African-American Vernacular English and social context

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children’s familiarity with standard English and reading scores. The group of students that were more familiar with AAVE were found to have lower reading scores compared to the other students with higher familiarity with SE (standard ). Dr. Charity concluded that children whose home dialects differ from SE face a greater academic barrier when reading and writing. With the negative impacts within school faced by students who favor AAVE, researchers searched for a way to both uplift AAVE users while also creating a better understanding of SE. Some argued that AAVE should be used as a bridge to Standard English, while others argued that AAVE should be recognized as a legitimate language variety in its own right. Linguists have conducted research on this topic to better understand the best ways to teach AAVE speakers in the classroom. In a 2018 article, Walt Wolfram and Erik Thomas argue that educators should "recognize and build on the strengths that students bring to the classroom from their home language and dialect." They note that by recognizing the linguistic diversity of students, educators can create a more inclusive and effective learning environment. Similarly, in a 2020 article, Rebecca Wheeler and Rachel Swords argue that teachers should "acknowledge and validate" the language and culture of their students. They suggest using "culturally sustaining pedagogies" that incorporate students' home language and culture into the curriculum. Some researchers looked for specific methods within classrooms that can help bridge gaps while also valuing AAVE. In an article written about promoting awareness for speakers that use AAVE within their writing. Dr. Shenika Hankerson wrote about using a concept called critical language awareness. Critical language awareness is an educational approach that allows students to be aware of the cultural, political, and social aspects of language. Dr. Shenika Hankerson found that critical language awareness is an effective tool in writing courses to enhance the skills students who predominantly use AAVE student speakers. Another researcher named Dr. Amanda Godley conducted a study with three predominantly African American, 10th-grade English classes. Within her classes she used the concept of critical language pedagogy. Critical language pedagogy guides students to question standard English. She suggest that teachers "use to refer to instructional approaches that guide students to critical examinations of the ideologies surrounding language and dialects, the power relations such ideologies uphold, and ways to change these ideologies". Researchers are still continuing to discover different theories and approaches towards bridging this gap.

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scholars question the concept of standardized English and AAVE. Scholars concluded that it is harmful to refer to AAVE in a negative connotation. Within a study conducted by Dr. Amanda Godley, she encouraged students to question standard English. The goal of the study was to assist students to recognize that many of the language rules are socially constructed. Another study conducted by Dr. Vershawn A. Young demonstrated that there is a misconception around the belief that there is one set of dominant rules that stem from the dominant discourse. Dr. Young believed that the negative views on the use of AAVE are due to ideas on dominant language ideology. He found that there is the belief that there is one set of dominant rules that stem from the dominant discourse. In Dr. Young's opinion, using terms such as “standard “or “dialect” are more harmful than helpful. This is because these terms reinforce the idea that the dominantly used language is inherently superior. Which can harm the self-esteem of students who use AAVE or other non-dominant languages.

2382:. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA) of 2004 may be one cause of this discrepancy (PL 108-446). IDEA was intended to guarantee that all students with disabilities in U.S. schools have the chance to receive a free and appropriate public education in the setting with the fewest restrictions. It was enacted in 1975 and has since undergone numerous revisions. IDEA stipulates requirements for pupils to meet in order to be eligible for special education services at school. help specifically for learning difficulties, where environmental, cultural, economic adversities are not accounted for. Due to many African-American students being of lower income, schools being of lower quality with less well prepared teachers and overall less instructional and academic resources, it increases their likelihood to be eligible in special education services leading to the potential misdiagnosis of a disorder in part of their academic difficulties. Misidentification causes African-American children to receive insufficient reading assistance. 2591:'' (p. 1) This increase of contributions to the conversations challenged the misconceptions and stereotypes associated with AAVE. For example, many people viewed AAVE as a "broken" or "incorrect" version of Standard English. However, linguists have shown that AAVE has a complex and systematic grammar, just like any other language variety. In fact, some researchers argue that AAVE should be viewed as a separate language rather than a dialect of English. Rickford and King write that AAVE "differs systematically from the English spoken by whites in the United States" and that "its structural and functional differences are as great as those between English and the Romance languages." They also note that AAVE has a rich linguistic history that is rooted in African languages and culture. 2419:. The suit was brought on behalf of poor Black students at the school. Gabe Kaimowitz, lead counsel for the Plaintiffs, alleged that the students were denied equal protection of the laws, because applicable Michigan regulations did not recognize social, economic and cultural factors differing those pupils from others. Black middle class students at the school were not represented among the plaintiffs. Judge Joiner in 1977 and 1978 rejected five of the six claims. The sixth claim asserted that the Ann Arbor School District violated federal statutory law because it failed to take into account the home language of the children in the provision of education instruction. The court agreed. The judge ordered the school district to find a way to identify 1869:

word level, despite court stenographers being certified at or above 95% accuracy. Their study suggests that there is evidence that court reporters may potentially introduce incorrect transcriptions into the official court record, with ramifications in cross-examination, jury deliberations, and appeals. A 2016 qualitative study by researchers at Stanford University also suggests that testimony in AAE—and other nonstandard varieties—is not necessarily always understood in a judicial setting. Some legal scholarship has argued these findings show a

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means 'black speech' ( a blend of the word ebony 'Black' and phonics 'sounds'). The term was created in 1973 by a group of scholars that did not like the term that was currently being used and the negative connotations that surrounded it 'Nonstandard Negro English' had been made popular after the large-scale linguistic studies of African-American speech communities began in the 1960s. However it was not until after the Oakland Ebonics Resolution of December 1996 did the term 'Ebonics' catch on among linguists and the general public.

2248:. If they do not employ similar features of AAVE in their speech, then it can be argued that they are modeling their musical performance to evoke aspects of particular musical genres such as R&B or the blues (as British pop musicians of the 1960s and beyond did to evoke rock, pop, and the blues). Some research suggests that non-African-American young adults learn AAVE vocabulary by listening to hip-hop music. And may have found that exposure to hip hop music greatly inspires its listeners to learn more about the genre. 2282:

dialect is unacceptable amounts to an attempt of one social group to exert its dominance over another. Such a claim leads to false advice for speakers and writers and immoral advice for humans. A nation proud of its diverse heritage and its cultural and racial variety will preserve its heritage of dialects. We affirm strongly that teachers must have the experiences and training that will enable them to respect diversity and uphold the right of students to their own language.

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English" are incorrect and demeaning. ...There is evidence from Sweden, the US, and other countries that speakers of other varieties can be aided in their learning of the standard variety by pedagogical approaches which recognize the legitimacy of the other varieties of a language. From this perspective, the Oakland School Board's decision to recognize the vernacular of African-American students in teaching them Standard English is linguistically and pedagogically sound.

2374::93) point to these linguistic barriers, and common reactions by teachers, as a primary cause of reading difficulties and poor school performance. According to the 2013 National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), 55% of White students were below the "basic" levels while 83% of African-American fourth graders were under "basic" reading. The school environment is one larger factor hindering African-American students' success in literacy. 1648: 2620: 2390:

in order to succeed, and that conformity ultimately means the "eradication of black language ... and the adoption of the linguistic norms of the white middle class." The necessity for "bi-dialectialism" (AAVE and General American) means "some blacks contend that being bi-dialectal not only causes a schism in the black personality, but it also implies such dialects are 'good enough' for blacks but not for whites."

2579:, wrote that this controversy exposed the intensity of people's beliefs and opinions about language and language diversity, the persistent and widespread level of public misinformation about the issues of language variation and education, and the need for informed knowledge about language diversity and its role in education and in public life. 1757:, its use is commonly misinterpreted as a sign of ignorance, laziness, or both. Perhaps because of this attitude (as well as similar attitudes among other Americans), speakers of AAVE are often bidialectal, being able to speak with more standard English features, as well as AAVE. Such linguistic adaptation in different environments is called 2513:. Jackson would later reverse his position, attributing his initial opposition to a misunderstanding of the school district's proposal. He said, "They're not trying to teach Black English as a standard language. They're looking for tools to teach children standard English so they might be competitive." 2521:

The original resolution caused a great deal of consternation and anger, which fueled the controversy. On January 15, 1997, Oakland's school board passed an amended resolution. The original resolution used the phrase "genetically based" which was commonly understood to mean that African Americans have

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developed a comprehensive set of dialect readers, called bridge readers, which included the same content in three different dialects: AAVE, a "bridge" version that was closer to "Standard American English" without being prohibitively formal, and a Standard English version. Despite studies that showed

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There have been open discussions by some academicians as to whether AAVE in academia should be permitted due to its history of disadvantage and discrimination in education. In 2022, data from students in Indiana were collected between 2015-2016 and 2018-2019 statewide and showed that Black students,

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attitudes towards the African-American community as a whole. Smitherman describes this as a reflection of the "power elite's perceived insignificance and hence rejection of Afro-American language and culture". She also asserts that African Americans are forced to conform to European American society

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The Oakland Ebonics Resolution brought AAVE to the forefront of linguistic discussions and prompted increased attention to the study of AAVE by linguists. As Rickford and King (2016) note, " the resolution drew national attention to AAVE and to the issues surrounding its use in education and beyond

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A 2019 experimental study by researchers at the University of Pennsylvania, NYU, and Philadelphia Lawyers for Social Equity, found that court stenographers in Philadelphia regularly fail to transcribe AAVE accurately, with about 40 percent of sentences being inaccurate, and only 83% accuracy at the

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For students whose primary language was Ebonics, the Oakland resolution mandated some instruction in this, both for "maintaining the legitimacy and richness of such language ... and to facilitate their acquisition and mastery of English language skills." This also included the proposed increase of

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was filed, and is an important and significant case, which ultimately led up to the Ann Arbor Decision. The Brown v. Board of Education case was filed against Topeka and it went over how it violated the 14th amendment. The case paved the way for integration in many public schools across the United

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case in 1896. In the case it held that segregated public schools were constitutional as long as the Black and White children in the schools were equal. Throughout the middle of the twentieth century many civil rights groups and leaders challenged the school board's racial segregation through legal

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On Twitter, AAVE is used as a framework from which sentences and words are constructed, in order to accurately express oneself. Grammatical features and word pronunciations stemming from AAVE are preserved. Spellings based on AAVE have become increasingly common, to the point where it has become a

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Another misconception is that AAVE is the native dialect (or even more inaccurately, a linguistic fad) employed by all African Americans. Wheeler (1999) warns that "AAVE should not be thought of as the language of Black people in America. Many African Americans neither speak it nor know much about

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Another important contribution of linguists to the Ebonics conversation has been their work in the field of education. After the Oakland Resolution, there was a debate over whether AAVE should be recognized in the classroom and how it should be taught. This debate has many different views. Modern

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We affirm the students' right to their own patterns and varieties of language—the dialects of their nurture or whatever dialects in which they find their own identity and style. Language scholars long ago denied that the myth of a standard American dialect has any validity. The claim that any one

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style of linguistic engagement. Artistic and cultural movements originating with African Americans, such as jazz and hip-hop, have also significantly showcased, influenced, or sometimes mainstreamed elements of AAVE in the broader American culture and even on the global stage. The dialect is also

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The ranging conversations around Ebonics or African American Vernacular English sparked linguists to reevaluate and even newly research Ebonics and understand the legitimacy of African American Vernacular English (AAVE) as a distinct dialect of English. "At its most literal level, Ebonics simply

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Many modern scholars wanted to discover the impacts of AAVE on students within the classroom. Modern scholars conducted studies that focused on the relationship between success in grade level reading and writing and use of AAVE. Dr. Anne H Charity conducted a study on the relationship between

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The systematic and expressive nature of the grammar and pronunciation patterns of the African-American vernacular has been established by numerous scientific studies over the past thirty years. Characterizations of Ebonics as "slang," "mutant," "lazy," "defective," "ungrammatical," or "broken

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based" also contributed to the negative reaction because "genetically" was popularly misunderstood to imply that African Americans had a biological predisposition to a particular language. In an amended resolution, this phrase was removed and replaced with wording that states African-American

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However, in response to the amended resolution claiming that African-American language systems "are not merely dialects of English", there have been some statements in opposition from linguists, since linguists do primarily regard African-American English as a dialect or variety of English.

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The Oakland proposal was explained as follows: that Black students would perform better in school and more easily learn standard American English if textbooks and teachers incorporated AAVE in teaching Black children to speak Standard English rather than mistakenly equating nonstandard with

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ruled that in teaching Black children to read, a school board must adjust to the children's dialect, not the children to the school, and that, by not taking students' language into consideration, teachers were contributing to the failure of such students to read and use mainstream English

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of English, that it is a separate language; a member of an African language family; that speakers of Ebonics should qualify for federally funded programs traditionally restricted to bilingual populations; and that students would be taught American Standard English via Ebonics. The Rev.

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More recently, research has been conducted on the over-representation of African Americans in special education argue that this is because AAVE speech characteristics are often erroneously considered to be signs of speech development problems, prompting teachers to refer children to

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promise for such "Standard English as a Second Dialect" (SESD) programs, reaction to them was largely hostile and both Stewart's research and the Bridge Program were rejected for various political and social reasons, including strong resistance from parents.

2331:" to be recognized as a language of African Americans. In fact, ebonics would be classified as a "second language". The proposal was to implement a program similar to the Language Development Program for African American Students (LDPAAS) in 6087: 2338:

Like other similar programs, the Oakland resolution was widely misunderstood as intended to teach AAVE and "elevate it to the status of a written language." It gained national attention and was derided and criticized, most notably by

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criticized the resolution, saying "I understand the attempt to reach out to these children, but this is an unacceptable surrender, borderlining on disgrace." His comments were seconded by former Secretary of Education

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argues that the use of AAVE carries racially affirmative political undertones as its use allows African Americans to assert their cultural upbringing. Nevertheless, use of AAVE also carries strong social connotations;

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experimented with the use of dialect readers—sets of text in both AAVE and standard English. The idea was that children could learn to read in their own dialect and then shift to "Standard English" with subsequent

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youths, the role AAVE should play in public schools and education, and its place in broader society. The linguistic and cultural history of African Americans has been fostered and maintained in part through the

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Bailey, Guy (2001), "The relationship between African American Vernacular English and White Vernaculars in the American South: A sociocultural history and some phonological evidence", in Lanehart, Sonja (ed.),

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argue that a lack of familiarity with AAVE (and other minority dialects of English) on the part of jurors, stenographers, and others can lead to misunderstandings in court. They especially focus on the

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DeBose, Charles; Faraclas, Nicholas (1993), "An Africanist approach to the linguistic study of black English: getting to the roots of tense-aspect-modality and copula systems in Afro-American", in

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Jones, Taylor; Kalbfeld, Jessica Rose; Hancock, Ryan; Clark, Robin (2019). "Testifying while black: An experimental study of court reporter accuracy in transcription of African American English".

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Calhoun, Kendra; Hudley, Anne; Bucholtz, Mary; Exford, Jazmine; Johnson, Brittney (2021). "Attracting Black students to linguistics through a Black-centered Introduction to Linguistics course".

1460: 1412: 5558: 1422: 1417: 1688: 1432: 1904:; as such, AAVE usually appears, through singing, speaking, or rapping, in these musical forms. Examples of morphosyntactic features of AAVE in genres other than hip-hop are given below: 6042: 1402: 4099:

Dunstan, Stephany Brett; Eads, Amanda; Jaeger, Audrey J.; Wolfram, Walt (August 16, 2018). "The Importance of Graduate Student Engagement in a Campus Language Diversity Initiative".

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exception; however, the dissent held that past or present tense could not be determined by the statement, so the statement should not have been admitted into evidence. Similarly, in

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Research and experience have shown that children learn best if teachers respect the home language and use it as a bridge in teaching the language of the school and wider society.

1337: 1327: 4262: 1820: 1407: 84: 2795::4–6) argues that it is no coincidence that a population that has historically been "ridiculed and despised" would have its characteristic speech variety treated the same way. 2689:

Smitherman, Geneva (2021). "Word from the hood: the lexicon of African American vernacular English". In Mufwene, Salikoko; Rickford, John R.; Baily, Guy; Baugh, John (eds.).

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Bailey, Guy; Thomas, Erik (1998), "Some aspects of African-American Vernacular English phonology", in Mufwene, Salikoko; Rickford, John R.; Bailey, Guy; Baugh, John (eds.),

1745:. One myth is that AAVE is grammatically "simple" or "sloppy". However, like all dialects, AAVE shows consistent internal logic and grammatical complexity, and has evolved 5749:

Wolfram, Walter A. (1994), "The phonology of a sociocultural variety: The case of African American Vernacular English", in Bernthal, John E.; Bankson, Nicholas W. (eds.),

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who most likely utilized AAVE, overall had lower scores on writing assignments, which likely contributes to Black students' rejection rates to higher education programs.

1427: 1307: 6022: 4237: 6047: 623: 5981:". Links to "a variety of resources related to African American Vernacular English", a lot of them hosted by the Center, many directly related to this controversy. 3940:

Rickford, John R.; King, Sharese (2016). "Language and linguistics on trial: Hearing Rachel Jeantel (and other vernacular speakers) in the courtroom and beyond".

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Around this time, pedagogical techniques similar to those used to teach English to speakers of foreign languages were shown to hold promise for speakers of AAVE.

1662: 1563: 310: 182: 36: 3039: 1681: 4186:""Why can't writing courses be taught like this fo real": Leveraging critical language awareness to promote African American Language speakers' writing skills" 4847:

Howe, Darin M.; Walker, James A. (2000), "Negation and the Creole-Origins Hypothesis: Evidence from Early African American English", in Poplack, Shana (ed.),

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Harry, Beth; Anderson, Mary G. (1995), "The disproportionate placement of African-American males in special education programs: a critique of the process",

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Resolution On The Oakland "Ebonics" Issue Unanimously Adopted at the Annual Meeting of the Linguistic Society of America, Chicago, Illinois, January 3, 1997

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Some linguists and associated organizations issued statements in support of recognizing the legitimacy of African-American English as a language system:

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DeBose, Charles (1992), "Codeswitching: Black English and Standard English in the African-American linguistic repertoire", in Eastman, Carol M. (ed.),

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mistakenly argued that there were no substantial vocabulary or grammatical differences between the speech of Black people and other English dialects.

1292: 1169: 203: 2529:. This phrase was removed in the amended resolution and replaced with the assertion that African-American language systems "have origins in West and 6082: 1674: 1612: 1377: 1332: 5573: 6017: 2270: 2210:, even as a marker of solidarity. White hip-hop artists such as Eyedea can choose to accentuate their whiteness by hyper-articulating postvocalic 1578: 1322: 1317: 1302: 1297: 1282: 1189: 3184: 131: 126: 5690: 5258:(1997a), "Prior Creolization of African-American Vernacular English? Sociohistorical and Textual Evidence from the 17th and 18th Centuries", 5012: 4653: 4531: 3892: 2222: 1769:: each dialect, or code, is applied in different settings. Generally speaking, the degree of exclusive use of AAVE decreases with increasing 1249: 326: 315: 177: 99: 6062: 1352: 1312: 1254: 1209: 69: 5903:

Morgan, Marcyliena (1999). "US Language Planning and Policies for Social Dialect Speakers". In Davis, Kathryn Anne; Huebner, Thom (eds.).

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Morgan, Marcyliena (1999), "US Language Planning and Policies for Social Dialect Speakers", in Davis, Kathryn Anne; Huebner, Thom (eds.),

2273:(NCTE), issued a position statement on students' rights to their own language in April 1974. The position appeared in a special issue of 5127: 2715: 2633: 2420: 2409: 1777:

it". Conversely, not all native AAVE speakers are African American, and nonnative speakers also incorporate elements into their speech.

1701: 1239: 1219: 1064: 633: 479: 4374:

Blake, René; Shousterman, Cara; Newlin-Łukowicz, Luiza (2015), "African American Language in New York City", in Lanehart, Sonja (ed.),

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Lanehart, Sonja, ed. (2001), "State of the art in African American English research: Multi-disciplinary perspectives and directions",

2941: 1367: 1347: 901: 766: 198: 6067: 6037: 5912: 5460: 5381: 5363: 5342: 5300: 5207: 5189: 5093: 5030: 4923: 4783: 4765: 4568: 4484: 4365: 4291:

Artiles, Alfredo J.; Trent, Stanley C. (1994), "Overrepresentation of minority students in special education: a continuing debate",

2698: 247: 79: 5874: 1742: 1657: 1593: 1204: 854: 267: 167: 1799:—there was doubt that the speech of African Americans had any exclusive features not found in varieties spoken by other groups; 2576: 2452: 2324: 1159: 1026: 844: 771: 5821: 3399: 1568: 1244: 1194: 2522:

a biological predisposition to a particular language, while the authors of the resolution insisted that it was referring to

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normalized practice. Some examples include, "you" (you're), "they" (their/they're), "gon/gone" (going to), and "yo" (your).

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Stewart, William A. (1969), "On the use of Negro dialect in the teaching of reading", in Baratz, Joan; Shuy, Roger (eds.),

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and how the testimony of Rachel Jeantel was perceived as incomprehensible and not credible by the jury due to her dialect.

2660:- This 1974 U.S. Supreme Court decision established the right of language-minority students to educational accommodations. 2625: 2551: 1788:

presents a White female speaker of AAVE who is accepted as a member into African-American social groups despite her race.

1259: 1229: 1214: 1199: 1174: 1154: 776: 410: 277: 5978: 4219: 4941:

Lee, Margaret (1999), "Out of the Hood and into the News: Borrowed Black Verbal Expressions in a Mainstream Newspaper",

1709: 1287: 1179: 1164: 1149: 1116: 415: 94: 4822:

A critical investigation of literary and linguistic structures in the fiction of Zora Neale Hurston (Ph.D dissertation)

6027: 2476: 2439: 2408:, is considered to have established an important precedent in the education of poor African-American students who are 2316: 1510: 1500: 1495: 1490: 1234: 706: 497: 467: 405: 354: 282: 172: 1815:

The United States courts are divided over how to admit statements of ambiguous tense made in AAVE under evidence. In

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Florini, Sarah (2014), "Tweets, Tweeps, and Signifyin': Communication and Cultural Performance on "Black Twitter"",

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ruled that the defendant's statement "why don't you give me a lawyer, dog" was too ambiguous to be considered a

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Linnes, Kathleen (1998), "Middle-class AAVE versus middle-class bilingualism: Contrasting speech communities",

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speakers in the schools and to "use that knowledge in teaching such students how to read standard English".

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noted that distinctive features of African-American speech were present in the speech of Southerners, while

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Wolfram, Walter A. (1998), "Language ideology and dialect: understanding the Oakland Ebonics controversy",

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Kendall, Tyler; Wolfram, Walt (2009), "Local and external language standards in African American English",

2221:

AAVE is also used by non-Black artists in genres other than hip-hop, if less frequently. For instance, in "

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Eberhardt, Maeve (2008), "The Low-Back Merger in the Steel City: African American English in Pittsburgh",

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Some interpretations of the controversial issues in the resolution include the idea that Ebonics is not a

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In US courts, an interpreter is only routinely available for speakers of "a language other than English".

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Nonstandard language is not the same as substandard, as explained for example by the cognitive scientist

3374: 5084: 4749: 3656:"The Supreme Court . Expanding Civil Rights . Landmark Cases . Brown v. Board of Education (1954) | PBS" 3655: 3514: 2530: 2523: 2352: 2215: 1741:

against users of AAVE is and has long been common, thus stigmatizing its usage—namely a result of

896: 886: 818: 781: 565: 555: 455: 136: 5051:(1999), "Beyond Language: Ebonics, Proper English, and Identity in a Black-American Speech Community", 3148: 3066: 5794: 5139: 5043:, Varieties of English Around the World, Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company, pp. 21–52 4595: 4414: 4324:, Varieties of English Around the World, Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company, pp. 53–92 2386: 2075: 1770: 1652: 1104: 349: 141: 74: 5985: 5372:

Schilling-Estes, Natalie (2006), "Dialect Variation", in Fasold, Ralph; Connor-Linton, Jeff (eds.),

4936:, Varieties of English Around the World, Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company, pp. 1–20 4642:

Edwards, Walter (2004), "African American Vernacular English: Phonology", in Kortmann, Bernd (ed.),

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According to Smitherman, the controversy and debates concerning AAVE in public schools imply deeper

5326: 4220:"Writing while Black: African American Vernacular English (AAVE) and perceived writing performance" 3113: 2638: 2320: 1705: 1520: 1003: 998: 960: 377: 208: 5528:

Stewart, William (1975), "Teaching Blacks to Read Against Their Will", in Luelsdorff, P.A. (ed.),

5990: 5949: 5879: 5849: 5826: 5775: 5738: 5659: 5622: 5490: 5438: 5244: 5236: 5155: 5123: 5068: 4978: 4950: 4873: 4809: 4720: 4692: 4611: 4308: 4185: 4166: 4124: 4059: 3965: 3118: 3012: 2723: 2475:

salaries of those proficient in both Ebonics and Standard English to the level of those teaching

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In 1954, most of the United States had racially segregated schools, which was made legal by the

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In addition to grammatical features, lexical items specific to AAVE are often used in hip-hop:

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Wolfram, Walt (1998). "Language Ideology and Dialect: Understanding the Ebonics Controversy".

5908: 5686: 5569: 5456: 5377: 5359: 5338: 5296: 5216: 5203: 5185: 5089: 5026: 5008: 4919: 4779: 4761: 4649: 4564: 4527: 4480: 4442: 4361: 4158: 4116: 4007: 3957: 3888: 3074: 2694: 1881: 1836: 1726: 1076: 696: 537: 44: 5163: 3742:"Jackson Supports Oakland Ebonics; In Reverse, He Says School Board Action was Misunderstood" 2196:, non-Black hip-hop artists also use certain features of AAVE; for example, in an MC battle, 5941: 5767: 5730: 5651: 5612: 5546: 5482: 5430: 5351: 5311:"African American Language in California:Over Four Decades of Vibrant Variationist Research" 5267: 5228: 5147: 5060: 4970: 4865: 4801: 4712: 4684: 4631: 4603: 4541: 4506: 4432: 4422: 4300: 4197: 4150: 4108: 4079: 4071: 4034: 3999: 3949: 3523: 3004: 2379: 2193: 2003:". Examples of morphosyntactic AAVE features used by Black hip-hop artists are given below: 1754: 1746: 1717: 1071: 928: 756: 691: 671: 580: 3987: 2938: 3786: 3534:.) The same point is made in various introductions to language and sociolinguistics, e.g. 2945: 2502: 2443:

States, but Black students still faced many problems as stated in the Ann Arbor Decision.

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Sweetland, Julie (2002), "Unexpected but Authentic Use of an Ethnically-Marked Dialect",

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Spears, Arthur K. (2015), "African American Standard English", in Lanehart, Sonja (ed.),

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Mufwene, Salikoko (2001), "What is African American English?", in Lanehart, Sonja (ed.),

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Martin Luther King Junior Elementary School Children et al., v. Ann Arbor School District

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Martin Luther King Junior Elementary School Children et al. v. Ann Arbor School District

5751:

Child Phonology: Characteristics, Assessment, and Intervention with Special Populations

5450: 4998: 4437: 4402: 3878: 2656: 2471:. The resolution set off a firestorm of media criticism and ignited a national debate. 2460: 2328: 2234: 2226: 2051: 2029: 1758: 1558: 983: 953: 711: 701: 532: 6001: 5953: 5779: 5742: 5626: 5331: 5255: 5248: 5179: 5102: 5079: 5072: 4893: 4877: 4724: 4696: 4615: 4472: 4312: 4170: 4128: 3969: 3845: 3509: 3016: 2510: 2497: 2340: 1897: 1828: 1792: 1627: 1622: 4238:"English with an Accent: Language, Ideology and Discrimination in the United States" 4058:

Sedlacek, Quentin C.; Charity Hudley, Anne H.; Mallinson, Christine (October 2023).

2479:(LEP) students and the use of public funding to help teachers learn AAE themselves. 5159: 4991:

English with an Accent: Language, Ideology, and Discrimination in the United States

3522:(Pinker's comments on dialects in general and AAVE in particular go unmentioned by 3020: 2572: 2344: 2140: 1722: 1111: 923: 651: 514: 4740:

Golden, Tim (January 14, 1997), "Oakland Scratches plan to teach black English.",

3403: 5721:

Winford, Donald (1992), "Back to the past: The BEV/creole connection revisited",

5680: 5002: 4754: 4643: 4521: 4427: 4075: 3882: 3681:"Brown v. Board of Education National Historic Site (U.S. National Park Service)" 3205:(2014) White Hip-Hoppers, Language and Identity in Post-Modern America. Routledge 2756: 5795:

Sounding "Black" : an Ethnography of Racialized Vocality at Fisk University

2506: 2332: 2238: 2038: 2000: 1924: 1870: 1277: 933: 786: 666: 450: 5945: 5771: 4688: 4304: 4201: 2960:"In the Legal System, Talking White Is a Precursor to Justice—and That's Wrong" 2335:, which began in 1988 and uses methods from the SESD programs mentioned above. 5734: 5617: 5421:

Smitherman, Geneva (1999), "CCCC's Role in the Struggle for Language Rights",

5064: 4635: 2615: 2564: 2488: 2456: 2121: 2069: 1824: 382: 121: 4869: 4840:

Down Home and Up Town: the Representation of Black Speech in American Fiction

4716: 4162: 4120: 4112: 4060:"Surveying the landscape of college teaching about African American Language" 4011: 4003: 3961: 3909:"What is Ebonics (African American English)? | Linguistic Society of America" 3078: 2716:"African American Vernacular English in Advertising: a Sociolinguistic Study" 1753:, attitudes about AAVE are often less positive; since AAVE deviates from the 5708:

Williamson, Juanita (1970), "Selected features of speech: black and white",

5550: 5271: 5048: 4884:

van Keulen, Jean E.; Weddington, Gloria Toliver; DeBose, Charles E. (1998),

4511: 4494: 2159: 2045: 2023: 1943: 1766: 1607: 948: 681: 460: 287: 5928:

Weldon, Tracey L. (Autumn 2000). "Reflections on the Ebonics Controversy".

5198:

Radford, Andrew; Atkinson, Martin; Britain, David; Clahsen, Harald (1999),

4446: 4026: 3040:"Are Philly court reporters accurate with black dialect? Study: Not really" 5923:

Policy Statement of the TESOL Board on African American Vernacular English

4038: 3953: 3798:

Policy Statement of the TESOL Board on African American Vernacular English

3008: 5965: 2468: 2415:

The case was decided on July 12, 1979, by Judge Charles W. Joiner on the

2265:

With AAVE long facing discrimination and stigma in public education, the

1975: 993: 918: 911: 6088:

United States District Court for the Eastern District of Michigan cases

5240: 5023:

Sociopolitical perspectives on language policy and planning in the USA.

4813: 4607: 4154: 4084: 3751: 2492: 1832: 1773:(although AAVE is still used by even well-educated African Americans). 1081: 387: 5905:

Sociopolitical perspectives on language policy and planning in the USA

5663: 5494: 5442: 4982: 4954: 3024: 5642:

Walser, Richard (1955), "Negro dialect in eighteenth-century drama",

5399:

Smith, Ernie; Crozier, Karen (1998), "Ebonics Is Not Black English",

5151: 4454:

Cosby, William (January 10, 1997), "Elements of Igno-Ebonics Style",

3680: 3067:"Speaking Black Dialect in Courtrooms Can Have Striking Consequences" 2197: 988: 5523:, Washington, D.C.: Center for Applied Linguistics, pp. 156–219 5232: 4805: 4263:"A Multivariate Analysis of Writing Skills in BSW Case Study Papers" 1893: 5655: 5486: 5434: 5004:

Word on the Street: Debunking the Myth of a "Pure" Standard English

4974: 4733:

The Signifying Monkey: a Theory of Afro-American literary Criticism

3884:

Word on the Street: Debunking the Myth of a "Pure" Standard English

3203: 4896:(1969), "The logic of non-standard English", in Alatis, J. (ed.), 4403:"You Know What It Is: Learning Words through Listening to Hip-Hop" 4340:

Blues, Ideology, and Afro-American Literature: a Vernacular Theory

3988:"Critical Language Pedagogy in an Urban High School English Class" 2348: 2206: 2117: 2065: 1885: 761: 5041:

Sociocultural and Historical Contexts of African American English

4934:

Sociocultural and Historical Contexts of African American English

4662:

Farrison, W. Edward (1970), "Dialectology versus Negro dialect",

4322:

Sociocultural and Historical Contexts of African American English

2417:

United States District Court for the Eastern District of Michigan

2459:

passed a controversial resolution recognizing the legitimacy of

1889: 791: 4907:

Language in the Inner City: Studies in Black English Vernacular

4645:

A Handbook of Varieties of English: A Multimedia Reference Tool

2463: – what mainstream linguists more commonly term 1716:. It has been the center of controversy about the education of 5452:

Black Talk: Words and Phrases from the Hood to the Amen Corner

5390:

Simpkins, Gary A.; Holt, Grace; Simpkins, Charlesetta (1977),

4675:

Fickett, Joan G. (1972), "Tense and aspect in Black English",

2907: 2358: 2351:

to children. The statement that "African Language Systems are

1999:

More recently, AAVE has been used heavily in hip-hop to show "

5932:

Vol. 75, No. 3, Diamond Anniversary Essays. pp. 275–277.

5701:

Code-switching: Teaching Standard English in Urban Classrooms

3535: 1791:

Before substantial research of the 1960s and 1970s—including

5921:

Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL).

5682:

The Workings of Language: From Prescriptions to Perspectives

5469:

Spears, Arthur K. (1982), "The black English semi-auxiliary

3185:"Iggy Azalea Called Out for Blackfishing in New Music Video" 2299:

A more formal shift in the recognition of AAVE came in the "

5181:

American Tongue and Cheek: A Populist Guide to Our Language

4548:, Athens, GA: University of Georgia press, pp. 364–387 3284: 3282: 3280: 5899:. 1 July 1997: Adopted by LSA membership in a mail ballot. 5376:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 311–42, 4886:

Speech, Language, Learning, and the African American Child

4831:

The Character of the Word: The Texts of Zora Neale Hurston

4586:

Downing, John (1978), "Strategies of Bilingual Teaching",

3643:

Handbook of research on teaching the English language arts

3592: 4561:

Black English: Its History and Usage in the United States

3243: 3241: 3239: 2939:

http://www.ca6.uscourts.gov/opinions.pdf/07a0181p-06.pdf

5278:

Rickford, John (1997b), "Suite for Ebony and Phonics",

4776:

Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language

4479:(2nd ed.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1967:"She got something round, and it look just like a bat" 5875:"Black English is Not a Second Language, Jackson Says" 3130: 3128: 2315:

National attitudes towards AAVE were revisited when a

5703:, Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English 5219:(1939), "The speech of Negroes in colonial America", 4358:

Beyond Ebonics: Linguistic Pride and Racial Prejudice

4331:

African-American English: Structure, History, and Use

3166: 3164: 3162: 2691:

African American English: structure, history, and use

5865:

Labov, William. "Some Sources of Reading Problems".

4648:, vol. 2, Walter de Gruyter, pp. 366–382, 3641:

Flood, J., Jensen, J., Lapp, D., Squire, J. (1991).

3546:; and also in surveys of the English language, e.g. 3300: 2292: 2200:

said, "What that mean, yo?" dropping the "auxiliary

1821:

United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit

5907:. Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. 5505:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 786–799 5414:

Talkin and Testifyin: The Language of Black America

5320:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 299–315 4916:

Principles of Linguistic Change, II: Social factors

4756:

African American English: A Linguistic Introduction

4555:

5 vols. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1985–.

4477:

The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language.

4378:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 280–298 2267:

Conference on College Composition and Communication

1584:

Unarmed African Americans killed by police officers

5822:"School District Elevates Status of Black English" 5597:A look at selected AAVE features in the TV series 5514:, Washington, D.C.: Center for Applied Linguistics 5330: 4753: 4495:"The Co-Construction of Whiteness in an MC Battle" 3375:"Oakland School District Recognizes Black English" 2903:"Do you speak American?: African American English" 2565:Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages 5966:Oral Histories from students involved in the case 5869:. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 1972. 2356:language systems "have origins in West [ 18:African-American Vernacular English and education 5503:The Oxford Handbook of African American Language 5318:The Oxford Handbook of African American Language 4909:, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press 4898:Georgetown Monograph on Language and Linguistics 4465:Sociolinguistics: The Study of Speakers' Choices 4376:The Oxford Handbook of African American Language 4351:, Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics 3373:WOO, ELAINE; Curtius, Mary (December 20, 1996). 2853: 2693:. Taylor & Francis Group. pp. 223–331. 2277:in Fall of 1974. The resolution was as follows: 2192:Because hip-hop is so intimately related to the 1795:'s groundbreakingly thorough grammatical study, 6043:African-American history in Oakland, California 5845:"Oakland Scratches Plan to Teach Black English" 5512:Non-standard Speech and the Teaching of English 5107:The English History of African American English 4849:The English History of African American English 4546:Africanisms in Afro-American Language Varieties 4033:, Utah State University Press, pp. 61–72, 3986:Godley, Amanda J.; Minnici, Angela (May 2008). 3850:The English History of African American English 3539: 2557: 2543: 2370:substandard and dismissing AAVE as the latter. 5455:(revised ed.), Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 5374:An Introduction to Language and Linguistics ed 4526:, Multilingual Matters LTD, pp. 157–167, 3771: 3769: 2829: 311:Education of freed people during the Civil War 5979:Dialects: African American Vernacular English 5786:Wolfram, Walter A.; Fasold, Ralph W. (1974), 5356:Educating Eve: The "Language Instinct" Debate 3645:. New York, NY: Macmillan Publishing Company. 3581: 2816: 2129:"Or the big-face rollie, I got two of those" 1765:argues that the situation is actually one of 1682: 8: 6073:Political controversies in the United States 4396:, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc. 4387:, Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press 3820: 3577: 3098: 2982: 2366:and are not merely dialects of English ..." 1857: 322:Historically black colleges and universities 4347:Baratz, Joan C.; Shuy, Roger, eds. (1969), 2167:"I can put bangles around yo' ashy ankles" 306:Education during the slave period in the US 5114:Poplack, Shana; Tagliamonte, Sali (2001), 4213: 4211: 3863:Poplack, Shana; Tagliamonte, Sali (2001), 3629: 3617: 3259: 3218: 2438:and political action. One of the actions, 2371: 2187: 1993:use of "done" to indicate the recent past 1800: 1689: 1675: 1546: 1137: 1047: 874: 812: 737: 629:National Black Caucus of State Legislators 606: 502: 230: 58: 31: 5699:Wheeler, Rebecca; Swords, Rachel (2006), 5616: 5530:Linguistic Perspectives on Black English. 5202:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 4760:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 4510: 4436: 4426: 4083: 3832: 3288: 2533:and are not merely dialects of English." 2060:lack of inflection on present-tense verb 1970:lack of inflection on present-tense verb 1785: 85:Slavery in the colonial history of the US 5897:Resolution on the Oakland Ebonics debate 5566:Atlas of North American English (online) 5392:Bridge: A Cross-Cultural Reading Program 5333:Spoken Soul: The Story of Black English. 5116:African American English in the Diaspora 4553:Dictionary of American Regional English. 3865:African American English in the Diaspora 3593:van Keulen, Weddington & DeBose 1998 3230: 2792: 2427:Cases that led to the Ann Arbor Decision 2204:". However, they tend to avoid the term 2181: 2096: 2005: 1990:'Cause my baby, he done left this town" 1906: 1804: 6023:1996 controversies in the United States 5128:"Language that dare not speak its name" 3808: 3716: 3550:, sec. 20, "Linguistic Variation". 3547: 3472: 3448: 3400:""Black English" Named Second Language" 3360: 3324: 3271: 3247: 3134: 2958:Rosenfeld, Jordana (January 29, 2018), 2889: 2841: 2740: 2669: 2347:who regarded it as an attempt to teach 2300: 2271:National Council of Teachers of English 1951:"Don't nobody know my trouble but God" 1592: 1549: 1479: 1441: 1376: 1268: 1140: 1090: 1050: 1017: 969: 877: 826: 740: 642: 609: 546: 523: 505: 429: 396: 363: 335: 296: 233: 190: 154: 61: 43: 6048:African-American-related controversies 5820:Applebome, Peter (December 20, 1996). 5808:Original Oakland Resolution on Ebonics 4027:"Should Writers Use They Own English?" 3981: 3979: 3775: 3704: 3484: 3460: 3424: 3336: 3312: 3170: 2877: 2865: 2804: 2237:'s "Sometimes It Be That Way" employs 1827:shoot me" was a statement made in the 1762: 5790:, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall 5637:, New York: New York University Press 5423:College Composition and Communication 5053:American Educational Research Journal 4842:, London: Associated University Press 4360:, New York: Oxford University Press, 4140: 4138: 3935: 3933: 3931: 3929: 3728: 3605: 3573: 3560: 3530:a book-length attempted debunking of 3496: 3436: 3348: 2922: 2780: 2743: 2736: 2676: 2467:(AAE) – as an African 2275:College Composition and Communication 827:Athletic associations and conferences 316:History of African-American education 7: 5873:Lewis, Neil A. (December 23, 1996). 5591:Trotta, Joe; Blyahher, Oleg (2011), 5401:The Western Journal of Black Studies 4333:, London: Routledge, pp. 85–109 4184:Hankerson, Shenika (December 2022). 3301:Simpkins, Holt & Simpkins (1977) 3183:Roundtree, Cheyenne (July 2, 2021). 2327:) on December 18, 1996, called for " 2293:Simpkins, Holt & Simpkins (1977) 1780: 750:Association for the Study of African 5788:Social Dialects in American English 5672:An Introduction to Sociolinguistics 5337:, New York: John Wiley & Sons, 5293:African American Vernacular English 4735:, New York: Oxford University Press 3740:Davidson, Ros (December 31, 1996). 3402:. December 20, 1996. Archived from 2634:African-American Vernacular English 2081:"You can bank I ain't got no ceilin 1702:African-American Vernacular English 1564:Race and ethnicity in the US census 1065:African-American Vernacular English 634:National Conference of Black Mayors 4190:Journal of Second Language Writing 4031:Writing Centers and the New Racism 3038:Ownes, Cassie (January 22, 2019). 1708:of English deeply embedded in the 767:National Black Chamber of Commerce 25: 5977:Center for Applied Linguistics. " 5679:Wheeler, Rebecca S., ed. (1999), 4588:International Review of Education 3065:Eligon, John (January 26, 2019). 2307:). In it, a federal judge of the 2057:"I could tell her mama feed her" 1725:, including some lexicon and the 1471:Places by plurality of population 137:Civil rights movement (1954–1968) 127:Civil rights movement (1865–1896) 80:Abolitionism in the United States 6078:United States education case law 6053:Education in Oakland, California 5843:Golden, Tim (January 14, 1997). 5532:, Regensburg, Germany: Hans Carl 4993:, London: Blackwell, p. 200 4833:, West Port, CT: Greenwood Press 4774:Guralnik, David Bernard (1984), 4401:Chesley, Paula (December 2011). 4293:The Journal of Special Education 2714:Escalas, Jennifer Edson (1994). 2618: 1743:racism against African Americans 1646: 168:Black Belt in the American South 6083:African Americans and education 5895:Linguistic Society of America. 5521:Teaching Black Children to Read 4838:Holton, Sylvia Wallace (1984), 4731:Gates, Henry Louis Jr. (1988), 4385:Black English in the Mass Media 4349:Teaching Black Children to Read 2577:North Carolina State University 2453:Oakland Unified School District 2325:Oakland Unified School District 2233:to mean "an attractive woman". 2194:African-American oral tradition 2148:"And getting ghost on the 5-0" 1900:are all genres associated with 1749:among a community of speakers. 1730:seen and heard in advertising. 772:National Council of Negro Women 6018:1979 in United States case law 5938:Journal of English Linguistics 5760:Journal of English Linguistics 5685:, Greenwood Publishing Group, 5559:"Rural White Southern Accents" 4858:Journal of English Linguistics 4677:Journal of English Linguistics 4338:Baker, Houston A. Jr. (1984), 4101:Journal of English Linguistics 2854:Rickford & Rickford (2000) 2755:Luu, Chi (February 12, 2020). 1569:Racism against Black Americans 1: 5723:Language Variation and Change 4900:, vol. 22, pp. 1–44 4579:A History of American English 4342:, University of Chicago Press 3153:The Language and Life Project 2626:San Francisco Bay Area portal 2552:Linguistic Society of America 2035:"She said her name Shayeeda" 777:National Pan-Hellenic Council 5510:Stewart, William A. (1964), 5316:, in Lanehart, Sonja (ed.), 5221:The Journal of Negro History 5200:Linguistics: An Introduction 4989:Lippi-Green, Rosina (1997), 4428:10.1371/journal.pone.0028248 4076:10.1016/j.linged.2023.101189 3887:. Basic Books. p. 162. 3046:. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 2309:Eastern District of Michigan 2112:Standard English definition 1932:"It Be's That Way Sometime" 1929:"It Be's That Way Sometime" 1710:culture of the United States 1579:School segregation in the US 1117:Black American Sign Language 1091:Languages and other dialects 6063:English usage controversies 5539:Journal of Sociolinguistics 5449:Smitherman, Geneva (2000), 5412:Smitherman, Geneva (1977), 5260:Journal of Sociolinguistics 4824:, Michigan State University 3582:Harry & Anderson (1995) 3147:Wolfram, Walt, ed. (2017). 2948:Retrieved on Sept 23, 2013. 2830:Kendall & Wolfram (2009 2817:Wheeler & Swords (2006) 2720:ACR North American Advances 2505:, former New York governor 2477:limited English proficiency 2440:Brown v. Board of Education 406:African-American businesses 6104: 5946:10.1177/007542429802600203 5867:Language in the Inner City 5772:10.1177/007542429802600203 5670:Wardhaugh, Ronald (2002), 5416:, Boston: Houghton Mifflin 4794:Journal of Negro Education 4705:Television & New Media 4689:10.1177/007542427200600102 4394:English in Black and White 4305:10.1177/002246699402700404 4202:10.1016/j.jslw.2022.100919 3578:Artiles & Trent (1994) 3149:"Talking Black in America" 2983:Rickford & King (2016) 2451:On December 18, 1996, the 2447:Oakland Ebonics resolution 1858:Rickford & King (2016) 1797:Language in the Inner City 944:Great Dismal Swamp maroons 619:Congressional Black Caucus 586:African Diaspora Religions 373:Martin Luther King Jr. Day 6058:Legal history of Michigan 5735:10.1017/S0954394500000831 5618:10.58221/mosp.v105i1.8284 5065:10.3102/00028312036002147 4888:, Boston: Allyn and Bacon 4636:10.1215/00031283-2008-021 4559:Dillard, John L. (1972), 4463:Coulmas, Florian (2005), 4392:Burling, Robbins (1973), 4242:Routledge & CRC Press 4064:Linguistics and Education 4025:Young, Vershawn Ashanti, 3913:www.linguisticsociety.org 3821:Smith & Crozier (1998 3044:The Philadelphia Inquirer 2244:in the title to indicate 2186:Lexical items taken from 1451:US states and territories 752:American Life and History 474:Lift Every Voice and Sing 183:Treatment of the enslaved 6068:Minority rights case law 6038:African-American English 5633:Trudgill, Peter (1983), 5557:Thomas, Erik R. (2006), 4870:10.1177/0075424209339281 4829:Holloway, Karla (1987), 4820:Holloway, Karla (1978), 4717:10.1177/1527476413480247 4493:Cutler, Cecelia (2007). 4113:10.1177/0075424218783446 4004:10.1177/0042085907311801 3112: 3099:Rickford & King 2016 2465:African-American English 2404:, commonly known as the 2317:controversial resolution 1653:United States portal 1060:African-American English 571:African-American Muslims 132:Jim Crow era (1896–1954) 27:Socio-linguistic concern 5551:10.1111/1467-9481.00199 5309:Rickford, John (2015), 5291:Rickford, John (1999), 5272:10.1111/1467-9481.00019 4914:Labov, William (2001), 4905:Labov, William (1972), 4512:10.1075/prag.17.1.01cut 4383:Brasch, Walter (1981), 4267:meridian.allenpress.com 3747:Pittsburgh Post-Gazette 2757:"Black English Matters" 2722:. NA-21. Archived from 2644:Bilingual Education Act 2536: 2372:Baratz & Shuy (1969 1845:Louisiana Supreme Court 1831:, so it was admissible 1817:United States v. Arnold 1574:Reparations for slavery 662:Back-to-Africa movement 561:Black Hebrew Israelites 439:African-American beauty 4778:, Simon and Schuster, 2937:, 486 F.3d 177 (2007) 2570: 2556: 2284: 2269:(CCCC), a division of 1902:African-American music 1853:request for a lawyer. 1734:Popular misconceptions 1044:Dialects and languages 204:Second Great Migration 5184:, New York: Penguin, 5085:The Language Instinct 4918:, Oxford: Blackwell, 4577:Dillard, J.L (1992), 4224:JMU Scholarly Commons 4039:10.2307/j.ctt4cgk6s.7 3954:10.1353/lan.2016.0078 3540:Schilling-Estes (2006 3532:The Language Instinct 3515:The Language Instinct 3114:Dialectal Due Process 3009:10.1353/lan.2019.0042 2531:Niger-Congo languages 2364:Niger–Congo languages 2279: 2216:retroflex approximant 1982:The Saint Louis Blues 1935:habitual aspect with 1896:, and most recently, 1456:US metropolitan areas 1283:List of neighborhoods 897:Alabama Creole people 887:African-American Jews 819:Negro league baseball 782:National Urban League 734:Civic/economic groups 566:African-American Jews 456:African-American hair 318:, after the Civil War 147:Post–civil rights era 5579:on December 22, 2014 5088:, New York: Morrow, 4542:Mufwene, Salikoko S. 4356:Baugh, John (2000), 3752:Reuters News Service 3536:Radford et al. (1999 3439:, pp. 230, 232. 3406:on December 22, 1996 2650:Castañeda v. Pickard 1841:Louisiana v. Demesme 1771:socioeconomic status 1613:Criminal stereotypes 1388:District of Columbia 1105:Afro-Seminole Creole 547:Non-Christian groups 142:Black power movement 106:during the Civil War 75:Atlantic slave trade 5358:, London: Cassell, 5178:Quinn, Jim (1982), 5144:1997Natur.386..321P 5124:Pullum, Geoffrey K. 4600:1978IREdu..24..329D 4581:, New York: Longman 4456:Wall Street Journal 4419:2011PLoSO...628248C 3595:, pp. 112–113. 3427:, pp. 184–185. 3351:, p. 123, 222. 2679:, pp. 217–218. 2639:Bilingual education 2537:Linguists' response 2380:speech pathologists 2321:Oakland, California 2261:In public education 1863:Trayvon Martin case 1811:In the legal system 1706:nonstandard dialect 1009:Sierra Leone Creole 970:Specific ancestries 855:Southwestern (SWAC) 378:Black History Month 209:New Great Migration 163:Agriculture history 6028:1996 in California 5991:The New York Times 5880:The New York Times 5850:The New York Times 5827:The New York Times 5814:Amended Resolution 5753:, New York: Thieme 5394:, Houghton-Mifflin 5217:Read, Allen Walker 5126:(March 27, 1997), 5025:, John Benjamins, 4999:McWhorter, John H. 4851:, pp. 109–139 4608:10.1007/BF00598048 4284:General references 4155:10.1353/lan.0.0250 3879:McWhorter, John H. 3274:, p. 117-120. 3071:The New York Times 2944:2015-09-23 at the 2726:on April 21, 2023. 2517:Amended resolution 2434:Plessy v. Ferguson 2406:Ann Arbor Decision 2396:Ann Arbor decision 2301:Ann Arbor Decision 2145:"Straight Ballin" 2109:AAVE lexical item 1948:"Trouble So Hard" 1018:Sexual orientation 892:Afro-Puerto Ricans 845:Mid-Eastern (MEAC) 480:Self-determination 444:Black is beautiful 110:Reconstruction era 6033:1996 in education 6008:1979 in education 5994:, 8 January 1997. 5986:The Ebonic Plague 5925:. March 10, 1997. 5692:978-0-275-96245-6 5595:Game done changed 5570:Walter de Gruyter 5352:Sampson, Geoffrey 5327:Rickford, Russell 5280:Discover Magazine 5138:(6623): 321–322, 5014:978-0-7382-0446-8 4655:978-3-11-017532-5 4533:978-1-85359-167-9 4218:Nesbitt, Jaylin. 3894:978-0-7382-0446-8 3630:Smitherman (1977) 3618:Smitherman (1977) 3379:Los Angeles Times 3260:Smitherman (1999) 3219:Smitherman (2000) 3202:Cutler, Cecelia. 3021:Project MUSE 2214:sounds (i.e. the 2188:Smitherman (2000) 2177: 2176: 2092: 2091: 2088:negative concord 2039:absence of copula 1997: 1996: 1964:"The Rising Sun" 1954:negative concord 1837:excited utterance 1801:Williamson (1970) 1727:call and response 1699: 1698: 1636: 1635: 1534: 1533: 1308:Dallas-Fort Worth 1125: 1124: 1035: 1034: 979:Americo-Liberians 862: 861: 800: 799: 725: 724: 594: 593: 538:Womanist theology 488: 487: 430:Symbols and ideas 216: 215: 95:Antebellum period 90:Revolutionary War 45:African Americans 16:(Redirected from 6095: 6013:1979 in Michigan 5961:Text of Decision 5957: 5930:American Speech, 5918: 5892: 5890: 5888: 5862: 5860: 5858: 5839: 5837: 5835: 5791: 5782: 5754: 5745: 5717: 5704: 5695: 5675: 5666: 5638: 5629: 5620: 5587: 5586: 5584: 5578: 5572:, archived from 5563: 5553: 5533: 5524: 5515: 5506: 5497: 5465: 5445: 5417: 5408: 5395: 5386: 5368: 5347: 5336: 5325:Rickford, John; 5321: 5315: 5305: 5287: 5274: 5251: 5212: 5194: 5174: 5173: 5171: 5162:, archived from 5152:10.1038/386321a0 5119: 5110: 5098: 5075: 5044: 5035: 5017: 4994: 4985: 4957: 4937: 4928: 4910: 4901: 4889: 4880: 4852: 4843: 4834: 4825: 4816: 4788: 4770: 4759: 4745: 4736: 4727: 4699: 4671: 4658: 4638: 4618: 4582: 4573: 4563:, Random House, 4549: 4536: 4516: 4514: 4489: 4468: 4459: 4458:, pp. P.A11 4450: 4440: 4430: 4397: 4388: 4379: 4370: 4352: 4343: 4334: 4325: 4315: 4278: 4277: 4275: 4273: 4259: 4253: 4252: 4250: 4248: 4234: 4228: 4227: 4215: 4206: 4205: 4181: 4175: 4174: 4142: 4133: 4132: 4096: 4090: 4089: 4087: 4055: 4049: 4048: 4047: 4045: 4022: 4016: 4015: 3983: 3974: 3973: 3937: 3924: 3923: 3921: 3919: 3905: 3899: 3898: 3875: 3869: 3868: 3860: 3854: 3853: 3842: 3836: 3830: 3824: 3818: 3812: 3806: 3800: 3795: 3789: 3784: 3778: 3773: 3764: 3763: 3761: 3759: 3737: 3731: 3726: 3720: 3714: 3708: 3702: 3696: 3695: 3693: 3691: 3677: 3671: 3670: 3668: 3666: 3660:www.thirteen.org 3652: 3646: 3639: 3633: 3627: 3621: 3615: 3609: 3602: 3596: 3590: 3584: 3570: 3564: 3557: 3551: 3524:Geoffrey Sampson 3506: 3500: 3494: 3488: 3482: 3476: 3470: 3464: 3458: 3452: 3446: 3440: 3434: 3428: 3422: 3416: 3415: 3413: 3411: 3396: 3390: 3389: 3387: 3385: 3370: 3364: 3358: 3352: 3346: 3340: 3334: 3328: 3322: 3316: 3310: 3304: 3298: 3292: 3289:Wardhaugh (2002) 3286: 3275: 3269: 3263: 3257: 3251: 3245: 3234: 3228: 3222: 3216: 3210: 3209: 3199: 3193: 3192: 3180: 3174: 3168: 3157: 3156: 3144: 3138: 3132: 3123: 3122: 3121:1958 (2023). 3116: 3108: 3102: 3096: 3090: 3089: 3087: 3085: 3062: 3056: 3055: 3053: 3051: 3035: 3029: 3028: 3003:(2): e216–e252. 2992: 2986: 2980: 2974: 2973: 2972: 2970: 2955: 2949: 2932: 2926: 2919: 2913: 2912: 2899: 2893: 2887: 2881: 2875: 2869: 2863: 2857: 2851: 2845: 2839: 2833: 2826: 2820: 2814: 2808: 2802: 2796: 2790: 2784: 2778: 2772: 2771: 2769: 2767: 2752: 2746: 2734: 2728: 2727: 2711: 2705: 2704: 2686: 2680: 2674: 2628: 2623: 2622: 2621: 2575:, a linguist at 2568: 2554: 2483:Popular response 2223:Tonight, Tonight 2185: 2151:5-0 ("five-oh") 2097: 2084: 2006: 1989: 1907: 1786:Sweetland (2002) 1718:African-American 1691: 1684: 1677: 1651: 1650: 1649: 1598:media depictions 1547: 1442:Population count 1138: 1072:Liberian English 1051:English dialects 1048: 1004:Samaná Americans 929:Creoles of color 875: 813: 757:Black conductors 738: 607: 581:Louisiana Voodoo 503: 248:Family structure 231: 178:Military history 173:Business history 104:military history 59: 32: 21: 6103: 6102: 6098: 6097: 6096: 6094: 6093: 6092: 5998: 5997: 5974: 5935: 5915: 5902: 5886: 5884: 5872: 5856: 5854: 5842: 5833: 5831: 5819: 5804: 5802:Further reading 5799: 5785: 5757: 5748: 5720: 5707: 5698: 5693: 5678: 5669: 5644:American Speech 5641: 5632: 5590: 5582: 5580: 5576: 5561: 5556: 5536: 5527: 5518: 5509: 5500: 5468: 5463: 5448: 5420: 5411: 5398: 5389: 5384: 5371: 5366: 5350: 5345: 5324: 5313: 5308: 5303: 5290: 5277: 5254: 5233:10.2307/2714378 5215: 5210: 5197: 5192: 5177: 5169: 5167: 5166:on May 27, 2010 5122: 5113: 5101: 5096: 5078: 5047: 5038: 5033: 5020: 5015: 5007:, Basic Books, 4997: 4988: 4963:American Speech 4960: 4943:American Speech 4940: 4931: 4926: 4913: 4904: 4892: 4883: 4855: 4846: 4837: 4828: 4819: 4806:10.2307/2967298 4791: 4786: 4773: 4768: 4748: 4739: 4730: 4702: 4674: 4661: 4656: 4641: 4624:American Speech 4621: 4585: 4576: 4571: 4558: 4539: 4534: 4519: 4492: 4487: 4471: 4462: 4453: 4400: 4391: 4382: 4373: 4368: 4355: 4346: 4337: 4328: 4318: 4290: 4286: 4281: 4271: 4269: 4261: 4260: 4256: 4246: 4244: 4236: 4235: 4231: 4217: 4216: 4209: 4183: 4182: 4178: 4144: 4143: 4136: 4098: 4097: 4093: 4057: 4056: 4052: 4043: 4041: 4024: 4023: 4019: 3992:Urban Education 3985: 3984: 3977: 3939: 3938: 3927: 3917: 3915: 3907: 3906: 3902: 3895: 3877: 3876: 3872: 3862: 3861: 3857: 3844: 3843: 3839: 3833:Wardhaugh (2002 3831: 3827: 3819: 3815: 3807: 3803: 3796: 3792: 3785: 3781: 3774: 3767: 3757: 3755: 3739: 3738: 3734: 3727: 3723: 3715: 3711: 3703: 3699: 3689: 3687: 3679: 3678: 3674: 3664: 3662: 3654: 3653: 3649: 3640: 3636: 3628: 3624: 3616: 3612: 3603: 3599: 3591: 3587: 3571: 3567: 3558: 3554: 3507: 3503: 3495: 3491: 3483: 3479: 3471: 3467: 3459: 3455: 3447: 3443: 3435: 3431: 3423: 3419: 3409: 3407: 3398: 3397: 3393: 3383: 3381: 3372: 3371: 3367: 3359: 3355: 3347: 3343: 3335: 3331: 3323: 3319: 3311: 3307: 3299: 3295: 3287: 3278: 3270: 3266: 3258: 3254: 3246: 3237: 3231:Trudgill (1983) 3229: 3225: 3217: 3213: 3201: 3200: 3196: 3189:The Daily Beast 3182: 3181: 3177: 3169: 3160: 3146: 3145: 3141: 3133: 3126: 3110: 3109: 3105: 3097: 3093: 3083: 3081: 3064: 3063: 3059: 3049: 3047: 3037: 3036: 3032: 2994: 2993: 2989: 2981: 2977: 2968: 2966: 2957: 2956: 2952: 2946:Wayback Machine 2933: 2929: 2920: 2916: 2901: 2900: 2896: 2888: 2884: 2876: 2872: 2864: 2860: 2852: 2848: 2840: 2836: 2827: 2823: 2815: 2811: 2803: 2799: 2791: 2787: 2779: 2775: 2765: 2763: 2754: 2753: 2749: 2735: 2731: 2713: 2712: 2708: 2701: 2688: 2687: 2683: 2675: 2671: 2667: 2624: 2619: 2617: 2614: 2605: 2569: 2563: 2555: 2550: 2539: 2519: 2503:William Bennett 2485: 2449: 2429: 2398: 2288:William Stewart 2263: 2254: 2252:In social media 2246:habitual aspect 2179: 2082: 1987: 1960:Texas Alexander 1879: 1813: 1805:Farrison (1970) 1736: 1714:popular culture 1695: 1647: 1645: 1638: 1637: 1632: 1588: 1544: 1536: 1535: 1530: 1475: 1437: 1413:Omaha, Nebraska 1378:Historic places 1372: 1264: 1135: 1127: 1126: 1121: 1086: 1045: 1037: 1036: 1031: 1013: 965: 907:Black Seminoles 872: 871:Sub-communities 864: 863: 850:Southern (SIAC) 810: 802: 801: 796: 751: 735: 727: 726: 721: 638: 604: 596: 595: 590: 576:Nation of Islam 542: 519: 500: 490: 489: 484: 425: 392: 359: 331: 292: 268:Musical theater 228: 218: 217: 199:Great Migration 56: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6101: 6099: 6091: 6090: 6085: 6080: 6075: 6070: 6065: 6060: 6055: 6050: 6045: 6040: 6035: 6030: 6025: 6020: 6015: 6010: 6000: 5999: 5996: 5995: 5984:Rich, Frank. " 5982: 5973: 5972:External links 5970: 5969: 5968: 5963: 5958: 5933: 5926: 5919: 5913: 5900: 5893: 5870: 5863: 5840: 5817: 5811: 5803: 5800: 5798: 5797: 5792: 5783: 5766:(2): 108–121, 5755: 5746: 5729:(3): 311–357, 5718: 5705: 5696: 5691: 5676: 5667: 5656:10.2307/453562 5650:(4): 269–276, 5639: 5630: 5588: 5554: 5545:(4): 514–536, 5534: 5525: 5516: 5507: 5498: 5487:10.2307/413960 5481:(4): 850–872, 5466: 5461: 5446: 5435:10.2307/358856 5429:(3): 349–376, 5418: 5409: 5396: 5387: 5382: 5369: 5364: 5348: 5343: 5322: 5306: 5301: 5288: 5275: 5266:(3): 315–336, 5256:Rickford, John 5252: 5227:(3): 247–258, 5213: 5208: 5195: 5190: 5175: 5120: 5111: 5103:Poplack, Shana 5099: 5094: 5080:Pinker, Steven 5076: 5059:(2): 147–184, 5045: 5036: 5031: 5018: 5013: 4995: 4986: 4975:10.2307/455582 4969:(4): 339–367, 4958: 4949:(4): 369–388, 4938: 4929: 4924: 4911: 4902: 4894:Labov, William 4890: 4881: 4864:(4): 305–330, 4853: 4844: 4835: 4826: 4817: 4800:(4): 602–619, 4789: 4784: 4771: 4766: 4750:Green, Lisa J. 4746: 4744:, pp. A10 4742:New York Times 4737: 4728: 4711:(3): 223–237, 4700: 4672: 4659: 4654: 4639: 4630:(3): 284–311, 4619: 4594:(3): 329–346, 4583: 4574: 4569: 4556: 4550: 4537: 4532: 4517: 4490: 4485: 4473:Crystal, David 4469: 4460: 4451: 4413:(12): e28248. 4398: 4389: 4380: 4371: 4366: 4353: 4344: 4335: 4326: 4316: 4287: 4285: 4282: 4280: 4279: 4254: 4229: 4207: 4176: 4134: 4107:(3): 215–228. 4091: 4050: 4017: 3998:(3): 319–346. 3975: 3948:(4): 948–988. 3925: 3900: 3893: 3870: 3855: 3846:Poplack, Shana 3837: 3825: 3813: 3801: 3790: 3779: 3765: 3732: 3721: 3709: 3697: 3672: 3647: 3634: 3632:, p. 173. 3622: 3620:, p. 209. 3610: 3597: 3585: 3576::227), citing 3565: 3552: 3548:Crystal (2003) 3528:Educating Eve, 3501: 3499:, p. 123. 3489: 3477: 3475:, p. 114. 3473:Wolfram (1998) 3465: 3463:, p. 173. 3453: 3451:, p. 214. 3449:Coulmas (2005) 3441: 3429: 3417: 3391: 3365: 3363:, p. 213. 3361:Coulmas (2005) 3353: 3341: 3339:, p. 182. 3329: 3327:, p. 341. 3325:Downing (1978) 3317: 3315:, p. 181. 3305: 3293: 3291:, p. 345. 3276: 3272:Stewart (1975) 3264: 3262:, p. 357. 3252: 3250:, p. 233. 3248:Florini (2014) 3235: 3223: 3221:, p. 108. 3211: 3194: 3175: 3158: 3139: 3135:Chesley (2011) 3124: 3103: 3091: 3057: 3030: 2987: 2975: 2950: 2935:U.S. v. Arnold 2927: 2914: 2894: 2890:Wheeler (1999) 2882: 2870: 2868:, p. 159. 2858: 2846: 2844:, p. 177. 2842:Coulmas (2005) 2834: 2821: 2809: 2807:, p. 157. 2797: 2793:Lanehart (2001 2785: 2783:, p. 221. 2773: 2747: 2741:Burling (1973) 2739::217), citing 2729: 2706: 2699: 2681: 2668: 2666: 2663: 2662: 2661: 2657:Lau v. Nichols 2653: 2646: 2641: 2636: 2630: 2629: 2613: 2610: 2604: 2601: 2561: 2548: 2538: 2535: 2518: 2515: 2509:, and Senator 2484: 2481: 2448: 2445: 2428: 2425: 2397: 2394: 2323:school board ( 2312:proficiently. 2262: 2259: 2253: 2250: 2229:uses the term 2227:Hot Chelle Rae 2175: 2174: 2171: 2168: 2165: 2162: 2156: 2155: 2152: 2149: 2146: 2143: 2137: 2136: 2135:Rolex (watch) 2133: 2130: 2127: 2124: 2114: 2113: 2110: 2107: 2104: 2101: 2090: 2089: 2086: 2079: 2072: 2062: 2061: 2058: 2055: 2052:Control Myself 2048: 2042: 2041: 2036: 2033: 2030:Control Myself 2026: 2020: 2019: 2016: 2013: 2010: 1995: 1994: 1991: 1985: 1978: 1972: 1971: 1968: 1965: 1962: 1956: 1955: 1952: 1949: 1946: 1940: 1939: 1933: 1930: 1927: 1921: 1920: 1917: 1914: 1911: 1878: 1875: 1823:held that "he 1812: 1809: 1759:code-switching 1751:Prescriptively 1739:Discrimination 1735: 1732: 1697: 1696: 1694: 1693: 1686: 1679: 1671: 1668: 1667: 1666: 1665: 1660: 1655: 1640: 1639: 1634: 1633: 1631: 1630: 1625: 1620: 1615: 1610: 1604: 1601: 1600: 1590: 1589: 1587: 1586: 1581: 1576: 1571: 1566: 1561: 1559:Black genocide 1555: 1552: 1551: 1545: 1542: 1541: 1538: 1537: 1532: 1531: 1529: 1528: 1523: 1518: 1513: 1508: 1503: 1498: 1493: 1487: 1484: 1483: 1477: 1476: 1474: 1473: 1468: 1466:US communities 1463: 1458: 1453: 1447: 1444: 1443: 1439: 1438: 1436: 1435: 1430: 1425: 1423:South Carolina 1420: 1418:North Carolina 1415: 1410: 1405: 1400: 1395: 1390: 1384: 1381: 1380: 1374: 1373: 1371: 1370: 1365: 1360: 1355: 1350: 1345: 1340: 1335: 1330: 1325: 1320: 1315: 1310: 1305: 1300: 1295: 1290: 1285: 1280: 1274: 1271: 1270: 1266: 1265: 1263: 1262: 1257: 1252: 1247: 1242: 1240:South Carolina 1237: 1232: 1227: 1222: 1220:North Carolina 1217: 1212: 1207: 1202: 1197: 1192: 1187: 1182: 1177: 1172: 1167: 1162: 1157: 1152: 1146: 1143: 1142: 1136: 1133: 1132: 1129: 1128: 1123: 1122: 1120: 1119: 1114: 1109: 1108: 1107: 1096: 1093: 1092: 1088: 1087: 1085: 1084: 1079: 1077:Samaná English 1074: 1069: 1068: 1067: 1056: 1053: 1052: 1046: 1043: 1042: 1039: 1038: 1033: 1032: 1030: 1029: 1027:LGBT community 1023: 1020: 1019: 1015: 1014: 1012: 1011: 1006: 1001: 996: 991: 986: 984:Creek Freedmen 981: 975: 972: 971: 967: 966: 964: 963: 958: 957: 956: 954:Carmel Indians 946: 941: 936: 931: 926: 921: 916: 915: 914: 909: 899: 894: 889: 883: 880: 879: 873: 870: 869: 866: 865: 860: 859: 858: 857: 852: 847: 842: 837: 835:Central (CIAA) 829: 828: 824: 823: 822: 821: 811: 808: 807: 804: 803: 798: 797: 795: 794: 789: 784: 779: 774: 769: 764: 759: 754: 746: 743: 742: 736: 733: 732: 729: 728: 723: 722: 720: 719: 714: 709: 704: 702:Pan-Africanism 699: 694: 689: 684: 679: 674: 669: 664: 659: 654: 648: 645: 644: 640: 639: 637: 636: 631: 626: 621: 615: 612: 611: 605: 602: 601: 598: 597: 592: 591: 589: 588: 583: 578: 573: 568: 563: 558: 552: 549: 548: 544: 543: 541: 540: 535: 533:Black theology 529: 526: 525: 521: 520: 518: 517: 511: 508: 507: 501: 496: 495: 492: 491: 486: 485: 483: 482: 477: 470: 465: 464: 463: 453: 448: 447: 446: 435: 432: 431: 427: 426: 424: 423: 418: 413: 408: 402: 399: 398: 397:Economic class 394: 393: 391: 390: 385: 380: 375: 369: 366: 365: 361: 360: 358: 357: 352: 347: 341: 338: 337: 336:Academic study 333: 332: 330: 329: 324: 319: 313: 308: 302: 299: 298: 294: 293: 291: 290: 285: 280: 275: 270: 265: 260: 255: 250: 245: 239: 236: 235: 229: 224: 223: 220: 219: 214: 213: 212: 211: 206: 201: 193: 192: 188: 187: 186: 185: 180: 175: 170: 165: 157: 156: 152: 151: 150: 149: 144: 139: 134: 129: 124: 119: 118: 117: 107: 97: 92: 87: 82: 77: 72: 64: 63: 57: 52: 51: 48: 47: 41: 40: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6100: 6089: 6086: 6084: 6081: 6079: 6076: 6074: 6071: 6069: 6066: 6064: 6061: 6059: 6056: 6054: 6051: 6049: 6046: 6044: 6041: 6039: 6036: 6034: 6031: 6029: 6026: 6024: 6021: 6019: 6016: 6014: 6011: 6009: 6006: 6005: 6003: 5993: 5992: 5987: 5983: 5980: 5976: 5975: 5971: 5967: 5964: 5962: 5959: 5955: 5951: 5947: 5943: 5939: 5934: 5931: 5927: 5924: 5920: 5916: 5914:1-55619-735-7 5910: 5906: 5901: 5898: 5894: 5887:September 19, 5882: 5881: 5876: 5871: 5868: 5864: 5857:September 19, 5853:. p. A10 5852: 5851: 5846: 5841: 5834:September 19, 5830:. p. A18 5829: 5828: 5823: 5818: 5815: 5812: 5809: 5806: 5805: 5801: 5796: 5793: 5789: 5784: 5781: 5777: 5773: 5769: 5765: 5761: 5756: 5752: 5747: 5744: 5740: 5736: 5732: 5728: 5724: 5719: 5715: 5711: 5706: 5702: 5697: 5694: 5688: 5684: 5683: 5677: 5673: 5668: 5665: 5661: 5657: 5653: 5649: 5645: 5640: 5636: 5631: 5628: 5624: 5619: 5614: 5610: 5606: 5605:Moderna Språk 5602: 5600: 5596: 5589: 5575: 5571: 5567: 5560: 5555: 5552: 5548: 5544: 5540: 5535: 5531: 5526: 5522: 5517: 5513: 5508: 5504: 5499: 5496: 5492: 5488: 5484: 5480: 5476: 5472: 5467: 5464: 5462:0-395-96919-0 5458: 5454: 5453: 5447: 5444: 5440: 5436: 5432: 5428: 5424: 5419: 5415: 5410: 5406: 5402: 5397: 5393: 5388: 5385: 5383:0-521-84768-0 5379: 5375: 5370: 5367: 5365:0-304-33908-3 5361: 5357: 5353: 5349: 5346: 5344:0-471-39957-4 5340: 5335: 5334: 5328: 5323: 5319: 5312: 5307: 5304: 5302:0-631-21245-0 5298: 5295:, Blackwell, 5294: 5289: 5285: 5281: 5276: 5273: 5269: 5265: 5261: 5257: 5253: 5250: 5246: 5242: 5238: 5234: 5230: 5226: 5222: 5218: 5214: 5211: 5209:0-521-47854-5 5205: 5201: 5196: 5193: 5191:0-14-006084-7 5187: 5183: 5182: 5176: 5165: 5161: 5157: 5153: 5149: 5145: 5141: 5137: 5133: 5129: 5125: 5121: 5117: 5112: 5108: 5104: 5100: 5097: 5095:0-688-12141-1 5091: 5087: 5086: 5081: 5077: 5074: 5070: 5066: 5062: 5058: 5054: 5050: 5049:Ogbu, John U. 5046: 5042: 5037: 5034: 5032:1-55619-735-7 5028: 5024: 5019: 5016: 5010: 5006: 5005: 5000: 4996: 4992: 4987: 4984: 4980: 4976: 4972: 4968: 4964: 4959: 4956: 4952: 4948: 4944: 4939: 4935: 4930: 4927: 4925:0-631-17915-1 4921: 4917: 4912: 4908: 4903: 4899: 4895: 4891: 4887: 4882: 4879: 4875: 4871: 4867: 4863: 4859: 4854: 4850: 4845: 4841: 4836: 4832: 4827: 4823: 4818: 4815: 4811: 4807: 4803: 4799: 4795: 4790: 4787: 4785:0-671-41814-9 4781: 4777: 4772: 4769: 4767:0-521-89138-8 4763: 4758: 4757: 4751: 4747: 4743: 4738: 4734: 4729: 4726: 4722: 4718: 4714: 4710: 4706: 4701: 4698: 4694: 4690: 4686: 4682: 4678: 4673: 4669: 4665: 4660: 4657: 4651: 4647: 4646: 4640: 4637: 4633: 4629: 4625: 4620: 4617: 4613: 4609: 4605: 4601: 4597: 4593: 4589: 4584: 4580: 4575: 4572: 4570:0-394-71872-0 4566: 4562: 4557: 4554: 4551: 4547: 4543: 4538: 4535: 4529: 4525: 4524: 4523:Codeswitching 4518: 4513: 4508: 4504: 4500: 4496: 4491: 4488: 4486:0-521-82348-X 4482: 4478: 4474: 4470: 4466: 4461: 4457: 4452: 4448: 4444: 4439: 4434: 4429: 4424: 4420: 4416: 4412: 4408: 4404: 4399: 4395: 4390: 4386: 4381: 4377: 4372: 4369: 4367:0-19-515289-1 4363: 4359: 4354: 4350: 4345: 4341: 4336: 4332: 4327: 4323: 4317: 4314: 4310: 4306: 4302: 4298: 4294: 4289: 4288: 4283: 4268: 4264: 4258: 4255: 4243: 4239: 4233: 4230: 4225: 4221: 4214: 4212: 4208: 4203: 4199: 4195: 4191: 4187: 4180: 4177: 4172: 4168: 4164: 4160: 4156: 4152: 4148: 4141: 4139: 4135: 4130: 4126: 4122: 4118: 4114: 4110: 4106: 4102: 4095: 4092: 4086: 4081: 4077: 4073: 4069: 4065: 4061: 4054: 4051: 4040: 4036: 4032: 4028: 4021: 4018: 4013: 4009: 4005: 4001: 3997: 3993: 3989: 3982: 3980: 3976: 3971: 3967: 3963: 3959: 3955: 3951: 3947: 3943: 3936: 3934: 3932: 3930: 3926: 3914: 3910: 3904: 3901: 3896: 3890: 3886: 3885: 3880: 3874: 3871: 3866: 3859: 3856: 3851: 3847: 3841: 3838: 3834: 3829: 3826: 3822: 3817: 3814: 3810: 3809:Wolfram (1998 3805: 3802: 3799: 3794: 3791: 3788: 3783: 3780: 3777: 3776:Golden (1997) 3772: 3770: 3766: 3758:September 19, 3754:. p. A-5 3753: 3749: 3748: 3743: 3736: 3733: 3730: 3725: 3722: 3718: 3717:Wolfram (1998 3713: 3710: 3706: 3701: 3698: 3686: 3682: 3676: 3673: 3661: 3657: 3651: 3648: 3644: 3638: 3635: 3631: 3626: 3623: 3619: 3614: 3611: 3607: 3601: 3598: 3594: 3589: 3586: 3583: 3579: 3575: 3569: 3566: 3562: 3556: 3553: 3549: 3545: 3541: 3537: 3533: 3529: 3525: 3521: 3517: 3516: 3511: 3510:Steven Pinker 3505: 3502: 3498: 3493: 3490: 3486: 3485:Golden (1997) 3481: 3478: 3474: 3469: 3466: 3462: 3461:Morgan (1999) 3457: 3454: 3450: 3445: 3442: 3438: 3433: 3430: 3426: 3425:Morgan (1999) 3421: 3418: 3405: 3401: 3395: 3392: 3380: 3376: 3369: 3366: 3362: 3357: 3354: 3350: 3345: 3342: 3338: 3337:Morgan (1999) 3333: 3330: 3326: 3321: 3318: 3314: 3313:Morgan (1999) 3309: 3306: 3303:, p. ??. 3302: 3297: 3294: 3290: 3285: 3283: 3281: 3277: 3273: 3268: 3265: 3261: 3256: 3253: 3249: 3244: 3242: 3240: 3236: 3232: 3227: 3224: 3220: 3215: 3212: 3207: 3206: 3198: 3195: 3190: 3186: 3179: 3176: 3172: 3171:Cutler (2007) 3167: 3165: 3163: 3159: 3154: 3150: 3143: 3140: 3136: 3131: 3129: 3125: 3120: 3119:Harv. L. Rev. 3115: 3107: 3104: 3100: 3095: 3092: 3080: 3076: 3072: 3068: 3061: 3058: 3045: 3041: 3034: 3031: 3026: 3022: 3018: 3014: 3010: 3006: 3002: 2998: 2991: 2988: 2984: 2979: 2976: 2965: 2961: 2954: 2951: 2947: 2943: 2940: 2936: 2931: 2928: 2924: 2918: 2915: 2910: 2909: 2904: 2898: 2895: 2892:, p. 55. 2891: 2886: 2883: 2879: 2878:Linnes (1998) 2874: 2871: 2867: 2866:DeBose (1992) 2862: 2859: 2855: 2850: 2847: 2843: 2838: 2835: 2831: 2825: 2822: 2818: 2813: 2810: 2806: 2805:DeBose (1992) 2801: 2798: 2794: 2789: 2786: 2782: 2777: 2774: 2762: 2758: 2751: 2748: 2745: 2742: 2738: 2733: 2730: 2725: 2721: 2717: 2710: 2707: 2702: 2700:9780367760724 2696: 2692: 2685: 2682: 2678: 2673: 2670: 2664: 2659: 2658: 2654: 2652: 2651: 2647: 2645: 2642: 2640: 2637: 2635: 2632: 2631: 2627: 2616: 2611: 2609: 2602: 2600: 2596: 2592: 2588: 2584: 2580: 2578: 2574: 2566: 2560: 2553: 2547: 2542: 2534: 2532: 2528: 2526: 2516: 2514: 2512: 2511:Joe Lieberman 2508: 2504: 2499: 2498:Jesse Jackson 2494: 2490: 2482: 2480: 2478: 2472: 2470: 2466: 2462: 2458: 2454: 2446: 2444: 2441: 2436: 2435: 2426: 2424: 2422: 2421:Black English 2418: 2413: 2411: 2410:Black English 2407: 2403: 2395: 2393: 2391: 2388: 2387:deterministic 2383: 2381: 2375: 2373: 2367: 2365: 2361: 2360: 2354: 2350: 2346: 2342: 2341:Jesse Jackson 2336: 2334: 2330: 2326: 2322: 2318: 2313: 2310: 2306: 2302: 2297: 2294: 2289: 2283: 2278: 2276: 2272: 2268: 2260: 2258: 2251: 2249: 2247: 2243: 2242: 2236: 2232: 2228: 2224: 2219: 2217: 2213: 2209: 2208: 2203: 2199: 2195: 2190: 2189: 2184: 2183: 2172: 2169: 2166: 2163: 2161: 2158: 2157: 2153: 2150: 2147: 2144: 2142: 2139: 2138: 2134: 2131: 2128: 2125: 2123: 2119: 2116: 2115: 2111: 2108: 2105: 2102: 2099: 2098: 2095: 2087: 2080: 2077: 2076:Gotta Have It 2073: 2071: 2067: 2064: 2063: 2059: 2056: 2053: 2049: 2047: 2044: 2043: 2040: 2037: 2034: 2031: 2027: 2025: 2022: 2021: 2018:AAVE feature 2017: 2014: 2011: 2008: 2007: 2004: 2002: 1992: 1986: 1983: 1979: 1977: 1974: 1973: 1969: 1966: 1963: 1961: 1958: 1957: 1953: 1950: 1947: 1945: 1942: 1941: 1938: 1934: 1931: 1928: 1926: 1923: 1922: 1919:AAVE feature 1918: 1915: 1912: 1909: 1908: 1905: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1891: 1887: 1883: 1876: 1874: 1872: 1866: 1864: 1859: 1854: 1852: 1851: 1846: 1842: 1838: 1834: 1830: 1829:present tense 1826: 1822: 1818: 1810: 1808: 1806: 1802: 1798: 1794: 1793:William Labov 1789: 1787: 1782: 1778: 1774: 1772: 1768: 1764: 1763:Linnes (1998) 1760: 1756: 1752: 1748: 1744: 1740: 1733: 1731: 1728: 1724: 1719: 1715: 1711: 1707: 1703: 1692: 1687: 1685: 1680: 1678: 1673: 1672: 1670: 1669: 1664: 1661: 1659: 1656: 1654: 1644: 1643: 1642: 1641: 1629: 1628:Minstrel show 1626: 1624: 1623:Magical Negro 1621: 1619: 1616: 1614: 1611: 1609: 1606: 1605: 1603: 1602: 1599: 1595: 1591: 1585: 1582: 1580: 1577: 1575: 1572: 1570: 1567: 1565: 1562: 1560: 1557: 1556: 1554: 1553: 1548: 1540: 1539: 1527: 1524: 1522: 1519: 1517: 1514: 1512: 1509: 1507: 1504: 1502: 1499: 1497: 1494: 1492: 1489: 1488: 1486: 1485: 1482: 1478: 1472: 1469: 1467: 1464: 1462: 1459: 1457: 1454: 1452: 1449: 1448: 1446: 1445: 1440: 1434: 1433:West Virginia 1431: 1429: 1426: 1424: 1421: 1419: 1416: 1414: 1411: 1409: 1406: 1404: 1401: 1399: 1396: 1394: 1391: 1389: 1386: 1385: 1383: 1382: 1379: 1375: 1369: 1368:San Francisco 1366: 1364: 1361: 1359: 1356: 1354: 1351: 1349: 1348:New York City 1346: 1344: 1341: 1339: 1336: 1334: 1331: 1329: 1326: 1324: 1321: 1319: 1316: 1314: 1311: 1309: 1306: 1304: 1301: 1299: 1296: 1294: 1291: 1289: 1286: 1284: 1281: 1279: 1276: 1275: 1273: 1272: 1267: 1261: 1258: 1256: 1253: 1251: 1248: 1246: 1243: 1241: 1238: 1236: 1233: 1231: 1228: 1226: 1223: 1221: 1218: 1216: 1213: 1211: 1208: 1206: 1203: 1201: 1198: 1196: 1193: 1191: 1188: 1186: 1183: 1181: 1178: 1176: 1173: 1171: 1168: 1166: 1163: 1161: 1158: 1156: 1153: 1151: 1148: 1147: 1145: 1144: 1139: 1131: 1130: 1118: 1115: 1113: 1110: 1106: 1103: 1102: 1101: 1098: 1097: 1095: 1094: 1089: 1083: 1080: 1078: 1075: 1073: 1070: 1066: 1063: 1062: 1061: 1058: 1057: 1055: 1054: 1049: 1041: 1040: 1028: 1025: 1024: 1022: 1021: 1016: 1010: 1007: 1005: 1002: 1000: 999:Nova Scotians 997: 995: 992: 990: 987: 985: 982: 980: 977: 976: 974: 973: 968: 962: 959: 955: 952: 951: 950: 947: 945: 942: 940: 937: 935: 932: 930: 927: 925: 922: 920: 917: 913: 910: 908: 905: 904: 903: 902:Black Indians 900: 898: 895: 893: 890: 888: 885: 884: 882: 881: 876: 868: 867: 856: 853: 851: 848: 846: 843: 841: 840:HBCU (HBCUAC) 838: 836: 833: 832: 831: 830: 825: 820: 817: 816: 815: 814: 806: 805: 793: 790: 788: 785: 783: 780: 778: 775: 773: 770: 768: 765: 763: 760: 758: 755: 753: 748: 747: 745: 744: 741:Organizations 739: 731: 730: 718: 715: 713: 710: 708: 705: 703: 700: 698: 695: 693: 690: 688: 685: 683: 680: 678: 675: 673: 670: 668: 665: 663: 660: 658: 655: 653: 650: 649: 647: 646: 641: 635: 632: 630: 627: 625: 622: 620: 617: 616: 614: 613: 610:Organizations 608: 600: 599: 587: 584: 582: 579: 577: 574: 572: 569: 567: 564: 562: 559: 557: 554: 553: 551: 550: 545: 539: 536: 534: 531: 530: 528: 527: 522: 516: 513: 512: 510: 509: 504: 499: 494: 493: 481: 478: 475: 471: 469: 466: 462: 459: 458: 457: 454: 452: 449: 445: 442: 441: 440: 437: 436: 434: 433: 428: 422: 419: 417: 414: 412: 409: 407: 404: 403: 401: 400: 395: 389: 386: 384: 381: 379: 376: 374: 371: 370: 368: 367: 362: 356: 353: 351: 348: 346: 343: 342: 340: 339: 334: 328: 325: 323: 320: 317: 314: 312: 309: 307: 304: 303: 301: 300: 295: 289: 286: 284: 281: 279: 278:Neighborhoods 276: 274: 271: 269: 266: 264: 261: 259: 256: 254: 251: 249: 246: 244: 241: 240: 238: 237: 232: 227: 222: 221: 210: 207: 205: 202: 200: 197: 196: 195: 194: 189: 184: 181: 179: 176: 174: 171: 169: 166: 164: 161: 160: 159: 158: 153: 148: 145: 143: 140: 138: 135: 133: 130: 128: 125: 123: 120: 116: 113: 112: 111: 108: 105: 101: 98: 96: 93: 91: 88: 86: 83: 81: 78: 76: 73: 71: 68: 67: 66: 65: 60: 55: 50: 49: 46: 42: 38: 34: 33: 30: 19: 5989: 5937: 5929: 5904: 5885:. Retrieved 5883:. p. B9 5878: 5866: 5855:. Retrieved 5848: 5832:. Retrieved 5825: 5787: 5763: 5759: 5750: 5726: 5722: 5713: 5709: 5700: 5681: 5671: 5647: 5643: 5634: 5608: 5604: 5598: 5594: 5581:, retrieved 5574:the original 5565: 5542: 5538: 5529: 5520: 5511: 5502: 5478: 5474: 5470: 5451: 5426: 5422: 5413: 5404: 5400: 5391: 5373: 5355: 5332: 5317: 5292: 5283: 5279: 5263: 5259: 5224: 5220: 5199: 5180: 5168:, retrieved 5164:the original 5135: 5131: 5115: 5106: 5083: 5056: 5052: 5040: 5022: 5003: 4990: 4966: 4962: 4946: 4942: 4933: 4915: 4906: 4897: 4885: 4861: 4857: 4848: 4839: 4830: 4821: 4797: 4793: 4775: 4755: 4741: 4732: 4708: 4704: 4683:(1): 17–19, 4680: 4676: 4667: 4663: 4644: 4627: 4623: 4591: 4587: 4578: 4560: 4552: 4545: 4522: 4502: 4498: 4476: 4464: 4455: 4410: 4406: 4393: 4384: 4375: 4357: 4348: 4339: 4330: 4321: 4296: 4292: 4270:. Retrieved 4266: 4257: 4245:. Retrieved 4241: 4232: 4223: 4193: 4189: 4179: 4146: 4104: 4100: 4094: 4067: 4063: 4053: 4042:, retrieved 4030: 4020: 3995: 3991: 3945: 3941: 3916:. Retrieved 3912: 3903: 3883: 3873: 3864: 3858: 3849: 3840: 3828: 3816: 3804: 3793: 3782: 3756:. Retrieved 3745: 3735: 3729:Lewis (1996) 3724: 3712: 3705:Morgan (1999 3700: 3690:November 29, 3688:. Retrieved 3684: 3675: 3665:November 29, 3663:. Retrieved 3659: 3650: 3642: 3637: 3625: 3613: 3600: 3588: 3568: 3555: 3543: 3531: 3527: 3519: 3518:pp. 28 3513: 3504: 3497:Green (2002) 3492: 3487:, p. ?. 3480: 3468: 3456: 3444: 3437:Green (2002) 3432: 3420: 3408:. Retrieved 3404:the original 3394: 3382:. Retrieved 3378: 3368: 3356: 3349:Green (2002) 3344: 3332: 3320: 3308: 3296: 3267: 3255: 3226: 3214: 3204: 3197: 3188: 3178: 3152: 3142: 3106: 3094: 3082:. Retrieved 3070: 3060: 3048:. 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