724:
6721:
6719:
6716:
6714:
6711:
6709:
6706:
6704:
6701:
6699:
6696:
6695:
6694:
6691:
6689:
6686:
6684:
6681:
6679:
6676:
6672:
6669:
6668:
6667:
6664:
6662:
6659:
6657:
6654:
6652:
6649:
6648:
6646:
6642:
6636:
6633:
6631:
6628:
6626:
6623:
6621:
6618:
6616:
6613:
6611:
6608:
6604:
6601:
6599:
6596:
6594:
6591:
6590:
6589:
6586:
6585:
6583:
6581:
6577:
6571:
6568:
6566:
6563:
6561:
6558:
6556:
6555:Radioactivity
6553:
6551:
6548:
6546:
6543:
6541:
6538:
6536:
6533:
6531:
6528:
6526:
6523:
6522:
6520:
6518:
6514:
6508:
6507:Noise control
6505:
6502:
6499:
6496:
6492:
6489:
6488:
6487:
6484:
6482:
6479:
6475:
6472:
6470:
6467:
6465:
6462:
6460:
6457:
6454:
6453:
6452:
6449:
6448:
6446:
6444:
6440:
6434:
6431:
6429:
6426:
6424:
6421:
6419:
6416:
6415:
6413:
6409:
6403:
6400:
6396:
6393:
6391:
6388:
6387:
6386:
6383:
6382:
6380:
6378:
6374:
6368:
6365:
6364:
6362:
6358:
6350:
6347:
6346:
6345:
6342:
6340:
6337:
6335:
6332:
6331:
6329:
6327:
6323:
6317:
6314:
6312:
6309:
6305:
6302:
6301:
6300:
6297:
6293:
6290:
6289:
6288:
6285:
6283:
6280:
6278:
6275:
6271:
6268:
6266:
6263:
6261:
6258:
6256:
6255:Metal working
6253:
6251:
6248:
6247:
6246:
6243:
6241:
6238:
6236:
6233:
6231:
6228:
6226:
6223:
6221:
6218:
6216:
6213:
6209:
6206:
6205:
6204:
6201:
6197:
6194:
6193:
6192:
6189:
6187:
6184:
6180:
6177:
6176:
6175:
6172:
6168:
6165:
6163:
6160:
6158:
6155:
6153:
6150:
6149:
6148:
6145:
6143:
6140:
6138:
6135:
6133:
6130:
6128:
6125:
6124:
6122:
6120:
6116:
6112:
6107:
6103:
6096:
6091:
6089:
6084:
6082:
6077:
6076:
6073:
6066:
6063:
6061:
6058:
6056:
6052:
6049:
6046:
6045:
6041:
6034:
6028:
6024:
6019:
6015:
6009:
6005:
6000:
5996:
5994:0-19-512999-7
5990:
5986:
5981:
5977:
5971:
5967:
5962:
5961:
5956:
5940:
5934:
5931:
5918:
5914:
5908:
5905:
5892:
5888:
5882:
5879:
5875:
5870:
5867:
5863:
5858:
5855:
5851:
5846:
5843:
5839:
5834:
5831:
5827:
5822:
5819:
5815:
5810:
5807:
5803:
5798:
5796:
5792:
5786:
5781:
5777:
5773:
5769:
5762:
5759:
5754:
5750:
5746:
5742:
5738:
5734:
5727:
5724:
5719:
5715:
5710:
5705:
5701:
5697:
5693:
5689:
5685:
5681:
5674:
5671:
5666:
5662:
5658:
5654:
5650:
5646:
5645:
5637:
5634:
5628:
5623:
5619:
5615:
5611:
5607:
5603:
5596:
5593:
5588:
5584:
5580:
5576:
5572:
5568:
5561:
5558:
5553:
5549:
5545:
5541:
5534:
5531:
5527:
5522:
5519:
5516:, p. 62.
5515:
5510:
5507:
5502:
5498:
5494:
5490:
5486:
5482:
5478:
5474:
5470:
5466:
5462:
5458:
5454:
5447:
5444:
5440:
5435:
5433:
5429:
5423:
5418:
5414:
5410:
5406:
5402:
5398:
5391:
5389:
5387:
5383:
5378:
5371:
5368:
5364:
5359:
5356:
5353:, p. 60.
5352:
5347:
5345:
5341:
5338:, p. 54.
5337:
5332:
5329:
5326:, p. 53.
5325:
5320:
5318:
5314:
5310:
5305:
5302:
5299:, p. 47.
5298:
5293:
5290:
5287:, p. 49.
5286:
5281:
5278:
5274:
5269:
5266:
5262:
5257:
5254:
5251:, p. 91.
5250:
5245:
5242:
5239:, p. 90.
5238:
5233:
5231:
5227:
5224:, p. 58.
5223:
5218:
5216:
5214:
5210:
5207:, p. 79.
5206:
5201:
5199:
5195:
5191:
5186:
5183:
5178:
5171:
5168:
5155:
5151:
5144:
5141:
5136:
5132:
5128:
5124:
5120:
5116:
5112:
5108:
5101:
5098:
5093:
5089:
5085:
5081:
5077:
5073:
5069:
5065:
5058:
5055:
5049:
5044:
5037:
5034:
5023:
5019:
5012:
5009:
5006:
5000:
4997:
4991:
4986:
4981:
4976:
4972:
4968:
4964:
4960:
4956:
4948:
4945:
4934:
4930:
4924:
4921:
4910:
4906:
4899:
4896:
4884:
4880:
4873:
4871:
4867:
4860:
4855:
4851:
4847:
4843:
4839:
4832:
4825:
4822:
4818:
4813:
4810:
4806:
4801:
4798:
4794:
4789:
4786:
4782:
4777:
4774:
4771:, p. 51.
4770:
4765:
4763:
4759:
4756:, p. 10.
4755:
4750:
4747:
4743:
4738:
4735:
4731:
4726:
4723:
4719:
4714:
4712:
4708:
4704:
4699:
4696:
4691:
4687:
4681:
4679:
4675:
4670:
4664:
4660:
4659:
4651:
4648:
4643:
4639:
4634:
4629:
4625:
4621:
4617:
4613:
4609:
4605:
4601:
4594:
4591:
4586:
4582:
4577:
4572:
4568:
4564:
4560:
4556:
4552:
4548:
4544:
4540:
4536:
4529:
4527:
4523:
4518:
4512:
4508:
4504:
4500:
4493:
4491:
4489:
4485:
4472:
4466:
4464:
4460:
4456:
4451:
4449:
4445:
4440:
4434:
4430:
4426:
4421:
4420:
4411:
4408:
4404:
4399:
4397:
4393:
4386:
4382:
4379:
4377:
4374:
4372:
4369:
4367:
4364:
4362:
4359:
4357:
4354:
4352:
4349:
4347:
4344:
4342:
4339:
4338:
4334:
4332:
4322:
4310:
4302:
4298:
4281:
4279:
4275:
4271:
4265:
4263:
4260:), or in the
4259:
4255:
4251:
4247:
4243:
4239:
4231:
4227:
4224:
4222:
4219:
4217:
4214:
4213:
4212:
4206:
4201:
4198:
4195:
4192:
4189:
4186:
4184:
4181:
4178:
4175:
4172:
4169:
4166:
4163:
4160:
4157:
4154:
4151:
4148:
4145:
4142:
4139:
4136:
4133:
4132:
4131:
4125:
4122:
4120:
4118:
4114:
4106:
4101:
4098:
4095:
4093:Moment method
4092:
4091:
4090:
4088:
4080:
4078:
4076:
4072:
4068:
4064:
4060:
4056:
4029:
4025:
4021:
4018:
4015:
4012:
4007:
4004:
4001:
3995:
3988:
3984:
3978:
3974:
3968:
3965:
3958:
3957:
3956:
3954:
3950:
3948:
3941:
3937:
3919:
3915:
3888:
3885:
3882:
3879:
3873:
3870:
3863:
3859:
3853:
3849:
3843:
3840:
3837:
3830:
3829:
3828:
3826:
3822:
3818:
3814:
3806:
3804:
3802:
3798:
3790:
3786:
3783:
3780:
3779:
3778:
3776:
3772:
3768:
3763:
3759:
3750:
3743:
3741:
3736:
3712:
3705:
3701:
3695:
3692:
3687:
3683:
3679:
3676:
3673:
3666:
3662:
3658:
3655:
3649:
3644:
3641:
3638:
3635:
3631:
3627:
3624:
3617:
3616:
3615:
3613:
3606:
3601:
3599:
3592:
3585:
3581:
3577:
3573:
3569:
3562:
3558:
3551:
3547:
3527:
3521:
3518:
3514:
3510:
3502:
3498:
3493:
3486:
3483:
3476:
3473:
3469:
3463:
3459:
3455:
3452:
3449:
3443:
3438:
3435:
3432:
3429:
3425:
3417:
3416:
3415:
3409:
3404:
3402:
3398:
3391:
3387:
3380:
3370:
3366:
3347:
3342:
3338:
3334:
3330:
3322:
3318:
3312:
3308:
3302:
3291:
3281:
3274:
3266:
3262:
3255:
3251:
3247:
3241:
3238:
3231:
3230:
3229:
3227:
3220:
3204:
3196:
3180:
3155:
3151:
3148:
3142:
3137:
3133:
3125:
3124:
3123:
3121:
3113:
3111:
3104:
3097:
3078:
3064:
3062:
3059:
3041:
3037:
3029:
3005:
2991:
2969:
2965:
2957:
2956:
2955:
2952:
2950:
2929:
2925:
2919:
2909:
2903:
2882:
2875:
2863:
2859:
2848:
2843:
2816:
2809:
2797:
2793:
2782:
2777:
2772:
2768:
2762:
2752:
2748:
2744:
2738:
2728:
2724:
2720:
2714:
2711:
2704:
2692:
2688:
2673:
2672:
2671:
2669:
2665:
2660:
2657:
2653:
2648:
2640:
2638:
2617:
2614:
2608:
2602:
2597:
2593:
2586:
2582:
2576:
2569:
2565:
2561:
2556:
2552:
2544:
2543:
2542:
2522:
2518:
2507:
2506:
2505:
2485:
2482:
2477:
2472:
2467:
2463:
2457:
2453:
2446:
2441:
2438:
2434:
2426:
2425:
2424:
2422:
2415:
2410:
2404:
2387:
2380:
2379:
2378:
2356:
2352:
2348:
2345:
2342:
2339:
2333:
2329:
2323:
2320:
2313:
2312:
2311:
2309:
2287:
2283:
2275:
2258:
2254:
2246:
2228:
2222:
2215:
2214:
2213:
2192:
2189:
2184:
2180:
2171:
2167:
2163:
2158:
2154:
2147:
2142:
2138:
2134:
2128:
2122:
2115:
2114:
2113:
2111:
2107:
2106:exponentially
2085:
2082:
2079:
2076:
2070:
2066:
2060:
2053:
2049:
2045:
2040:
2037:
2030:
2029:
2028:
2026:
2003:
2000:
1996:
1988:
1987:
1986:
1966:
1963:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1943:
1939:
1933:
1929:
1922:
1917:
1914:
1910:
1902:
1901:
1900:
1898:
1894:
1872:
1868:
1860:
1845:
1838:
1835:
1819:
1812:
1795:
1791:
1783:
1782:
1781:
1760:
1756:
1751:
1748:
1745:
1742:
1739:
1733:
1728:
1724:
1716:
1715:
1714:
1712:
1707:
1703:
1695:
1690:
1688:
1686:
1682:
1678:
1673:
1667:
1643:
1639:
1628:
1625:
1609:
1602:
1601:
1600:
1581:
1577:
1561:
1557:
1553:
1546:
1530:
1526:
1519:
1511:
1507:
1500:
1497:
1488:
1484:
1475:
1472:
1467:
1462:
1458:
1453:
1448:
1445:
1433:
1432:
1431:
1429:
1424:
1422:
1418:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1384:
1380:
1368:
1363:
1359:
1350:
1346:
1339:
1329:
1325:
1321:
1317:
1313:
1310:
1307:
1300:
1299:
1298:
1296:
1275:
1271:
1259:
1254:
1250:
1241:
1237:
1230:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1204:
1201:
1198:
1191:
1190:
1189:
1187:
1183:
1162:
1158:
1143:
1139:
1132:
1129:
1126:
1123:
1116:
1115:
1114:
1112:
1091:
1087:
1072:
1068:
1061:
1056:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1038:
1035:
1031:
1023:
1022:
1021:
1019:
994:
990:
983:
976:
960:
956:
928:
924:
901:
897:
876:
863:
846:
842:
834:
833:
832:
813:
809:
794:
790:
783:
780:
777:
765:
764:
763:
761:
760:tends to zero
756:
751:
741:
736:
728:
726:
722:
720:
714:
712:
707:
705:
701:
697:
693:
689:
685:
675:
671:
667:
664:
659:
655:
654:
653:
652:
651:
649:
644:
640:
638:
634:
630:
626:
622:
613:
608:
600:
598:
592:
589:
586:
585:aerosol spray
582:
579:
576:
575:
574:
572:
564:
560:
559:anthropogenic
557:
555:
551:
547:
543:
539:
536:
532:
531:
530:
528:
524:
521:Although all
519:
517:
512:
511:sulfuric acid
505:
496:
490:
486:
481:
474:
469:
467:
464:
462:
459:
457:
453:
450:
448:
447:Aerosol spray
445:
444:
443:
437:
433:
429:
426:
422:
419:
416:
412:
408:
405:
401:
400:
399:
393:
391:
389:
382:
378:
371:
366:
362:
358:
354:
349:
347:
339:
337:
333:
332:
327:
323:
322:
317:
313:
308:
304:
302:
298:
294:
290:
286:
282:
278:
274:
266:
262:
255:
251:
247:
242:
234:
232:
230:
226:
222:
218:
216:
212:
208:
204:
200:
195:
191:
189:
185:
181:
177:
173:
169:
165:
163:
158:
157:sulfuric acid
152:
150:
146:
142:
138:
134:
130:
126:
123:
119:
115:
111:
107:
103:
99:
95:
91:
87:
84:
80:
77:
73:
69:
61:
57:
53:
47:
40:
33:
19:
7198:Point source
7140:Heavy metals
7114:Urban runoff
7094:Sulfur water
7072:Septic tanks
6918:Agent Orange
6772:Mining waste
6598:Manure waste
6428:Volcanic ash
6304:Black carbon
6291:
6260:Oil refining
6245:Particulates
6174:Construction
6022:
6003:
5984:
5965:
5944:23 September
5942:. Retrieved
5933:
5923:23 September
5921:. Retrieved
5917:the original
5907:
5897:23 September
5895:. Retrieved
5893:. 2010-12-10
5890:
5881:
5869:
5857:
5845:
5833:
5821:
5809:
5775:
5771:
5761:
5736:
5732:
5726:
5683:
5679:
5673:
5651:(1): 43–73.
5648:
5642:
5636:
5609:
5605:
5595:
5573:(1): 63–86.
5570:
5566:
5560:
5543:
5539:
5533:
5521:
5509:
5460:
5456:
5446:
5404:
5400:
5376:
5370:
5358:
5331:
5304:
5292:
5280:
5268:
5256:
5244:
5185:
5176:
5170:
5158:. Retrieved
5153:
5143:
5110:
5106:
5100:
5067:
5063:
5057:
5036:
5025:. Retrieved
5021:
5011:
4999:
4962:
4958:
4947:
4936:. Retrieved
4932:
4923:
4912:. Retrieved
4908:
4898:
4886:. Retrieved
4882:
4877:Allen, Bob.
4841:
4837:
4824:
4812:
4800:
4788:
4776:
4749:
4737:
4725:
4720:, p. 8.
4705:, p. 5.
4698:
4689:
4657:
4650:
4607:
4603:
4593:
4542:
4538:
4498:
4475:. Retrieved
4418:
4410:
4405:, p. 3.
4346:Aeroplankton
4308:
4300:
4282:
4266:
4235:
4210:
4129:
4126:observations
4123:
4119:techniques.
4110:
4084:
4074:
4070:
4069:molar mass,
4066:
4062:
4058:
4051:
4049:
3951:
3946:
3939:
3906:
3812:
3810:
3800:
3796:
3794:
3789:Raoult's law
3758:condensation
3755:
3744:Partitioning
3734:
3732:
3608:
3604:
3602:
3594:
3587:
3583:
3579:
3575:
3571:
3564:
3560:
3553:
3549:
3545:
3543:
3407:
3405:
3400:
3393:
3389:
3382:
3375:
3368:
3364:
3362:
3222:
3218:
3172:
3117:
3108:
2953:
2946:
2667:
2661:
2646:
2644:
2635:
2540:
2503:
2417:
2411:
2408:
2376:
2307:
2305:
2211:
2109:
2103:
2024:
2021:
1984:
1890:
1779:
1699:
1674:
1671:
1598:
1425:
1401:
1294:
1292:
1181:
1179:
1110:
1108:
1017:
1015:
830:
758:of the bins
747:
723:
715:
708:
682:
669:
657:
645:
641:
618:
596:
568:
523:hydrometeors
520:
507:
504:Particulates
461:Electrospray
441:
397:
384:
373:
369:
364:
361:polydisperse
360:
357:monodisperse
356:
350:
342:
340:
335:
329:
325:
319:
309:
305:
300:
296:
276:
269:
241:Particulates
219:
206:
196:
192:
166:
153:
106:particulates
101:
98:human causes
67:
65:
62:are aerosols
39:particulates
7168:Area source
7077:Pit latrine
7000:Groundwater
6757:Gold mining
6752:Coal mining
6723:Toxic waste
6688:Green waste
6661:Brown waste
6644:Solid waste
6191:Exhaust gas
4933:www.ipcc.ch
4477:27 December
4376:Monoterpene
4274:elutriators
3762:evaporation
3098:Coagulation
3061:diffusivity
2666:called the
2414:aerodynamic
1706:Stokes' law
1419:grains and
684:Ship tracks
438:technology.
409:to deliver
404:calibrating
281:World War I
235:Definitions
229:bioaerosols
168:Ship tracks
122:particulate
100:. The term
92:or another
7378:Categories
7320:by country
7316:Categories
7254:Zero waste
7135:Pollutants
7089:Stagnation
7027:Monitoring
6995:Freshwater
6871:Air travel
6683:Food waste
6603:Pesticides
6593:Herbicides
6497:Industrial
6326:Biological
6186:Demolition
6179:Renovation
6162:Joss paper
6147:Combustion
5874:Hinds 1999
5862:Hinds 1999
5850:Hinds 1999
5838:Hinds 1999
5826:Hinds 1999
5814:Hinds 1999
5802:Hinds 1999
5709:10397/9612
5439:Hinds 1999
5363:Hinds 1999
5336:Hinds 1999
5324:Hinds 1999
5309:Hinds 1999
5297:Hinds 1999
5285:Hinds 1999
5273:Hinds 1999
5261:Hinds 1999
5249:Hinds 1999
5237:Hinds 1999
5205:Hinds 1999
5190:Hinds 1999
5027:2024-07-15
4990:1912/24327
4938:2018-02-07
4914:2019-10-07
4864:Fig. 2(a).
4781:Hinds 1999
4769:Hinds 1999
4754:Hinds 1999
4742:Hinds 1999
4718:Hinds 1999
4545:(1): 281.
4427:. p.
4403:Hinds 1999
4387:References
4356:Bioaerosol
3807:Activation
2416:diameter,
1836:of the gas
733:See also:
704:cloud seed
605:See also:
583:Mist from
571:ecosystems
489:Bangladesh
436:combustion
411:deodorants
353:dispersity
239:See also:
203:suspension
188:cloud seed
72:suspension
7419:Pollution
7212:Responses
7183:Garbology
7109:Turbidity
7057:Oil spill
6990:Firewater
6891:Vandalism
6853:Satellite
6550:Poisoning
6545:Plutonium
6525:Actinides
6517:Radiation
6265:Wood dust
6127:Acid rain
6102:Pollution
5778:: 18–35.
5718:120582575
5514:Hidy 1984
5501:206156442
5485:1364-503X
5351:Hidy 1984
5222:Hidy 1984
5135:247520571
5092:0278-6826
4817:Hidy 1984
4805:Hidy 1984
4793:Hidy 1984
4703:Hidy 1984
4624:2044-6055
4567:2662-4435
4455:Hidy 1984
4371:Nebulizer
4107:Detection
4087:solutions
4022:⋅
4019:ρ
4005:σ
3969:
3892:%
3886:×
3877:%
3871:×
3813:activated
3650:⋅
3511:−
3506:∞
3453:π
3444:∼
3348:α
3335:⋅
3303:−
3296:∞
3286:∞
3248:π
3181:λ
3152:λ
2910:⋅
2907:∇
2904:−
2872:∂
2855:∂
2806:∂
2789:∂
2759:∇
2745:⋅
2742:∇
2721:⋅
2718:∇
2715:−
2701:∂
2684:∂
2652:diffusion
2603:χ
2594:ρ
2583:ρ
2519:ρ
2486:η
2454:ρ
2388:χ
2346:η
2343:π
2321:χ
2193:τ
2185:−
2164:−
2148:−
2083:η
2080:π
1967:η
1930:ρ
1834:viscosity
1820:η
1746:η
1743:π
1668:diameter.
1649:¯
1610:σ
1558:σ
1536:¯
1520:−
1489:−
1476:π
1468:σ
1412:long tail
1335:∞
1326:∫
1314:π
1226:∞
1217:∫
1205:π
1048:∫
755:histogram
696:molecules
633:acid rain
535:inorganic
456:nebulizer
215:spray can
199:1 μm
180:molecules
79:particles
7399:Colloids
7384:Aerosols
7300:Treaties
7272:Diseases
7084:Shipping
6980:Diseases
6828:Landfill
6503:Abstract
6500:Military
6433:Wildfire
6282:Smelting
6250:Asbestos
6051:Archived
5493:18826917
5179:. 960–1.
5127:35300517
4642:34642190
4604:BMJ Open
4585:38826490
4576:11139642
4335:See also
4115:or with
2641:Dynamics
2108:with an
1897:buoyancy
1408:skewness
744:is 1000.
719:COVID-19
717:site in
700:aerosols
670:indirect
656:E.g., a
565:or dusts
554:bacteria
540:natural
533:natural
383:,
289:hydrosol
285:solution
184:aerosols
86:droplets
74:of fine
18:Aerosols
7409:Liquids
7329:Commons
7104:Thermal
7005:Hypoxia
6789:Garbage
6560:Uranium
6411:Natural
6360:Digital
6292:Aerosol
6270:Welding
6157:Biomass
6152:Biofuel
6111:History
5957:Sources
5741:Bibcode
5688:Bibcode
5653:Bibcode
5614:Bibcode
5575:Bibcode
5465:Bibcode
5409:Bibcode
5072:Bibcode
5043:medRxiv
4967:Bibcode
4846:Bibcode
4633:8520596
4547:Bibcode
4341:Aerogel
4256:to the
4254:trachea
4246:pharynx
4173:(MOUDI)
4124:In situ
4113:in-situ
3934:is the
3760:on and
3193:is the
2954:Where:
2377:where:
2212:where:
1691:Physics
1664:is the
1622:is the
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692:exhaust
673:budget.
601:Effects
542:organic
293:colloid
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7424:Solids
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7128:Topics
7067:Sewage
7020:debris
7015:Marine
6863:Visual
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6742:Litter
6235:Mining
6029:
6010:
5991:
5972:
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5160:8 July
5133:
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4888:8 July
4665:
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4630:
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4565:
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4435:
4303:and PM
4287:and PM
4250:larynx
4202:(CPMA)
4190:(ELPI)
4050:where
3907:where
3733:where
3544:where
3410:when K
3363:where
3173:where
2515:
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1985:where
1780:where
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1417:pollen
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688:clouds
658:direct
550:spores
546:pollen
415:paints
225:breath
172:clouds
83:liquid
7264:Lists
7203:Waste
7145:Paint
6962:Water
6845:Space
6486:Sonar
6481:Urban
6459:Water
6443:Noise
6418:Ozone
6385:Light
6316:Waste
6208:Smoke
5714:S2CID
5497:S2CID
5131:S2CID
4834:(PDF)
4242:mouth
4221:Lidar
4196:(APM)
4179:(CPC)
4167:(WPS)
4161:(AAC)
4155:(APS)
4149:(EAS)
4143:(DMA)
4137:(AMS)
3767:vapor
563:ashes
552:, or
485:India
427:; and
141:smoke
76:solid
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7178:Dust
7161:Misc
6580:Soil
6469:Rail
6455:Land
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6203:Haze
6027:ISBN
6008:ISBN
5989:ISBN
5970:ISBN
5946:2012
5925:2012
5899:2012
5489:PMID
5481:ISSN
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4883:NASA
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3603:The
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3374:and
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6119:Air
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5622:doi
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5548:doi
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5417:doi
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4985:hdl
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4854:doi
4628:PMC
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4555:doi
4503:doi
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4317:2.5
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