29:
273:
198:
963:
45:
440:
5684:
435:
5695:
4563:
882:. This opens the ether rings and upon rearrangement versiconal acetate is formed. Now an esterase, EstA, catalyzes the hydrolysis of the acetyl, forming the primary alcohol in versiconal. The acetal in versicolorin A is formed from the cyclization of the side-chain in versiconal, which is catalyzed by VERB synthase, and then VerB, a desaturase, reduces versicolorin B to form the dihydrobisfuran.
5715:
955:-N7-Gua. These adducts may then rearrange or become removed from the backbone all-together, forming an apurinic site. These adducts and alterations represent lesions which, upon DNA replication cause the insertion of a mis-matched base in the opposing strand. Up to 44% of hepatocellular carcinomas in regions with high aflatoxin exposure bear a GC → TA transversion at codon 249 of
5725:
5674:
5705:
3182:
612:
1275:
came on the heels of the widespread death of turkeys in
England in the summer of 1960 to some unknown disease, at the time labeled "Disease X". Over the course of 500 outbreaks, the disease claimed over 100,000 turkeys which appeared to be healthy. The widespread death was later found to be caused by
970:
Prevalence of hepatocellular carcinoma in individuals exposed to aflatoxin, increases with co-infection of hepatitis B virus. One study estimated that while individuals with urinary aflatoxin bio-markers were at a threefold greater risk than the normal population for hepatocellular carcinoma; those
1171:
exposure is best managed by measures aimed at preventing contamination of crops in the field, post-harvest handling, and storage, or via measures aimed at detecting and decontaminating contaminated commodities or materials used in animal feed. For instance, biological decontamination involving the
890:
and open the quinine with the molecular oxygen. Upon forming the aldehyde in the ring opening step, it is oxidized to form the carboxylic acid and subsequently a decarboxylation event occurs to close the ring, forming the six-member ether ring system seen in demethylsterigmatocystin. The next two
823:. This fungus grows in long branched hyphae and is capable of surviving on numerous food sources including corn and peanuts. The fungus and its products are pathogenic to a number of species, including humans. While toxicity of its products, aflatoxins, are explored throughout this article,
926:
is a potent genotoxic hepatocarcinogen with its exposure strongly linked to the development of hepatocellular carcinoma, liver tumors, especially given co-infection with hepatitis B virus. These effects seem to be largely mediated by mutations at guanine in codon 249 of the
5304:
827:
itself also exerts pathogenic effects through aspergillosis, or infection with the mold. This infection largely occurs in the lungs of immune compromised patients but infection may also occur in the skin or other organs. Unlike many mold species,
885:
There are two more enzymes that catalyze the conversion of versicolorin A to demethylsterigmatocystin: AflN, an oxidase and AflM, a reductase. These enzymes use both molecular oxygen and two NADPH's to dehydrate one of the hydroxyl groups on the
1287:
Following outbreaks of aflatoxin contamination in maize reaching 4,400 ppb in the spring of 2004, 125 individuals in Kenya died of acute hepatic failure while some 317 cases in total were reported. To date this was the largest known outbreak of
860:
extenders to the hexanoate to form the C20 polyketide compound. The PKS folds the polyketide in a particular way to induce cyclization to form the anthraquinone norsolorinic acid. A reductase then catalyzes the reduction of the ketone on the
873:
becomes much more complicated, with several major skeletal changes. Most of the enzymes have not been characterized and there may be several more intermediates that are still unknown. However, what is known is that averufin is oxidized by a
1653:
Meissonnier GM, Pinton P, Laffitte J, Cossalter AM, Gong YY, Wild CP, et al. (September 2008). "Immunotoxicity of aflatoxin B1: impairment of the cell-mediated response to vaccine antigen and modulation of cytokine expression".
865:
side-chain to yield averantin. Averantin is converted to averufin via a two different enzymes, a hydroxylase and an alcohol dehydrogenase. This will oxygenate and cyclize averantin's side chain to form the ketal in averufin.
971:
infected with hepatitis B virus were at a fourfold risk; and those with the aflatoxin bio-markers and infected with hepatitis B virus were at a 60 times greater risk for hepatocellular carcinoma than the normal population.
448:
415:
761:
contamination is common in many staple foods, its production is maximized in foods stored in hot, humid climates. Exposure is therefore most common in
Southeast Asia, South America, and Sub-Saharan Africa.
1283:
Twelve patients died of acute aflatoxin poisoning in several hospitals in the
Machakos district of Kenya in 1981 following the consumption of contaminated maize. All patients also suffered from hepatitis.
774:
can permeate through the skin. Dermal exposure to this aflatoxin in particular environmental conditions can lead to major health risks. The liver is the most susceptible organ to aflatoxin B
3029:
EEC (1991). EEC Council
Directive 91/126/EEC. Amending the annexes to Council Directive 74/63/EEC on undesirable substances and products in animal nutrition. Off. J. Eur. Commun., No. L 60.
1956:
Fernández A, Ramos JJ, Sanz M, Saez T, Fernández de Luco D (1996). "Alterations in the performance, haematology and clinical biochemistry of growing lambs fed with aflatoxin in the diet".
5467:
1781:
Viegas S, Veiga L, Figueredo P, Almeida A, Carolino E, Sabino R, et al. (2013). "Occupational exposure to aflatoxin B1 in swine production and possible contamination sources".
819:
is a fungus of the family
Trichocomaceae with a worldwide distribution. The mold lives in soil, surviving off dead plant and animal matter, but spreads through the air via airborne
1618:
Geissler F, Faustman EM (February 1988). "Developmental toxicity of aflatoxin B1 in the rodent embryo in vitro: contribution of exogenous biotransformation systems to toxicity".
625:
5432:
5462:
4918:
5422:
2754:
Gursoy-Yuzugullu O, Yuzugullu H, Yilmaz M, Ozturk M (April 2011). "Aflatoxin genotoxicity is associated with a defective DNA damage response bypassing p53 activation".
2706:"Experimental induction of chronic aflatoxicosis in chickens by purified aflatoxin B1 and its reversal by activated charcoal, phenobarbital, and reduced glutathione"
677:
3.2 μg/kg/day in rats. This carcinogenic potency varies across species with some, such as rats and monkeys, seemingly much more susceptible than others. Aflatoxin B
4599:
5354:
2744:
Sahoo PK, Mukherjee SC, Nayak SK, Dey S (2001). Acute and subchronic toxicity of aflatoxin B1 to rohu, Labeo rohita (Hamilton). Indian J Exp Biol. 39(5): 453-8.
1214:) in all foods, with the exception of milk which has a maximum permitted level of 0.5 μg/kg. Higher levels of 100–300 μg/kg are tolerable for some animal feeds.
1921:
Boonen J, Malysheva SV, Taevernier L, Diana Di
Mavungu J, De Saeger S, De Spiegeleer B (November 2012). "Human skin penetration of selected model mycotoxins".
3208:
3135:
Ngindu A, Johnson BK, Kenya PR, Ngira JA, Ocheng DM, Nandwa H, et al. (June 1982). "Outbreak of acute hepatitis caused by aflatoxin poisoning in Kenya".
2834:
Sur E, Celik I (September 2003). "Effects of aflatoxin B1 on the development of the bursa of
Fabricius and blood lymphocyte acid phosphatase of the chicken".
737:
was reported to be in the range of 1–20 μg/kg (or .001 ppm - 1 part-per-billion) in food, and 5–50 μg/kg (.005 ppm) in dietary cattle feed in 2003.
5607:
5321:
2911:
Sahoo PK, Mukherjee SC (2001). Immunosuppressive effects of aflatoxin B1 in Indian major carp (Labeo rohita). Comp
Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis. 24(3):143-9.
1991:
Espada Y, Domingo M, Gomez J, Calvo MA (November 1992). "Pathological lesions following an experimental intoxication with aflatoxin B1 in broiler chickens".
312:
5545:
1834:
Viegas S, Veiga L, Malta-Vacas J, Sabino R, Figueredo P, Almeida A, et al. (2012). "Occupational exposure to aflatoxin (AFB₁) in poultry production".
135:
5383:
4155:
546:
5427:
5289:
5397:
2441:
Ross RK, Yuan JM, Yu MC, Wogan GN, Qian GS, Tu JT, et al. (April 1992). "Urinary aflatoxin biomarkers and risk of hepatocellular carcinoma".
5728:
898:(SAM) of the two hydroxyl groups on the xanthone part of demethysterigmatocystin by two different methyltransferases, OmtB and OmtA. This yields
1323:
710:
5241:
681:
is a common contaminant in a variety of foods including peanuts, cottonseed meal, corn, and other grains; as well as animal feeds. Aflatoxin B
5388:
5336:
2206:
2070:
5591:
5402:
5331:
5256:
5075:
1009:
is estimated to be 17.9 mg/kg body weight in female rats and 7.2 mg/kg body weight in male rats. Still in male rats, the intraperitoneal LD
5579:
5457:
3365:
1239:
Joint United
Nations' Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)/World Health Organization (WHO) Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA)
1046:
in chickens showed decreased hepatic microsomal cytochrome P-450 concentration, reduction in feed consumption and decreased weight gain.
4592:
2877:
Wangikar PB, Dwivedi P, Sinha N, Sharma AK, Telang AG (April 2005). "Effects of aflatoxin B1 on embryo fetal development in rabbits".
1969:
2225:
Singh R, Hsieh DP (January 1977). "Aflatoxin biosynthetic pathway: elucidation by using blocked mutants of
Aspergillus parasiticus".
5759:
5596:
5555:
5520:
5505:
5487:
5412:
5191:
3494:
3486:
726:
718:
287:
2924:
5601:
5437:
5368:
5363:
3490:
3378:
3230:
3464:
5540:
5447:
5311:
5226:
4989:
3593:
2026:
Larsson P, Busk L, Tjälve H (May 1994). "Hepatic and extrahepatic bioactivation and GSH conjugation of aflatoxin B1 in sheep".
5569:
5442:
5279:
5246:
4283:
4240:
1058:
in fish showed fish to present with preneoplastic lesions, concurrently with changes in gill, pancreas, intestine and spleen.
382:
1308:
5345:
5299:
4735:
4585:
3745:
3389:
3384:
1317:
902:-methylsterigmatocystin. In the final steps there is an oxidative cleavage of the aromatic ring and loss of one carbon in
832:
prefers hot and dry conditions. Its optimal growth at 37 °C (99 °F) contributes to its pathogenicity in humans.
526:
28:
632:
502:
5574:
940:
492:
230:
439:
5628:
5326:
5284:
4638:
3193:
251:
1226:
in nuts, dried fruits, cereals and spices to range from 2–12 μg/kg, while the maximum permitted level for aflatoxin B
586:
1029:
in animals showed moderate to severe liver damage. In monkeys for instance, subacute toxicity studies showed portal
5623:
3504:
5653:
5373:
879:
706:
296:
InChI=1S/C17H12O6/c1-20-10-6-11-14(8-4-5-21-17(8)22-11)15-13(10)7-2-3-9(18)12(7)16(19)23-15/h4-6,8,17H,2-3H2,1H3
5515:
4876:
4868:
4711:
3794:
2807:
Newberne PM, Wogan GN (April 1968). "Sequential morphologic changes in aflatoxin B carcinogenesis in the rat".
686:
2949:
Rustom IY (1997). "Aflatoxin in food and feed: Occurrence, legislation and inactivation by physical methods".
3186:
1234:
in animal feeds set by the EU range from 5–50 μg/kg and these levels are much lower than those set in the US.
5774:
5495:
5407:
4848:
4723:
3578:
3566:
3370:
3359:
538:
5708:
2612:
Azziz-Baumgartner E, Lindblade K, Gieseker K, Rogers HS, Kieszak S, Njapau H, et al. (December 2005).
1258:) to be 15 μg/kg in raw peanuts and 10 μg/kg in processeds peanut; while the tolerance level of aflatoxin B
550:
193:
5784:
5563:
5483:
5378:
5201:
5080:
3550:
3308:
1357:
155:
2061:
Patterson DS (1977). "Aflatoxin and related compounds: Introduction". In Wyllie TD, Morehouse LG (eds.).
5585:
5535:
5530:
5274:
5022:
4401:
4036:
3397:
892:
462:
434:
427:
862:
1098:, which is characterized by the development of liver cell carcinoma, has been reported in rat studies.
962:
578:
5779:
5698:
5012:
4841:
4696:
3588:
3223:
3003:
Park DL, Liang B (October 1993). "Perspectives on aflatoxin control for human food and animal feed".
2286:
1423:
McLean M, Dutton MF (February 1995). "Cellular interactions and metabolism of aflatoxin: an update".
562:
554:
67:
50:
2156:
268:
5769:
5764:
5749:
5714:
5658:
5417:
5115:
4566:
931:
gene, a tumor suppressing gene, and at several guanine residues in the 12th and 13th codons of the
852:(PKS), together known as norsolorinic acid synthase. The biosynthesis begins with the synthesis of
849:
845:
518:
101:
44:
1017:
is estimated to be 6.0 mg/kg body weight. Symptoms include anorexia, malaise, and low-grade fever.
5316:
5269:
5211:
5095:
4767:
4504:
3674:
3632:
3509:
3340:
3160:
3117:
3074:
2859:
2789:
2633:
2466:
2196:
1869:
1816:
1154:
to have significant immunosuppressive effects including reduced serum total globulin and reduced
1107:
856:
by the FAS, which then becomes the starter unit for the iterative type I PKS. The PKS adds seven
656:
542:
2157:"Definition of Aspergillosis | Aspergillosis | Types of Fungal Diseases | Fungal Diseases | CDC"
1497:"Detection and estimation of aflatoxin B1 in feeds and its biodegradation by bacteria and fungi"
1001:
is estimated to be 0.3–17.9 mg/kg body weight for most animal species. For instance, the oral LD
506:
2669:
Tulpule PG, Madhavan TV, Gopalan C (May 1964). "Effect of feeding aflatoxin to young monkeys".
522:
5754:
5643:
5452:
5138:
4772:
4757:
4739:
4653:
4509:
4453:
3740:
3152:
3109:
2894:
2851:
2816:
2781:
2727:
2686:
2651:
2591:
2515:
2458:
2423:
2377:
2312:
2242:
2202:
2114:
2066:
2043:
2008:
1973:
1938:
1903:
1861:
1808:
1763:
1671:
1635:
1600:
1551:
1440:
714:
702:
671:
530:
2402:"The chemistry and biology of aflatoxin B(1): from mutational spectrometry to carcinogenesis"
1722:
1458:
5294:
5206:
5186:
5034:
5004:
4620:
4448:
4266:
3872:
3788:
3730:
3536:
3144:
3101:
3066:
3012:
2985:
2958:
2886:
2843:
2771:
2763:
2717:
2678:
2641:
2625:
2581:
2573:
2542:
2505:
2497:
2450:
2413:
2367:
2359:
2302:
2294:
2234:
2104:
2035:
2000:
1965:
1930:
1851:
1843:
1798:
1790:
1753:
1702:
1663:
1627:
1590:
1582:
1541:
1531:
1432:
1366:
1135:
1039:
510:
335:
947:
by cytochrome p450. This active form then intercalates between DNA base residues and forms
566:
239:
175:
5510:
5216:
5178:
5148:
4994:
4927:
4792:
4777:
4701:
4668:
4531:
4436:
4031:
3686:
3583:
3428:
3403:
3288:
3216:
3092:
Richard JL (January 2008). "Discovery of Aflatoxins and Significant Historical Features".
3047:
FAO/WHO (1992). FAO/WHO Standards Programme. Codex Alimentarius Commission, Alinorm 93/12.
3038:
FAO/WHO (1990). FAO/WHO Standards Programme. Codex Alimentarius Commission, Alinorm 91/29.
2273:
Yu J, Chang PK, Ehrlich KC, Cary JW, Bhatnagar D, Cleveland TE, et al. (March 2004).
1758:
1741:
1091:
570:
111:
1402:
1384:
1198:
US food safety regulations have set a maximum permitted level of 20 μg/kg for aflatoxin B
558:
272:
197:
2928:
2290:
582:
5633:
4797:
4762:
4658:
4473:
4021:
3961:
3784:
3776:
3523:
3477:
3246:
3057:
Wannop CC (January 1961). "The Histopathology of Turkey "X" Disease in Great Britain".
2646:
2613:
2586:
2561:
2372:
2347:
1595:
1570:
1546:
1519:
907:
730:
662:
603:
498:
404:
3148:
2962:
2682:
2510:
2485:
2307:
2274:
2065:. Vol. 1 (1st ed.). New York, NY, USA: Marcel Dekker Inc. pp. 131–135.
1187:
in foods and these include the maximum permitted, or recommended levels of aflatoxin B
5743:
5638:
5158:
4966:
4827:
4807:
4718:
4683:
4549:
note: some toxins are produced by lower species and pass through intermediate species
4463:
4406:
4160:
4123:
4071:
4016:
4001:
3877:
3837:
3780:
3574:
3423:
3346:
3016:
2767:
2454:
2238:
2004:
1873:
1496:
1477:
1436:
1289:
1139:
1126:
in rabbits have been reported to include reduced fetal weights, wrist drop, enlarged
887:
186:
3164:
3121:
2863:
2793:
2470:
2298:
1820:
594:
5688:
5648:
5163:
4984:
4976:
4946:
4817:
4802:
4648:
4526:
4516:
4499:
4468:
4416:
4380:
4339:
4293:
4230:
4133:
4056:
3991:
3826:
3822:
3818:
3804:
3618:
3454:
3251:
1571:"Differential mutagenicity of aflatoxin B1 in the liver of neonatal and adult mice"
1520:"Burden of Disease Associated with Dietary Exposure to Aflatoxins in China in 2020"
1183:
Several countries around the world have rules and regulations governing aflatoxin B
1155:
1030:
514:
2109:
2092:
219:
2847:
2501:
1847:
1794:
1230:
in infant foods is set at 0.1 μg/kg. The maximum permitted levels for aflatoxin B
5718:
5678:
5264:
5221:
5153:
5133:
5110:
5085:
4889:
4884:
4862:
4855:
4812:
4782:
4752:
4608:
4489:
4443:
4431:
4288:
4235:
4185:
4091:
4086:
4076:
4041:
4026:
3892:
3560:
3531:
3351:
3329:
3266:
3256:
1403:"Summary Table by Chemical of Carcinogenicity Results in CPDB on 1547 Chemicals"
1075:
857:
803:
790:. Other liver lesions include enlargement of hepatic cells, fatty infiltration,
783:
698:
2546:
2330:
1667:
935:
gene, a gene whose product controls cellular proliferation signals. Aflatoxin B
5479:
5231:
5196:
5125:
4912:
4787:
4747:
4616:
4521:
4458:
4375:
4353:
4298:
4261:
4205:
4175:
4165:
4106:
4096:
4081:
4066:
4061:
4046:
3966:
3951:
3867:
3857:
3852:
3842:
3809:
3499:
3459:
3276:
3271:
3105:
2890:
2418:
2401:
2039:
1934:
1894:
Kew MC (September 2013). "Aflatoxins as a cause of hepatocellular carcinoma".
1495:
Azab RM, Tawakkol WM, Hamad AM, Abou-Elmagd MK, El-Agrab HM, Refai MK (2005).
1370:
1127:
1079:
795:
667:
396:
363:
166:
3113:
2363:
1070:
at doses that ranged from 3–5 μmol/L resulted in the formation of aflatoxin B
778:
toxicity. In animal studies, pathological lesions associated with aflatoxin B
5525:
5236:
5168:
5143:
5105:
5070:
5062:
5044:
5029:
5017:
4961:
4938:
4906:
4901:
4691:
4426:
4421:
4411:
4391:
4334:
4324:
4319:
4278:
4190:
4006:
3986:
3976:
3936:
3931:
3911:
3882:
3832:
3814:
3767:
3759:
3666:
3650:
3261:
1631:
853:
787:
694:
651:
534:
2898:
2855:
2785:
2690:
2655:
2595:
2427:
2381:
2316:
2118:
1942:
1907:
1865:
1812:
1675:
1604:
1555:
3181:
3156:
2820:
2731:
2519:
2462:
2047:
2012:
1977:
1767:
1707:
1690:
1639:
1444:
749:
is mostly found in contaminated food and humans are exposed to aflatoxin B
472:
5500:
5090:
5039:
4895:
4835:
4663:
4633:
4329:
4309:
4220:
4215:
4180:
4170:
4145:
4101:
4051:
3996:
3971:
3956:
3921:
3916:
3847:
3799:
3772:
3718:
3646:
3640:
3626:
3612:
3603:
3299:
2246:
1970:
10.1002/(SICI)1099-1263(199601)16:1<85::AID-JAT315>3.0.CO;2-T
1856:
1803:
1343:
van Soest TC, Peerdeman AF (1970). "The crystal structures of aflatoxin B
1131:
799:
791:
757:
has also been reported in swine and poultry production. While aflatoxin B
480:
2577:
2091:
Hedayati MT, Pasqualotto AC, Warn PA, Bowyer P, Denning DW (June 2007).
753:
almost entirely through their diet. Occupational exposure to aflatoxin B
4956:
4673:
4643:
4577:
4484:
3946:
3941:
3926:
3887:
3862:
3699:
3679:
3319:
3078:
2989:
2776:
2722:
2705:
2637:
1536:
820:
400:
206:
80:)-4-Methoxy-2,3,6a,9a-tetrahydrocyclopentafurofurobenzopyran-1,11-dione
5673:
685:
is considered the most toxic aflatoxin and it is highly implicated in
5100:
5058:
4628:
4251:
4225:
4195:
4011:
3713:
3694:
3442:
2629:
2093:"Aspergillus flavus: human pathogen, allergen and mycotoxin producer"
2063:
Mycotoxic Fungi, Mycotoxins, Mycotoxicoses, an Encyclopaedic Handbook
1586:
1242:
The FAO/WHO JECFA has set the maximum permitted levels of aflatoxin B
948:
408:
146:
3070:
2614:"Case-control study of an acute aflatoxicosis outbreak, Kenya, 2004"
2132:
602:
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their
2335:. National Center for Biotechnology Information (US). January 1998.
5054:
4706:
4200:
4116:
4111:
3981:
3902:
3241:
2133:"Aspergillus flavus :: Center for Integrated Fungal Research"
961:
782:
intoxication include reduction in weight of liver, vacuolation of
468:
134:
124:
4365:
4273:
1691:"Methods for Detection of Aflatoxins in Agricultural Food Crops"
1484:. Nottingham, UK: Nottingham University Press. pp. 187–224.
991:
983:
toxicity studies have been conducted on various animal species.
939:
must first be metabolized into its reactive electrophilic form,
875:
590:
484:
476:
4581:
3212:
1723:"Worldwide regulations for mycotoxins in food and feed in 2003"
4951:
4210:
2976:
Park DL, Njapau H (1989). "Contamination issues, technology".
2533:
Agag BI (2004). "Mycotoxins in foods and feeds 1-Aflatoxins".
1142:, cardiac defects, and lenticular degeneration, among others.
721:(ELISA), among others, have been used to test for aflatoxin B
2400:
Smela ME, Currier SS, Bailey EA, Essigmann JM (April 2001).
574:
256:
1347:. I. The structure of the chloroform solvate of aflatoxin B
2486:"Chemical nature and biological effects of the aflatoxins"
1106:
Embryonic death and impaired embryonic development of the
869:
From this point on the biosynthetic pathway of aflatoxin B
2607:
2605:
906:-methylsterigmatocystin, which is catalyzed by OrdA, an
891:
steps in the biosynthetic pathway is the methylation by
2535:
Assiut University Bulletin for Environmental Researches
1222:
The EU has set maximum permitted levels for aflatoxin B
910:. Then a final recyclization occurs to form aflatoxin B
802:, regeneration of nodules, and bile duct proliferation/
733:, the worldwide maximum tolerated levels of aflatoxin B
620:
2919:
2917:
1836:
Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health. Part A
1783:
Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health. Part A
705:. Several sampling and analytical methods including
5616:
5554:
5478:
5433:
2024 United Kingdom Shigatoxigenic E. coli outbreak
5255:
5177:
5124:
5053:
5003:
4975:
4937:
4826:
4734:
4682:
4615:
4482:
4389:
4363:
4352:
4307:
4249:
4143:
4132:
3901:
3758:
3729:
3665:
3602:
3549:
3522:
3475:
3441:
3414:
3327:
3318:
3307:
3298:
3287:
2275:"Clustered pathway genes in aflatoxin biosynthesis"
2198:
Medicinal Natural Products: A Biosynthetic Approach
1569:Chen T, Heflich RH, Moore MM, Mei N (March 2010).
1689:Wacoo AP, Wendiro D, Vuzi PC, Hawumba JF (2014).
2086:
2084:
2082:
959:a characteristic mutation seen with this toxin.
951:with guanine residues, most commonly aflatoxin B
218:
1476:Galvano F, Ritieni A, Piva G, Pietri A (2005).
1066:Treatment of human liver cells with aflatoxin B
110:
1896:Journal of Gastrointestinal and Liver Diseases
320:O=C5C=4C(=O)Oc3c1c(OC2O\C=C/C12)cc(OC)c3C=4CC5
4593:
3224:
2978:Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society
2395:
2393:
2391:
1351:and the absolute configuration of aflatoxin B
1202:, in combination with the other aflatoxins (B
8:
5608:Spanish Agency for Food Safety and Nutrition
5423:2017–2018 South African listeriosis outbreak
5322:1985 Austrian diethylene glycol wine scandal
2346:Fernández-Medarde A, Santos E (March 2011).
1518:Chen T, Liu J, Li Y, Wei S (February 2022).
269:DTXSID00873175 DTXSID9020035, DTXSID00873175
5546:United Kingdom food information regulations
1889:
1887:
1885:
1883:
1246:in combination with the other aflatoxins (B
4600:
4586:
4578:
4360:
4140:
3447:
3324:
3315:
3304:
3295:
3231:
3217:
3209:
2348:"Ras in cancer and developmental diseases"
1054:Subchronic toxicity studies of aflatoxin B
271:
196:
174:
17:
5384:2008 United States salmonellosis outbreak
4156:Androctonus australis hector insect toxin
2775:
2721:
2645:
2585:
2509:
2417:
2371:
2306:
2201:(3rd ed.). Wiley. pp. 122–124.
2190:
2188:
2186:
2184:
2182:
2180:
2178:
2176:
2108:
1855:
1802:
1757:
1706:
1594:
1545:
1535:
725:contamination in foods. According to the
689:(HCC) in humans. In animals, aflatoxin B
238:
5428:2018 Australian strawberry contamination
5290:Morinaga Milk arsenic poisoning incident
2562:"Acute Toxicity of Aflatoxin B1 in Rats"
2220:
2218:
1025:Subacute toxicity studies of aflatoxin B
5398:2011 United States listeriosis outbreak
3005:Trends in Food Science & Technology
2227:Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics
1575:Environmental and Molecular Mutagenesis
1300:
1262:alone is 5 μg/kg for dairy cattle feed.
317:
292:
267:
5413:2015 Mozambique funeral beer poisoning
4990:Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA)
2279:Applied and Environmental Microbiology
1324:Cambridge Crystallographic Data Centre
1122:The teratogenic effects of aflatoxin B
711:high-performance liquid chromatography
187:
2268:
2266:
2264:
2262:
2260:
2258:
2256:
1478:"Mycotoxins in the human food chain."
299:Key: OQIQSTLJSLGHID-UHFFFAOYSA-N
154:
34:Chemical structure of (−)-aflatoxin B
7:
5704:
5592:Institute for Food Safety and Health
5332:Australian meat substitution scandal
5300:Moroccan oil poisoning disaster 1959
5076:Arsenic contamination of groundwater
1391:. U.S. National Library of Medicine.
5724:
5580:Food Information and Control Agency
1656:Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology
1292:in terms of fatalities documented.
1176:has been used to remove aflatoxin B
1172:use of a single bacterial species,
209:
3510:Staphylococcal Enterotoxin B (SEB)
2704:Dalvi RR, McGowan C (March 1984).
1727:Food and Agricultural Organization
1501:Egyptian Journal of Natural Toxins
1150:Studies in fish showed aflatoxin B
14:
5597:International Food Safety Network
5521:International Food Safety Network
5242:Variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease
5192:Acid-hydrolyzed vegetable protein
4919:Shigatoxigenic and verotoxigenic
2618:Environmental Health Perspectives
1759:10.3168/jds.s0022-0302(93)77414-7
1742:"Biological action of mycotoxins"
844:is derived from both a dedicated
727:Food and Agriculture Organization
719:enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay
5723:
5713:
5703:
5694:
5693:
5682:
5672:
5602:Ministry of Food and Drug Safety
5438:Kobayashi red yeast rice scandal
5369:2008 Canada listeriosis outbreak
5364:ICA meat repackaging controversy
4562:
4561:
3180:
2768:10.1111/j.1478-3231.2011.02474.x
2332:The p53 tumor suppressor protein
1463:The Carcinogenic Potency Project
610:
438:
433:
347:
43:
27:
5541:Quality Assurance International
5448:Food safety incidents in Taiwan
5418:2017 Brazil Operation Weak Meat
5312:1971 Iraq poison grain disaster
5227:Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon
3594:Extracellular adenylate cyclase
2299:10.1128/AEM.70.3.1253-1262.2004
1425:Pharmacology & Therapeutics
1163:Risk management and regulations
1078:, 8-hydroxyguanine lesions and
966:Adapted from Semela et al. 2001
606:(at 25 °C , 100 kPa).
5570:European Food Safety Authority
5443:Food safety incidents in China
5280:1858 Bradford sweets poisoning
5247:Water fluoridation controversy
1993:Research in Veterinary Science
1459:"Aflatoxin B1 (CAS 1162-65-8)"
1280:contamination of peanut meal.
383:Occupational safety and health
353:
341:
1:
3746:Fibronectin binding protein A
3149:10.1016/S0140-6736(82)92411-4
2963:10.1016/S0308-8146(96)00096-9
2683:10.1016/s0140-6736(64)91748-9
1958:Journal of Applied Toxicology
1318:Cambridge Structural Database
5575:Food and Drug Administration
5257:Food contamination incidents
3204:. American Chemical Society.
3017:10.1016/0924-2244(93)90104-I
2879:Food and Chemical Toxicology
2848:10.1080/00071660310001618352
2502:10.1128/BR.30.2.460-470.1966
2455:10.1016/0140-6736(92)91528-g
2239:10.1016/0003-9861(77)90193-x
2005:10.1016/0034-5288(92)90127-n
1848:10.1080/15287394.2012.721164
1795:10.1080/15287394.2013.826569
1695:Journal of Applied Chemistry
1437:10.1016/0163-7258(94)00054-7
1271:The discovery of aflatoxin B
918:Mechanism of carcinogenicity
5629:Food and drink prohibitions
5403:Bihar school meal poisoning
5327:United Kingdom BSE outbreak
5285:1900 English beer poisoning
4639:Antibiotic use in livestock
3487:Staphylococcus aureus alpha
3465:Panton–Valentine leukocidin
2560:Butler WH (December 1964).
2110:10.1099/mic.0.2007/007641-0
5801:
5624:Curing (food preservation)
4697:Monosodium glutamate (MSG)
3505:Toxic shock syndrome toxin
2547:10.21608/auber.2004.150623
1740:Coulombe RA (March 1993).
1668:10.1016/j.taap.2008.04.004
1174:Flavobacterium aurantiacum
1110:in chickens by aflatoxin B
693:has also been shown to be
5667:
5654:Genetically modified food
5506:Food labeling regulations
5374:2008 Chinese milk scandal
4557:
4544:
4402:(+)-Allopumiliotoxin 267A
3450:
3106:10.1080/15569540802462040
2891:10.1016/j.fct.2005.01.004
2566:British Journal of Cancer
1935:10.1016/j.tox.2012.06.012
1371:10.1107/S0567740870005228
880:Baeyer-Villiger oxidation
729:(FAO), a division of the
707:thin-layer chromatography
600:
414:
380:
375:
328:
308:
283:
94:
86:
66:
61:
42:
26:
5760:Male reproductive toxins
5516:Food safety in Australia
4712:High-fructose corn syrup
3795:beta-Nitropropionic acid
2364:10.1177/1947601911411084
1746:Journal of Dairy Science
687:hepatocellular carcinoma
493:Precautionary statements
5496:Acceptable daily intake
5408:2013 horse meat scandal
4849:Clostridium perfringens
3579:Heat-labile enterotoxin
3570:heat-stable enterotoxin
2836:British Poultry Science
2490:Bacteriological Reviews
2419:10.1093/carcin/22.4.535
2040:10.1093/carcin/15.5.947
1632:10.1002/tera.1420370203
1482:The Mycotoxin Blue Book
1180:from peanuts and corn.
5564:Centre for Food Safety
5379:2008 Irish pork crisis
5081:Benzene in soft drinks
3688:Bacillus thuringiensis
2484:Wogan GN (June 1966).
1042:studies of aflatoxin B
967:
666:. It is a very potent
5586:Food Standards Agency
5536:Organic certification
5531:Nutrition facts label
5275:Esing Bakery incident
5063:environment pollution
965:
878:-oxidase, AvfA, in a
5355:2006 North American
5013:Acesulfame potassium
4842:Campylobacter jejuni
4736:Intestinal parasites
4609:Consumer food safety
3589:Pseudomonas exotoxin
3202:Molecule of the Week
3189:at Wikimedia Commons
1842:(22–23): 1330–1340.
1480:. In Diaz DE (ed.).
1309:"AFLATC: Aflatoxin B
997:range of aflatoxin B
896:-adenosyl methionine
836:Biosynthetic pathway
68:Preferred IUPAC name
51:Ball-and-stick model
5659:Conspiracy theories
5212:Heterocyclic amines
5116:Shellfish poisoning
3143:(8285): 1346–1348.
2756:Liver International
2578:10.1038/bjc.1964.87
2291:2004ApEnM..70.1253Y
2103:(Pt 6): 1677–1692.
1708:10.1155/2014/706291
1358:Acta Crystallogr. B
1320:: Access Structures
1313:chloroform solvate"
1219:European Union (EU)
1191:for certain foods.
1051:Subchronic toxicity
979:Several aflatoxin B
850:polyketide synthase
846:fatty acid synthase
741:Sources of exposure
371: g·mol
23:
5317:Toxic oil syndrome
5270:Swill milk scandal
5096:Diethylstilbestrol
4768:Diphyllobothriasis
4505:Alpha-Bungarotoxin
3675:Lipopolysaccharide
3633:Pore-forming toxin
2990:10.1007/BF02661958
2723:10.3382/ps.0630485
2352:Genes & Cancer
2195:Dewick PM (2009).
1537:10.3390/nu14051027
1278:Aspergillus flavus
1195:United States (US)
1114:has been reported.
1108:bursa of Fabricius
968:
830:Aspergillus flavus
825:Aspergillus flavus
817:Aspergillus flavus
811:Aspergillus flavus
657:Aspergillus flavus
633:Infobox references
18:
5737:
5736:
5644:Food preservation
5453:Foodborne illness
5005:Sugar substitutes
4758:Cryptosporidiosis
4740:parasitic disease
4654:HGH controversies
4621:food contaminants
4575:
4574:
4540:
4539:
4510:Beta-Bungarotoxin
4454:Pumiliotoxin 251D
4348:
4347:
3754:
3753:
3741:Clumping factor A
3661:
3660:
3545:
3544:
3518:
3517:
3437:
3436:
3185:Media related to
2984:(10): 1402–1405.
2677:(7340): 962–963.
2624:(12): 1779–1783.
2449:(8799): 943–946.
2208:978-0-470-74279-2
2137:www.cifr.ncsu.edu
2072:978-0-8247-6550-7
1729:. United Nations.
1365:(12): 1940–1947.
1267:Notable exposures
1033:and fatty change.
1022:Subacute toxicity
863:norsolorinic acid
715:mass spectrometry
703:immunosuppression
641:Chemical compound
639:
638:
463:Hazard statements
252:CompTox Dashboard
136:Interactive image
5792:
5727:
5726:
5717:
5707:
5706:
5697:
5696:
5689:Drink portal
5687:
5686:
5685:
5677:
5676:
5588:(United Kingdom)
5337:Jack in the Box
5308:
5295:Minamata disease
5207:Food irradiation
5187:4-Hydroxynonenal
5035:Sodium cyclamate
4878:Escherichia coli
4870:Escherichia coli
4602:
4595:
4588:
4579:
4565:
4564:
4493:
4449:Histrionicotoxin
4395:
4369:
4361:
4313:
4267:Alpha-latrotoxin
4255:
4149:
4141:
3873:Sterigmatocystin
3825:, Fumonisin B3,
3789:epsilon-amanitin
3708:B. thuringiensis
3537:Diphtheria toxin
3480:
3448:
3417:
3333:
3325:
3316:
3305:
3296:
3233:
3226:
3219:
3210:
3205:
3184:
3169:
3168:
3132:
3126:
3125:
3100:(3–4): 171–201.
3089:
3083:
3082:
3054:
3048:
3045:
3039:
3036:
3030:
3027:
3021:
3020:
3000:
2994:
2993:
2973:
2967:
2966:
2946:
2940:
2939:
2937:
2936:
2927:. Archived from
2921:
2912:
2909:
2903:
2902:
2874:
2868:
2867:
2831:
2825:
2824:
2804:
2798:
2797:
2779:
2751:
2745:
2742:
2736:
2735:
2725:
2701:
2695:
2694:
2666:
2660:
2659:
2649:
2630:10.1289/ehp.8384
2609:
2600:
2599:
2589:
2557:
2551:
2550:
2530:
2524:
2523:
2513:
2481:
2475:
2474:
2438:
2432:
2431:
2421:
2397:
2386:
2385:
2375:
2343:
2337:
2336:
2327:
2321:
2320:
2310:
2285:(3): 1253–1262.
2270:
2251:
2250:
2222:
2213:
2212:
2192:
2171:
2170:
2168:
2167:
2153:
2147:
2146:
2144:
2143:
2129:
2123:
2122:
2112:
2088:
2077:
2076:
2058:
2052:
2051:
2023:
2017:
2016:
1988:
1982:
1981:
1953:
1947:
1946:
1918:
1912:
1911:
1891:
1878:
1877:
1859:
1831:
1825:
1824:
1806:
1778:
1772:
1771:
1761:
1737:
1731:
1730:
1719:
1713:
1712:
1710:
1686:
1680:
1679:
1650:
1644:
1643:
1615:
1609:
1608:
1598:
1587:10.1002/em.20518
1566:
1560:
1559:
1549:
1539:
1515:
1509:
1508:
1492:
1486:
1485:
1473:
1467:
1466:
1455:
1449:
1448:
1420:
1414:
1413:
1407:
1399:
1393:
1392:
1381:
1375:
1374:
1340:
1334:
1333:
1331:
1330:
1305:
1136:caudal vertebrae
1040:Chronic toxicity
1036:Chronic toxicity
945:-8,9-exo-epoxide
623:
617:
614:
613:
596:
592:
588:
584:
580:
576:
572:
568:
564:
560:
556:
552:
548:
544:
540:
536:
532:
528:
524:
520:
516:
512:
508:
504:
500:
486:
482:
478:
474:
470:
442:
437:
370:
355:
349:
343:
336:Chemical formula
276:
275:
260:
258:
242:
222:
211:
200:
189:
178:
158:
138:
114:
47:
31:
24:
5800:
5799:
5795:
5794:
5793:
5791:
5790:
5789:
5740:
5739:
5738:
5733:
5683:
5681:
5679:Food portal
5671:
5663:
5612:
5550:
5511:Food libel laws
5474:
5302:
5251:
5217:Modified starch
5179:Food processing
5173:
5120:
5049:
4999:
4995:Sodium benzoate
4971:
4933:
4928:Vibrio cholerae
4822:
4793:Gnathostomiasis
4778:Fasciolopsiasis
4730:
4678:
4669:Mercury in fish
4611:
4606:
4576:
4571:
4553:
4536:
4532:Cardiotoxin III
4488:
4483:
4478:
4390:
4385:
4364:
4356:
4344:
4308:
4303:
4250:
4245:
4144:
4136:
4128:
4032:Resiniferatoxin
3897:
3750:
3732:
3725:
3690:delta endotoxin
3657:
3598:
3584:Pertussis toxin
3552:
3541:
3514:
3476:
3471:
3433:
3429:Listeriolysin O
3415:
3410:
3328:
3310:
3290:
3283:
3237:
3197:
3192:
3177:
3172:
3134:
3133:
3129:
3091:
3090:
3086:
3071:10.2307/1587768
3056:
3055:
3051:
3046:
3042:
3037:
3033:
3028:
3024:
3011:(10): 334–342.
3002:
3001:
2997:
2975:
2974:
2970:
2948:
2947:
2943:
2934:
2932:
2923:
2922:
2915:
2910:
2906:
2876:
2875:
2871:
2833:
2832:
2828:
2809:Cancer Research
2806:
2805:
2801:
2753:
2752:
2748:
2743:
2739:
2710:Poultry Science
2703:
2702:
2698:
2668:
2667:
2663:
2611:
2610:
2603:
2559:
2558:
2554:
2532:
2531:
2527:
2483:
2482:
2478:
2440:
2439:
2435:
2399:
2398:
2389:
2345:
2344:
2340:
2329:
2328:
2324:
2272:
2271:
2254:
2224:
2223:
2216:
2209:
2194:
2193:
2174:
2165:
2163:
2155:
2154:
2150:
2141:
2139:
2131:
2130:
2126:
2090:
2089:
2080:
2073:
2060:
2059:
2055:
2025:
2024:
2020:
1990:
1989:
1985:
1955:
1954:
1950:
1920:
1919:
1915:
1893:
1892:
1881:
1833:
1832:
1828:
1789:(15): 944–951.
1780:
1779:
1775:
1739:
1738:
1734:
1721:
1720:
1716:
1688:
1687:
1683:
1652:
1651:
1647:
1617:
1616:
1612:
1568:
1567:
1563:
1517:
1516:
1512:
1494:
1493:
1489:
1475:
1474:
1470:
1457:
1456:
1452:
1422:
1421:
1417:
1405:
1401:
1400:
1396:
1383:
1382:
1378:
1354:
1350:
1346:
1342:
1341:
1337:
1328:
1326:
1312:
1307:
1306:
1302:
1298:
1274:
1269:
1261:
1257:
1253:
1249:
1245:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1213:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1190:
1186:
1179:
1170:
1165:
1153:
1125:
1113:
1097:
1092:carcinogenicity
1087:Carcinogenicity
1073:
1069:
1057:
1045:
1028:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1000:
995:
982:
977:
954:
944:
938:
925:
920:
913:
872:
843:
838:
814:
781:
777:
773:
768:
760:
756:
752:
748:
743:
736:
724:
701:, and to cause
692:
684:
680:
675:
648:
642:
635:
630:
629:
628: ?)
619:
615:
611:
607:
495:
465:
451:
430:
393:
368:
358:
352:
346:
338:
324:
321:
316:
315:
304:
301:
300:
297:
291:
290:
279:
261:
254:
245:
225:
212:
181:
161:
141:
128:
117:
104:
90:
82:
81:
57:
56:
48:
38:
37:
32:
22:
12:
11:
5:
5798:
5796:
5788:
5787:
5782:
5777:
5775:Spermatotoxins
5772:
5767:
5762:
5757:
5752:
5742:
5741:
5735:
5734:
5732:
5731:
5721:
5711:
5701:
5691:
5668:
5665:
5664:
5662:
5661:
5656:
5651:
5646:
5641:
5636:
5634:Food marketing
5631:
5626:
5620:
5618:
5617:Related topics
5614:
5613:
5611:
5610:
5605:
5599:
5594:
5589:
5583:
5577:
5572:
5567:
5560:
5558:
5552:
5551:
5549:
5548:
5543:
5538:
5533:
5528:
5523:
5518:
5513:
5508:
5503:
5498:
5492:
5490:
5476:
5475:
5473:
5472:
5471:
5470:
5465:
5460:
5450:
5445:
5440:
5435:
5430:
5425:
5420:
5415:
5410:
5405:
5400:
5395:
5386:
5381:
5376:
5371:
5366:
5361:
5352:
5343:
5334:
5329:
5324:
5319:
5314:
5309:
5297:
5292:
5287:
5282:
5277:
5272:
5267:
5261:
5259:
5253:
5252:
5250:
5249:
5244:
5239:
5234:
5229:
5224:
5219:
5214:
5209:
5204:
5202:Food additives
5199:
5194:
5189:
5183:
5181:
5175:
5174:
5172:
5171:
5166:
5161:
5156:
5151:
5146:
5141:
5136:
5130:
5128:
5122:
5121:
5119:
5118:
5113:
5108:
5103:
5098:
5093:
5088:
5083:
5078:
5073:
5067:
5065:
5051:
5050:
5048:
5047:
5042:
5037:
5032:
5027:
5026:
5025:
5015:
5009:
5007:
5001:
5000:
4998:
4997:
4992:
4987:
4981:
4979:
4973:
4972:
4970:
4969:
4964:
4959:
4954:
4949:
4943:
4941:
4935:
4934:
4932:
4931:
4924:
4916:
4909:
4904:
4899:
4892:
4887:
4882:
4874:
4866:
4859:
4852:
4845:
4838:
4832:
4830:
4828:Microorganisms
4824:
4823:
4821:
4820:
4815:
4810:
4805:
4800:
4798:Paragonimiasis
4795:
4790:
4785:
4780:
4775:
4770:
4765:
4763:Cyclosporiasis
4760:
4755:
4750:
4744:
4742:
4732:
4731:
4729:
4728:
4727:
4726:
4716:
4715:
4714:
4704:
4699:
4694:
4688:
4686:
4684:Food additives
4680:
4679:
4677:
4676:
4671:
4666:
4661:
4659:Lead poisoning
4656:
4651:
4646:
4641:
4636:
4631:
4625:
4623:
4613:
4612:
4607:
4605:
4604:
4597:
4590:
4582:
4573:
4572:
4570:
4569:
4558:
4555:
4554:
4552:
4551:
4545:
4542:
4541:
4538:
4537:
4535:
4534:
4529:
4524:
4519:
4514:
4513:
4512:
4507:
4496:
4494:
4480:
4479:
4477:
4476:
4474:Zetekitoxin AB
4471:
4466:
4461:
4456:
4451:
4446:
4441:
4440:
4439:
4434:
4429:
4424:
4419:
4409:
4404:
4398:
4396:
4387:
4386:
4384:
4383:
4378:
4372:
4370:
4358:
4350:
4349:
4346:
4345:
4343:
4342:
4337:
4332:
4327:
4322:
4316:
4314:
4305:
4304:
4302:
4301:
4296:
4291:
4286:
4281:
4276:
4271:
4270:
4269:
4258:
4256:
4247:
4246:
4244:
4243:
4238:
4233:
4228:
4223:
4218:
4213:
4208:
4203:
4198:
4193:
4188:
4183:
4178:
4173:
4168:
4163:
4158:
4152:
4150:
4138:
4130:
4129:
4127:
4126:
4121:
4120:
4119:
4114:
4104:
4099:
4094:
4089:
4084:
4079:
4074:
4069:
4064:
4059:
4054:
4049:
4044:
4039:
4034:
4029:
4024:
4022:Pseudaconitine
4019:
4014:
4009:
4004:
3999:
3994:
3989:
3984:
3979:
3974:
3969:
3964:
3962:Djenkolic acid
3959:
3954:
3949:
3944:
3939:
3934:
3929:
3924:
3919:
3914:
3908:
3906:
3899:
3898:
3896:
3895:
3890:
3885:
3880:
3875:
3870:
3865:
3860:
3855:
3850:
3845:
3840:
3835:
3830:
3812:
3807:
3802:
3797:
3792:
3785:gamma-amanitin
3777:alpha-amanitin
3770:
3764:
3762:
3756:
3755:
3752:
3751:
3749:
3748:
3743:
3737:
3735:
3727:
3726:
3724:
3723:
3722:
3721:
3716:
3704:
3703:
3702:
3697:
3684:
3683:
3682:
3671:
3669:
3663:
3662:
3659:
3658:
3656:
3655:
3654:
3653:
3637:
3636:
3635:
3623:
3622:
3621:
3608:
3606:
3600:
3599:
3597:
3596:
3591:
3586:
3581:
3572:
3564:
3557:
3555:
3547:
3546:
3543:
3542:
3540:
3539:
3534:
3528:
3526:
3524:Actinomycetota
3520:
3519:
3516:
3515:
3513:
3512:
3507:
3502:
3497:
3483:
3481:
3478:Staphylococcus
3473:
3472:
3470:
3469:
3468:
3467:
3457:
3451:
3445:
3439:
3438:
3435:
3434:
3432:
3431:
3426:
3420:
3418:
3412:
3411:
3409:
3408:
3407:
3406:
3394:
3393:
3392:
3387:
3375:
3374:
3373:
3368:
3356:
3355:
3354:
3349:
3336:
3334:
3322:
3313:
3302:
3293:
3285:
3284:
3282:
3281:
3280:
3279:
3274:
3269:
3264:
3259:
3254:
3249:
3238:
3236:
3235:
3228:
3221:
3213:
3207:
3206:
3195:
3190:
3176:
3175:External links
3173:
3171:
3170:
3127:
3084:
3065:(4): 371–381.
3059:Avian Diseases
3049:
3040:
3031:
3022:
2995:
2968:
2951:Food Chemistry
2941:
2913:
2904:
2885:(4): 607–615.
2869:
2842:(4): 558–566.
2826:
2815:(4): 770–781.
2799:
2762:(4): 561–571.
2746:
2737:
2716:(3): 485–491.
2696:
2661:
2601:
2572:(4): 756–762.
2552:
2541:(1): 173–205.
2525:
2496:(2): 460–470.
2476:
2433:
2412:(4): 535–545.
2406:Carcinogenesis
2387:
2358:(3): 344–358.
2338:
2322:
2252:
2233:(1): 285–292.
2214:
2207:
2172:
2148:
2124:
2078:
2071:
2053:
2034:(5): 947–955.
2028:Carcinogenesis
2018:
1983:
1948:
1929:(1–3): 21–32.
1913:
1902:(3): 305–310.
1879:
1826:
1773:
1752:(3): 880–891.
1732:
1714:
1681:
1662:(2): 142–149.
1645:
1626:(2): 101–111.
1610:
1581:(2): 156–163.
1561:
1510:
1487:
1468:
1450:
1431:(2): 163–192.
1415:
1394:
1385:"Aflatoxin B1"
1376:
1352:
1348:
1344:
1335:
1310:
1299:
1297:
1294:
1272:
1268:
1265:
1264:
1263:
1259:
1255:
1251:
1247:
1243:
1240:
1236:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1220:
1216:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1196:
1188:
1184:
1177:
1168:
1164:
1161:
1160:
1159:
1151:
1148:
1147:Immunotoxicity
1144:
1143:
1123:
1120:
1119:Teratogenicity
1116:
1115:
1111:
1104:
1103:Embryotoxicity
1100:
1099:
1095:
1094:of aflatoxin B
1088:
1084:
1083:
1071:
1067:
1064:
1060:
1059:
1055:
1052:
1048:
1047:
1043:
1037:
1034:
1026:
1023:
1019:
1018:
1014:
1013:of aflatoxin B
1010:
1006:
1005:of aflatoxin B
1002:
998:
993:
988:
987:Acute toxicity
980:
976:
973:
952:
942:
936:
923:
919:
916:
911:
908:oxidoreductase
870:
841:
837:
834:
813:
808:
786:, and hepatic
779:
775:
771:
767:
764:
758:
754:
750:
746:
742:
739:
734:
731:United Nations
722:
690:
682:
678:
673:
663:A. parasiticus
646:
640:
637:
636:
631:
609:
608:
604:standard state
601:
598:
597:
539:P301+P330+P331
496:
491:
488:
487:
466:
461:
458:
457:
452:
447:
444:
443:
431:
426:
423:
422:
412:
411:
405:Acute toxicity
394:
391:
388:
387:
378:
377:
373:
372:
366:
360:
359:
356:
350:
344:
339:
334:
331:
330:
326:
325:
323:
322:
319:
311:
310:
309:
306:
305:
303:
302:
298:
295:
294:
286:
285:
284:
281:
280:
278:
277:
264:
262:
250:
247:
246:
244:
243:
235:
233:
227:
226:
224:
223:
215:
213:
205:
202:
201:
191:
183:
182:
180:
179:
171:
169:
163:
162:
160:
159:
151:
149:
143:
142:
140:
139:
131:
129:
122:
119:
118:
116:
115:
107:
105:
100:
97:
96:
92:
91:
88:
84:
83:
71:
70:
64:
63:
59:
58:
54:
53:of aflatoxin B
49:
40:
39:
35:
33:
20:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5797:
5786:
5785:Cyclopentenes
5783:
5781:
5778:
5776:
5773:
5771:
5768:
5766:
5763:
5761:
5758:
5756:
5753:
5751:
5748:
5747:
5745:
5730:
5722:
5720:
5716:
5712:
5710:
5702:
5700:
5692:
5690:
5680:
5675:
5670:
5669:
5666:
5660:
5657:
5655:
5652:
5650:
5647:
5645:
5642:
5640:
5639:Food politics
5637:
5635:
5632:
5630:
5627:
5625:
5622:
5621:
5619:
5615:
5609:
5606:
5604:(South Korea)
5603:
5600:
5598:
5595:
5593:
5590:
5587:
5584:
5581:
5578:
5576:
5573:
5571:
5568:
5565:
5562:
5561:
5559:
5557:
5553:
5547:
5544:
5542:
5539:
5537:
5534:
5532:
5529:
5527:
5524:
5522:
5519:
5517:
5514:
5512:
5509:
5507:
5504:
5502:
5499:
5497:
5494:
5493:
5491:
5489:
5485:
5481:
5477:
5469:
5468:United States
5466:
5464:
5461:
5459:
5456:
5455:
5454:
5451:
5449:
5446:
5444:
5441:
5439:
5436:
5434:
5431:
5429:
5426:
5424:
5421:
5419:
5416:
5414:
5411:
5409:
5406:
5404:
5401:
5399:
5396:
5394:
5392:
5389:2011 Germany
5387:
5385:
5382:
5380:
5377:
5375:
5372:
5370:
5367:
5365:
5362:
5360:
5358:
5353:
5351:
5349:
5346:1996 Odwalla
5344:
5342:
5340:
5335:
5333:
5330:
5328:
5325:
5323:
5320:
5318:
5315:
5313:
5310:
5306:
5301:
5298:
5296:
5293:
5291:
5288:
5286:
5283:
5281:
5278:
5276:
5273:
5271:
5268:
5266:
5263:
5262:
5260:
5258:
5254:
5248:
5245:
5243:
5240:
5238:
5235:
5233:
5230:
5228:
5225:
5223:
5220:
5218:
5215:
5213:
5210:
5208:
5205:
5203:
5200:
5198:
5195:
5193:
5190:
5188:
5185:
5184:
5182:
5180:
5176:
5170:
5167:
5165:
5162:
5160:
5157:
5155:
5152:
5150:
5147:
5145:
5142:
5140:
5137:
5135:
5132:
5131:
5129:
5127:
5123:
5117:
5114:
5112:
5109:
5107:
5104:
5102:
5099:
5097:
5094:
5092:
5089:
5087:
5084:
5082:
5079:
5077:
5074:
5072:
5069:
5068:
5066:
5064:
5060:
5056:
5052:
5046:
5043:
5041:
5038:
5036:
5033:
5031:
5028:
5024:
5021:
5020:
5019:
5016:
5014:
5011:
5010:
5008:
5006:
5002:
4996:
4993:
4991:
4988:
4986:
4983:
4982:
4980:
4978:
4977:Preservatives
4974:
4968:
4967:Methamidophos
4965:
4963:
4960:
4958:
4955:
4953:
4950:
4948:
4945:
4944:
4942:
4940:
4936:
4930:
4929:
4925:
4923:
4922:
4917:
4915:
4914:
4910:
4908:
4905:
4903:
4900:
4898:
4897:
4893:
4891:
4888:
4886:
4883:
4881:
4879:
4875:
4873:
4871:
4867:
4865:
4864:
4860:
4858:
4857:
4853:
4851:
4850:
4846:
4844:
4843:
4839:
4837:
4834:
4833:
4831:
4829:
4825:
4819:
4816:
4814:
4811:
4809:
4808:Toxoplasmosis
4806:
4804:
4801:
4799:
4796:
4794:
4791:
4789:
4786:
4784:
4781:
4779:
4776:
4774:
4771:
4769:
4766:
4764:
4761:
4759:
4756:
4754:
4751:
4749:
4746:
4745:
4743:
4741:
4737:
4733:
4725:
4722:
4721:
4720:
4719:Vegetable oil
4717:
4713:
4710:
4709:
4708:
4705:
4703:
4700:
4698:
4695:
4693:
4690:
4689:
4687:
4685:
4681:
4675:
4672:
4670:
4667:
4665:
4662:
4660:
4657:
4655:
4652:
4650:
4647:
4645:
4642:
4640:
4637:
4635:
4632:
4630:
4627:
4626:
4624:
4622:
4618:
4614:
4610:
4603:
4598:
4596:
4591:
4589:
4584:
4583:
4580:
4568:
4560:
4559:
4556:
4550:
4547:
4546:
4543:
4533:
4530:
4528:
4525:
4523:
4520:
4518:
4515:
4511:
4508:
4506:
4503:
4502:
4501:
4498:
4497:
4495:
4491:
4486:
4481:
4475:
4472:
4470:
4467:
4465:
4464:Samandaridine
4462:
4460:
4457:
4455:
4452:
4450:
4447:
4445:
4442:
4438:
4437:Marinobufagin
4435:
4433:
4430:
4428:
4425:
4423:
4420:
4418:
4415:
4414:
4413:
4410:
4408:
4407:Batrachotoxin
4405:
4403:
4400:
4399:
4397:
4393:
4388:
4382:
4379:
4377:
4374:
4373:
4371:
4367:
4362:
4359:
4355:
4351:
4341:
4338:
4336:
4333:
4331:
4328:
4326:
4323:
4321:
4318:
4317:
4315:
4311:
4306:
4300:
4297:
4295:
4292:
4290:
4287:
4285:
4282:
4280:
4277:
4275:
4272:
4268:
4265:
4264:
4263:
4260:
4259:
4257:
4253:
4248:
4242:
4239:
4237:
4234:
4232:
4229:
4227:
4224:
4222:
4219:
4217:
4214:
4212:
4209:
4207:
4204:
4202:
4199:
4197:
4194:
4192:
4189:
4187:
4184:
4182:
4179:
4177:
4174:
4172:
4169:
4167:
4164:
4162:
4161:Charybdotoxin
4159:
4157:
4154:
4153:
4151:
4147:
4142:
4139:
4135:
4131:
4125:
4122:
4118:
4115:
4113:
4110:
4109:
4108:
4105:
4103:
4100:
4098:
4095:
4093:
4090:
4088:
4085:
4083:
4080:
4078:
4075:
4073:
4072:Solauricidine
4070:
4068:
4065:
4063:
4060:
4058:
4055:
4053:
4050:
4048:
4045:
4043:
4040:
4038:
4035:
4033:
4030:
4028:
4025:
4023:
4020:
4018:
4017:Protoanemonin
4015:
4013:
4010:
4008:
4005:
4003:
4002:Oenanthotoxin
4000:
3998:
3995:
3993:
3990:
3988:
3985:
3983:
3980:
3978:
3975:
3973:
3970:
3968:
3965:
3963:
3960:
3958:
3955:
3953:
3950:
3948:
3945:
3943:
3940:
3938:
3935:
3933:
3930:
3928:
3925:
3923:
3920:
3918:
3915:
3913:
3910:
3909:
3907:
3904:
3900:
3894:
3891:
3889:
3886:
3884:
3881:
3879:
3878:Trichothecene
3876:
3874:
3871:
3869:
3866:
3864:
3861:
3859:
3856:
3854:
3851:
3849:
3846:
3844:
3841:
3839:
3838:Ibotenic acid
3836:
3834:
3831:
3828:
3824:
3820:
3816:
3813:
3811:
3808:
3806:
3803:
3801:
3798:
3796:
3793:
3790:
3786:
3782:
3781:beta-amanitin
3778:
3774:
3771:
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3766:
3765:
3763:
3761:
3757:
3747:
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3742:
3739:
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3607:
3605:
3601:
3595:
3592:
3590:
3587:
3585:
3582:
3580:
3576:
3575:Cholera toxin
3573:
3571:
3569:
3565:
3562:
3559:
3558:
3556:
3554:
3548:
3538:
3535:
3533:
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3458:
3456:
3453:
3452:
3449:
3446:
3444:
3440:
3430:
3427:
3425:
3424:Anthrax toxin
3422:
3421:
3419:
3413:
3405:
3402:
3401:
3400:
3399:
3395:
3391:
3388:
3386:
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3372:
3369:
3367:
3364:
3363:
3362:
3361:
3357:
3353:
3350:
3348:
3347:Tetanospasmin
3345:
3344:
3343:
3342:
3338:
3337:
3335:
3331:
3326:
3323:
3321:
3317:
3314:
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3119:
3115:
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3094:Toxin Reviews
3088:
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3064:
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3018:
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3006:
2999:
2996:
2991:
2987:
2983:
2979:
2972:
2969:
2964:
2960:
2956:
2952:
2945:
2942:
2931:on 2017-07-06
2930:
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2014:
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1863:
1858:
1857:10400.21/1927
1853:
1849:
1845:
1841:
1837:
1830:
1827:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1805:
1804:10400.21/2889
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1339:
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1325:
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1295:
1293:
1291:
1290:aflatoxicosis
1285:
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1241:
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1221:
1218:
1217:
1197:
1194:
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1181:
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1140:micropthalmia
1137:
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888:anthraquinone
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188:ECHA InfoCard
185:
184:
177:
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165:
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157:
156:ChEMBL1697694
153:
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109:
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85:
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69:
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60:
52:
46:
41:
30:
25:
16:
5649:Food quality
5556:Institutions
5390:
5356:
5347:
5338:
5222:Nitrosamines
4985:Benzoic acid
4947:Chlorpyrifos
4926:
4920:
4911:
4894:
4877:
4869:
4861:
4854:
4847:
4840:
4818:Trichuriasis
4803:Toxocariasis
4773:Enterobiasis
4649:Formaldehyde
4548:
4527:Calcicludine
4517:Calciseptine
4500:Bungarotoxin
4469:Tarichatoxin
4417:Arenobufagin
4381:Tetrodotoxin
4340:Tetrodotoxin
4294:Vanillotoxin
4231:Phaiodotoxin
4134:Invertebrate
4057:Solasodamine
3992:Lotaustralin
3827:Fumonisin B4
3823:Fumonisin B2
3819:Fumonisin B1
3805:Cytochalasin
3707:
3687:
3639:
3625:
3619:Superantigen
3611:
3567:
3455:Streptolysin
3396:
3377:
3358:
3339:
3201:
3194:"Aflatoxin B
3187:Aflatoxin B1
3140:
3136:
3130:
3097:
3093:
3087:
3062:
3058:
3052:
3043:
3034:
3025:
3008:
3004:
2998:
2981:
2977:
2971:
2954:
2950:
2944:
2933:. Retrieved
2929:the original
2925:"Aflatoxins"
2907:
2882:
2878:
2872:
2839:
2835:
2829:
2812:
2808:
2802:
2759:
2755:
2749:
2740:
2713:
2709:
2699:
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2664:
2621:
2617:
2569:
2565:
2555:
2538:
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2528:
2493:
2489:
2479:
2446:
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2436:
2409:
2405:
2355:
2351:
2341:
2331:
2325:
2282:
2278:
2230:
2226:
2197:
2164:. Retrieved
2160:
2151:
2140:. Retrieved
2136:
2127:
2100:
2097:Microbiology
2096:
2062:
2056:
2031:
2027:
2021:
1999:(3): 275–9.
1996:
1992:
1986:
1964:(1): 85–91.
1961:
1957:
1951:
1926:
1922:
1916:
1899:
1895:
1839:
1835:
1829:
1786:
1782:
1776:
1749:
1745:
1735:
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1698:
1694:
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1564:
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1471:
1462:
1453:
1428:
1424:
1418:
1409:
1397:
1388:
1379:
1362:
1356:
1338:
1327:. Retrieved
1316:
1303:
1286:
1282:
1277:
1270:
1182:
1173:
1166:
1156:bactericidal
1063:Genotoxicity
1031:inflammation
978:
969:
956:
932:
928:
921:
903:
899:
893:
884:
868:
848:(FAS) and a
839:
829:
824:
816:
815:
810:
769:
744:
661:
655:
654:produced by
644:
643:
454:
416:
392:Main hazards
381:
95:Identifiers
87:Other names
77:
73:
15:
5780:Polyketides
5729:WikiProject
5566:(Hong Kong)
5303: [
5265:Devon colic
5139:Breast milk
5111:Nonylphenol
5086:Bisphenol A
5023:controversy
4890:Hepatitis E
4885:Hepatitis A
4863:Enterovirus
4856:Cronobacter
4813:Trichinosis
4783:Fasciolosis
4753:Anisakiasis
4724:controversy
4617:Adulterants
4490:Snake venom
4444:Epibatidine
4432:Cinobufagin
4289:Stromatoxin
4236:Imperatoxin
4186:Scyllatoxin
4092:Tagetitoxin
4087:Swainsonine
4077:Solauricine
4042:Solamargine
4037:Scopolamine
4027:Retronecine
3893:Zearalenone
3561:Shiga toxin
3532:Cord factor
3371:Enterotoxin
3366:Alpha toxin
3360:perfringens
3352:Tetanolysin
3330:Clostridium
3267:hepatotoxin
3257:enterotoxin
3247:cardiotoxin
2777:11693/21978
2161:www.cdc.gov
1530:(5): 1027.
1167:Aflatoxin B
1158:activities.
1076:DNA adducts
941:aflatoxin B
922:Aflatoxin B
858:malonyl-CoA
840:Aflatoxin B
804:hyperplasia
784:hepatocytes
770:Aflatoxin B
745:Aflatoxin B
699:teratogenic
645:Aflatoxin B
449:Signal word
386:(OHS/OSH):
329:Properties
194:100.013.276
19:Aflatoxin B
5770:Fetotoxins
5765:Teratogens
5750:Aflatoxins
5744:Categories
5480:Regulation
5463:death toll
5232:Shortening
5197:Acrylamide
5126:Food fraud
5106:Mycotoxins
4939:Pesticides
4913:Salmonella
4788:Giardiasis
4748:Amoebiasis
4692:Flavorings
4522:Taicatoxin
4459:Samandarin
4412:Bufotoxins
4376:Ciguatoxin
4354:Vertebrate
4299:Huwentoxin
4279:Cupiennins
4262:Latrotoxin
4206:Kaliotoxin
4176:Margatoxin
4166:Maurotoxin
4107:Toxalbumin
4097:Tinyatoxin
4082:Strychnine
4067:Solasonine
4062:Solasodine
4047:Solanidine
3967:Falcarinol
3952:Delphinine
3868:Phalloidin
3858:Ochratoxin
3853:Orellanine
3843:Lolitrem B
3810:Ergotamine
3760:Mycotoxins
3604:Mechanisms
3563:/Verotoxin
3500:Exfoliatin
3460:Leukocidin
3277:phototoxin
3272:neurotoxin
2935:2015-12-07
2166:2017-05-08
2142:2017-05-08
1923:Toxicology
1620:Teratology
1329:2021-03-23
1296:References
1128:eye socket
1080:DNA damage
796:hemorrhage
668:carcinogen
428:Pictograms
397:Carcinogen
364:Molar mass
240:9N2N2Y55MH
167:ChemSpider
123:3D model (
102:CAS Number
89:NSC 529592
5526:ISO 22000
5488:watchdogs
5484:standards
5458:outbreaks
5359:outbreaks
5237:Trans fat
5149:Olive oil
5071:Aflatoxin
5045:Sucralose
5030:Saccharin
5018:Aspartame
4962:Malathion
4907:Rotavirus
4902:Norovirus
4427:Bufotenin
4422:Bufotalin
4392:Amphibian
4335:Saxitoxin
4325:Eledoisin
4320:Conotoxin
4191:Hefutoxin
4007:Oleandrin
3987:Linamarin
3977:Helenalin
3937:Cicutoxin
3932:Chaconine
3912:Amygdalin
3883:Vomitoxin
3833:Gliotoxin
3815:Fumonisin
3768:Aflatoxin
3731:Virulence
3667:Endotoxin
3398:botulinum
3379:difficile
3289:Bacterial
3262:hemotoxin
3252:cytotoxin
3114:1556-9543
2957:: 57–67.
1874:205866375
1524:Nutrients
990:The oral
854:hexanoate
788:carcinoma
766:Pathology
695:mutagenic
652:aflatoxin
587:P403+P233
551:P308+P313
547:P304+P340
543:P302+P350
419:labelling
112:1162-65-8
5755:Mutagens
5719:Cookbook
5699:Category
5501:E number
5393:outbreak
5350:outbreak
5341:outbreak
5091:Dieldrin
5040:Sorbitol
4896:Listeria
4836:Botulism
4664:Melamine
4634:Aldicarb
4567:Category
4330:Onchidal
4310:Mollusca
4221:Bestoxin
4216:Birtoxin
4181:Slotoxin
4171:Agitoxin
4146:Scorpion
4102:Tomatine
4052:Solanine
3997:Mimosine
3972:Gossypol
3957:Divicine
3922:Antiarin
3917:Anisatin
3848:Muscimol
3800:Citrinin
3773:Amatoxin
3719:Cry34Ab1
3647:AB toxin
3641:type III
3553:negative
3311:positive
3300:Exotoxin
3165:36408376
3122:85650401
2899:15721209
2864:23402434
2856:14584846
2794:18055477
2786:21382167
2691:14121357
2656:16330363
2596:14264941
2471:30127032
2428:11285186
2382:21779504
2317:15006741
2119:17526826
1943:22749975
1908:24078988
1866:23095151
1821:36686813
1813:24156697
1701:: 1–15.
1676:18501398
1605:19642212
1556:35268003
1507:: 39–56.
1132:agenesis
975:Toxicity
800:fibrosis
792:necrosis
713:(HPLC),
376:Hazards
5709:Commons
5582:(Spain)
5391:E. coli
5357:E. coli
5348:E. coli
5339:E. coli
5159:Seafood
5059:poisons
4957:Lindane
4921:E. coli
4880:O157:H7
4872:O104:H4
4674:Sudan I
4644:Cyanide
4485:Reptile
3947:Daphnin
3942:Coniine
3927:Brucine
3888:Zeranol
3863:Patulin
3710:toxins
3700:Cry3Bb1
3680:Lipid A
3627:type II
3568:E. coli
3320:Bacilli
3157:6123648
3079:1587768
2821:4296938
2732:6425817
2647:1314920
2638:3436751
2587:2071183
2520:5327461
2463:1348796
2373:3128640
2287:Bibcode
2048:8200100
2013:1465501
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