1922:, were faced with many challenges as they completed their journey of becoming architects. For years prior, the architecture industry was dominated by white men. In the 1900s, it was difficult for an African American man to receive a fair chance to become employed at a firm because of racism. On top of this, women were fighting for equal rights. Women architects not only had to overcome many setbacks due to their race but also due to their gender. Some common setbacks faced by Sklarek included being denied entry into the world of architecture, and not receiving recognition for their work. African American women had to work extremely hard just to have the chance to be educated in the field. As Sklarek demonstrated throughout her career, it was possible for African American women to excel in the architectural world, but the numbers of women within the field were low, and seem to have remained low from the time Sklarek was actively working to more recent years.
1806:
1895:(AIA), joining the Southern California Chapter in 1923, and the first black person to become a fellow of the AIA, in 1957. In 1921, he became the first African American Architect west of the Mississippi. Williams was also a member of the Los Angeles Planning Commission in 1920, the California Housing Commission in 1947, the National Monument Commission in 1929, and the National Housing Commission in 1953. Williams designed residential buildings as well as churches, schools, and other commercial buildings.
1719:"The experience of being Black in architecture involves learning about a discipline that does not include the contributions of African American architects like Paul Revere Williams, Robert R. Taylor, Walter T. Bailey and Wallace Rayfield within the canons of the profession... The experience of being Black in architecture requires you to unearth the accomplishments of other Blacks in architecture to understand how they navigated the often tumultuous waters of the profession."
1739:
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2170:, to receive a Bachelor of Science degree in Architectural Engineering in 1904 and an honorary master's degree from the same school in 1910. Bailey assisted in the planning of Champaign's Colonel Wolfe School before being appointed head of the mechanical industries department at Tuskegee Institute in Alabama, where he supervised planning design and construction of several campus buildings.
2559:(1868–1942), first African American admitted to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology School of Architecture, and the only African American among 19 first-year students in the architecture atelier of the first school of architecture in the United States. In 1892, he became the first African American to earn a
1904:
2192:(1869–1950), thought to be the first Black teacher of architecture at a HBCU; and the first African American author of an architecture textbook. He published a textbook based on his class lectures in 1892, and despite being poorly written, it may be the first architecture book authored by an African American.
1828:
were able to obtain architectural degrees from top universities, architectural licenses, and positions at top architectural firms. However, clients were often opposed to having their projects overseen by an
African American architect. This resulted in many African American architects working without
1992:
The
Directory of African American Architects maintains an ongoing list of licensed African American architects. In 2007, there were 100,000 licensed architects in the United States, however only 1,571 of them were African American and 186 of these are African American women. On October 24, 2019,
1753:
The first
African American architects appeared in the mid-1800s. Being African American and trying to become an architect in a White-dominated profession, especially in the 1800s-1900s was difficult. Racism towards African Americans was prevalent in the 1800s-1900s and this was amplified by the
2877:
2365:(1903–2000), architect and professor; former chair of the department of architecture at Howard University. Fry was a registered architect in Alabama, Washington, D.C., Maryland, Missouri, and Pennsylvania. He was known for his college and university campus architectural designs.
1980:
Although the culture and society in the United States have improved from the 19th and 20th centuries, African
American architects and other people of color who desire to become an architect continue to deal with a lack of diversity in the field. Only 2% of licensed
1758:. Jim Crow Laws enforced segregation of White and Blacks, therefore promoting direct racism. Many African American architects working during and after this time period faced obstacles due to overt racism perpetuated by the society and culture of the United States.
2457:). When Madison completed and passed requirements for his architectural licensing examination in June 1950, he is believed to have become Ohio's first licensed African American architect. Madison was one of only 14 architects invited to tour China in 1974 after
1569:
1456:
1964:(1915–1957), was the first black woman to become a licensed architect in the US. She was based out of Illinois, and started her practice in Chicago. She struggled to be noticed because of her race. Greene went on to work on international projects such as
2513:(born 1950), design principal of Devrouax+Purnell Architects and Planners PC, Washington, D.C., he has been involved in numerous AIA activities. He is a fellow of the National Organization of Minority Architects (NOMA), of which he was elected president.
2887:
1860:, is credited with the building's plan and massing, the presentation drawings are in Abele's hand. It was not until after Trumbauer's death that Abele signed his architectural drawings, or claimed credit for being the main designer of
1993:
there were 2,300 African
American architects listed, including 467 women. African American architects represent about 2% of all licensed architects (116,000) and African American women represent approximately 0.4%, according to the
1913:
Both
African American men and women dealt with similar issues regarding race, but African American women in the mid-1800 to 1900s dealt with discrimination based on sex as well. The first African American women architects, such as
1891:(USC) (class of 1919). Williams then worked for established firms run by Wilbert D. Cook Jr. and George D. Hall. Williams received his architecture license from the state of California, and was the first black person in the
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2417:(1926/1927–1995), possibly the first black architect in Oklahoma, but he experienced discrimination when he tried to take the state licensing board exam. Jackson taught architectural engineering at
1769:(formerly Claflin College) was the first historically Black school to offer an architectural drawing course, starting around the 1890s. Other early Black schools for architecture programs included
3353:
To help get students interested, Sablan founded Beyond the Built
Environment in 2017, a platform dedicated to amplifying the work of women and people of color who are architects around the world.
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609:
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2048:(1918–1999), considered to be the second African American woman to become a licensed architect in the United States. She worked in Chicago and Brazil with Mies.
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1998:
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1343:
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307:
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and the
Houston Chapter of the American Institute of Architects (AIA). In 1970 John S. Chase became the first African American Architect to serve on the
2258:
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75:
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2589:(1898–1989), one of the first African American architects to be registered in New York State; he worked designing on public buildings in New York City.
1805:
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2333:(1871–1949), first African American to obtain an architect's license in the state of Indiana in 1929; also the first African American employee at the
1278:
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189:
3898:"Louis E. Fry, Sr., FAIA: The recent deaths of individuals at the forefront of architectural practice, education, and theory will be felt worldwide"
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1363:
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1985:
in the United States are Black or
African American, and fewer than 1 in 5 new architects identify as a racial or ethnic minority, according to the
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2447:(1901–1987), architect, educator, academic administrator, and painter; he worked at Howard University in the architecture department for 50 years.
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1308:
1303:
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1933:(1928–2012), was the first black woman to become a licensed architect in both New York state (1954) and in California (1962). She graduated from
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163:
85:
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55:
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2453:(born 1923), founder of Robert P. Madison, International, is the first African American to graduate from Western Reserve University (now
1950:
1225:
1205:
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619:
465:
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2724:
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1353:
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2475:; he designed modular building materials, built his own manufacturing facilities, and focused on affordable housing and job building.
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1883:(1894–1980), was raised in the Los Angeles area where he attended school. After Graduating from high school, Williams attended the
4535:
3585:
2319:
male licensed to practice
Architecture in the state of Texas. In addition, he was also the first African American admitted to the
2382:
1938:
1892:
1643:
1579:
1190:
840:
253:
153:
2454:
2298:
1145:
1012:
830:
757:
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2501:(c.1888–1932), first African American to register with the new Georgia State Board of Registered Architects on April 5, 1920.
1554:
1230:
1180:
2418:
2010:
1786:
3335:
3154:
2467:(born 1932), founder of Charles F. McAfee Architects, Engineers, and Planners firm (now McAfee) which was headquartered in
2327:
and in 1970, he co-founded the National Organization of Minority Architects (NOMA), (along with 12 other black architects).
2151:, founder of Roberta Washington Architects, PC. located in New York City, a full architectural design and planning services
2110:(1956–2019; also known as Hermine Ricketts-Carroll), Jamaican-born and founder of HER Architects, Inc. in 1986, located in
2195:
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1245:
1215:
1200:
1185:
1160:
1140:
762:
396:
263:
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2018:
1848:, Abele returned to Philadelphia and joined Trumbauer's firm in 1906. He served as chief designer from 1909 to 1938. The
4568:
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1135:
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401:
80:
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architect in Virginia in 1922, and in the District of Columbia in 1924, he designed many office buildings and churches.
3825:
2320:
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2100:(born 1956), sole proprietor of RE: Architecture in California (1989–1996); she is a professor of architecture at the
2045:
1496:
1486:
1481:
1476:
1220:
692:
483:
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391:
340:
268:
158:
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1702:. Their work in the more distant past was often overlooked or outright erased from the historical records due to the
3882:
3430:
3123:
2526:
2428:
2422:
2234:
2183:
1937:
and worked for the architecture firms SOM and Gruen and Associates. She also was the first black woman to join the
1849:
1841:
1511:
1491:
994:
929:
702:
604:
571:
358:
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2397:(1854–1929), architect, stained glass artist, educator, and academic administrator; he was the first dean of the
2288:
2138:
2057:
1880:
1825:
1774:
1466:
1210:
1170:
459:
4534:
Mitchell, Melissa. "Research project spotlights African American Architects from University of Illinois." 2006.
3957:
3222:
1725:
Kwesi Daniels, 2020, department head at the Robert R. Taylor School of Architecture and Construction Science at
2352:
2101:
2042:; she was one of the first to recognize the importance of preserving historical buildings in the United States.
1884:
1045:
825:
672:
556:
330:
211:
39:
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4059:
2607:
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2074:, co-principal (with her husband William J. Stanley III) of the Atlanta-based firm, Stanley, Love-Stanley, PC.
2882:
2856:
2852:"Still Here: Three Architects of Afro-America: Julian Francis Abele, Hilyard Robinson, and Paul R. Williams"
2740:"The son of a former slave became a groundbreaking architect. This crumbling building is about to come down"
2645:
2536:
2488:
2408:
2284:
2254:
2251:
in 1990 when it joined forces with Bond Ryder and Associates. The firm was renamed Davis Brody Bond in 1996.
2130:
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1997:(NCARB). There are several organizations and initiatives focused on increasing representation including the
1961:
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1919:
258:
248:
228:
3445:
3280:
3910:
2945:
2816:
Clarke, Camille A. (2005). Wilson, Dreck Spurlock (ed.). "Black Pioneers in the Field of Architecture".
2586:
2576:
2546:
2215:
2111:
1965:
1946:
1930:
1915:
1907:
1713:
members of the profession—and their historic contributions—have become somewhat more recognized since.
882:
872:
804:
767:
551:
541:
441:
122:
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Kilment, Stephen A. "Young African American Women Architects sharpen ties to their communities." 2007.
4086:
3028:
2862:
1857:
3298:
2995:
2965:
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in Atlanta. She was the first women to receive an architecture license in the state of Kansas in 1990.
2913:
2368:
2330:
2276:
2201:
2189:
2097:
2091:
2068:. She became a naval architect with the United States Naval Sea Systems Command between in the 1970s.
2001:, Riding the Vortex, 400 FORWARD, Hip Hop Architecture, First 500, and Beyond the Built Environment.
1809:
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335:
127:
60:
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2343:(1858–1928), taught at St. Augustine College from 1885 to 1908 and designed several buildings there.
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1934:
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2134:
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1869:
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429:
406:
95:
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2411:(born 1951), architect, educator, and historian; noted for his writing on Paul Revere Williams.
1844:
School of Architecture (1902). After traveling and studying in Europe under the sponsorship of
4544:
4510:
4458:
4427:
4417:
4396:
4364:
4356:
4237:
4212:
4188:
4178:
4122:
4039:
4035:
Mid-Century Modernism and the American Body: Race, Gender, and the Politics of Power in Design
4012:
3876:
3799:
3772:
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at play in the country (and also due to the proxied nature of the profession itself), but the
1695:
1062:
682:
523:
30:
3675:
Robert R. Taylor and Tuskegee: An African American Architect Designs for Booker T. Washington
2579:(1883–1967), first registered Black architect in the state of Minnesota, and the first Black
2543:
in Detroit (formerly Howard Sims & Associates, and later Sim–Varner), and philanthropist.
2431:(1926–2021), Black modernist architect, primarily working on iconic church design in Detroit.
4426:. New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 206–207.
4311:
4264:
4166:
3847:"Mid-Century Modern in the City of Sacramento Historic Context Statement and Survey Results"
3078:
2902:
Celebrating 75 Years on the Parkway: The Central Library of the Free Library of Philadelphia
2550:
2522:
2516:
2498:
2438:
2434:
2316:
2271:
2248:
2198:(1891–1946), was responsible for the design of significant buildings in and near Pittsburgh.
2163:
2114:, Florida; in 2013, she led a zoning legal battle in Florida to grow produce in front yards.
2077:
1845:
1057:
914:
742:
677:
657:
566:
3520:
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2530:
2468:
2244:
1865:
1861:
1738:
1706:
1085:
892:
642:
561:
2270:(1854–1899), generally thought to be the first African-American architect to practice in
2013:
that may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help by
2349:(1923–1999), first Black architect in Sacramento, California; a founding member of NOMA.
2311:(1925–2012), in 1952, became the first African American to enroll and graduate from the
4388:
3983:
3943:
3589:
3316:
2613:
2540:
2519:(1874–1941), second formally educated practicing African-American architect in the USA.
2117:
1942:
1544:
969:
939:
697:
687:
518:
4557:
4167:
3962:
2402:
2346:
2308:
2085:
1755:
1699:
1613:
1608:
4520:
2573:(1908–2002), first registered Black architect in the states of Alabama and Michigan.
2267:
1837:
1817:
1742:
1691:
1097:
909:
637:
500:
2176:(1912–1997), pioneering Black architect in Los Angeles, California, known for his
4421:
4259:
4206:
4033:
4006:
3793:
3727:
3700:
3673:
3646:
3073:
2678:
3914:
3320:
1263:
919:
772:
652:
436:
4519:
Kiisk, Linda. "20 on 20/20 vision: Perspectives on Diversity and Design." 2003
2529:, built in 1936. Robinson also designed the Army training base of the infamous
2491:(1901–1991), founder of the architecture program at the Hampton Institute (now
2371:(born 1943), architect and Democratic politician, he focused on urban planning.
3244:
3179:
2229:(now Tuskegee University); served as the director of the industrial school at
2209:
1982:
368:
107:
4462:
4126:
3897:
3625:
3087:
2825:
2753:
2688:
4192:
2677:
Davis, Kimberly (October 2005). "Black Architects: Embracing and Defining".
2035:
1593:
934:
667:
446:
273:
3262:
2934:
Making a Modern Classic: The Architecture of the Philadelphia Museum of Art
2305:, and later taught architecture classes at West Virginia Colored Institute.
3753:
3045:
Slessor, Catherine (2018). "Finally Seeing Beyond the Lone Male Genius".
2355:(1866–1923), among the first African-American architects licensed by the
2039:
979:
904:
897:
2833:
4169:
African-American architects : a biographical dictionary, 1865-1945
3155:"Barrier-Breaking African American Architects We Should Be Celebrating"
2084:
of McAfee, she led the design and construction of sports venues of the
2054:(born 1927), Los Angeles-based preservationist in the mid-20th century.
1067:
373:
3586:"Research project spotlights African-American architects from U. Of I"
3336:"Very few architects are Black. This woman is pushing to change that"
3230:
2472:
1703:
974:
3856:. GEI Consultants Inc. September 2017. pp. 3–18. Archived from
4449:"John L. Wilson Jr., 91, Architect Of Harlem River Houses, Is Dead"
4341:
4113:"Nathan Johnson, Modernist Architect of Black Churches, Dies at 96"
4490:
3542:"Jamaican who fought for frontyard veggie gardens dies in Florida"
3516:"Miami Shores Couple to Village: Let Us Grow Our Vegetable Garden"
1902:
1804:
1737:
747:
4499:
African American Architects: A Biographical Dictionary, 1865–1945
4493:", the largest archival repository on African American Architects
4361:
African American Architects: A Biographical Dictionary, 1865-1945
4008:
African American Architects: A Biographical Dictionary, 1865-1945
3795:
African-American Architects: A Biographical Dictionary, 1865-1945
3769:
African American Architects: A Biographical Dictionary, 1865-1945
3729:
African American Architects: A Biographical Dictionary, 1865-1945
3702:
African American Architects: A Biographical Dictionary, 1865-1945
2785:
African American Architects: a Biographical Dictionary, 1865–1945
2481:(1879–1952), early African-American architect, and co-founder of
1840:(1881–1950), was the first African American to graduate from the
777:
4147:"Obituaries: Howard Mackey, 85, Dies; Former Dean at Howard U."
4005:
Wilson, Dreck Spurlock (March 2004). "William Augustus Hazel".
3612:"Overlooked No More: Joseph Bartholomew, Golf Course Architect"
2401:
School of Architecture in 1919, and was one of the first Black
2133:, one of the first two African American women to graduate from
2060:, one of the first two African American women to graduate from
3767:
Dreck Spurlock Wilson, ed. (2004). "Thomas Wilson Boyde Jr.".
3726:
Wilson, Dreck Spurlock (March 2004). "Charles Sumner Bowman".
3490:"Woman who sued for front-yard veggie gardens dies in Florida"
3340:
3299:"The First 500 Project with Tiara Hughes of NOMA (Transcript)"
2904:(Philadelphia: Free Library of Philadelphia, 2002), pp. 22-23.
2683:. Vol. 60. Johnson Publishing Company. pp. 108–114.
2564:
2081:
3699:
Wilson, Dreck Spurlock (March 2004). "Henry Clifford Boles".
3197:
2900:
Jonathan E. Farnham, Ph.D., "Julian F. Abele (1881–1950)" in
4334:"Architecture Race Academe: The Black Architect's Journey"
3082:. Vol. 50, no. 10. August 1995. pp. 54–58.
2549:(1885–1949), first African-American architect licensed by
2507:(1875–1958), established an early firm in Washington, D.C.
4529:
Landmark, Ted. "Isolation and Diversity in Architecture"
3568:"Pascale Sablan Wins AIA 2021 Whitney M. Young Jr. Award"
2391:(1910–1973), early African American architect in Detroit.
2335:
Office of the Supervising Architect for the U.S. Treasury
1852:
was a collaboration between Trumbauer's firm and that of
4173:. Wilson, Dreck Spurlock. New York: Routledge. pp.
4391:; Postal, Matthew A. (2009). Postal, Matthew A. (ed.).
4211:. Gale Group, Cengage Learning. May 2003. p. 858.
3648:
Space Unveiled: Invisible Cultures in the Design Studio
2461:
ended 25 years of isolation between the U.S. and China.
3267:
National Council of Architectural Registration Boards
3249:
National Council of Architectural Registration Boards
3184:
National Council of Architectural Registration Boards
1995:
National Council of Architectural Registration Boards
1987:
National Council of Architectural Registration Boards
1797:(formerly Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute).
3021:"Williams the Conqueror: Paul R. Williams 1894–1980"
2996:"Remembering Paul R. Williams, Pioneering Architect"
2313:
University of Texas at Austin School of Architecture
2257:(1905–1981), first African-American graduate of the
2166:(1882–1941), first African-American graduate of the
3929:"Race No Great Handicap, Says Lincoln U. Architect"
1570:
Unarmed African Americans killed by police officers
4541:The Will and the Way: Paul R. Williams, Architect.
4284:"William Henry Moses Jr., H.U. Department Founder"
3896:
3303:Entrearchitect, Small Firm Entrepreneur Architects
2141:. She was the chief restoration architect for the
4395:(4th ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons.
3393:"Cheryl Lynn McAfee, FAIA, NOMA, LEED AP, BD+C".
2377:(1897–1991), early African American architect in
2204:(1910–1979), Modernist architect and part of the
2186:(1888–1971), golf course designer in New Orleans.
4313:"Noted Detroit architect Howard Sims dies at 82"
2381:and the second African-American admitted to the
4507:Paul R. Williams, Architect: A Legacy of Style.
4385:New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission
3367:"Wichita native achieves her own Olympic glory"
1716:
3399:. AIA College of Fellows. 2022. pp. 36–37
2936:(Philadelphia Museum of Art, 1997), pp. 68-69.
2646:"15 Architects On Being Black In Architecture"
2595:Architectural firms owned by African Americans
2525:(1899–1986), best known for the design of the
2122:Fellow of the American Institute of Architects
297:Education of freed people during the Civil War
1864:'s west campus. Abele also helped design the
1668:
8:
4260:"Black Architects: Shapers of Urban America"
2261:and the first African-American architect in
1999:National Organization of Minority Architects
308:Historically black colleges and universities
3979:"The legacy of black architects in Detroit"
2878:"For an historic Penn grad, a murky legacy"
2539:(1933–2016), founded the architecture firm
2437:(1874–1946), first professionally licensed
2208:firm from 1957 to 1969 with civil engineer
292:Education during the slave period in the US
4543:Rizzoli International Publications, 1994.
4509:Rizzoli International Publications, 1993.
4038:. Princeton University Press. p. 59.
3223:"Is There a Black Architect in the House?"
2259:Syracuse University School of Architecture
2168:University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign
1675:
1661:
1532:
1123:
1033:
860:
798:
723:
615:National Black Caucus of State Legislators
592:
488:
216:
44:
17:
3909:(8). New York City, NY: 32. August 2000.
3798:. Taylor & Francis. pp. 97–100.
3472:"Michaele Pride, Architect, and Educator"
2818:The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education
2788:. New York City, NY: Routledge. pp.
2301:(now West Virginia State University) and
1789:(formerly Prairie View A&M College),
71:Slavery in the colonial history of the US
3819:Bainbridge, Judith T. (April 15, 2016).
3566:D'Angelo, Madeleine (December 9, 2020).
3202:Directory of African American Architects
2777:
2775:
2773:
2771:
2769:
2767:
2765:
2763:
4272:(9). Johnson Publishing Company: 62–64.
3117:
2633:
2610:(1905–present), New York City, New York
2094:, designed Trinity Hospital in Detroit.
1783:North Carolina A&T State University
1578:
1535:
1465:
1427:
1362:
1254:
1126:
1076:
1036:
1003:
955:
863:
812:
726:
628:
595:
532:
509:
491:
415:
382:
349:
321:
282:
219:
176:
140:
47:
29:
4491:Archive of African American Architects
3874:
3419:
3409:
3221:Landsmark, Theodore (March 16, 2007).
3124:"Black Architects After the Civil War"
3115:
3113:
3111:
3109:
3107:
3105:
3103:
3101:
3099:
3097:
4447:Anderson, Susan Heller (1989-11-04).
4355:Wilson, Dreck Spurlock (March 2004).
3792:Wilson, Dreck Spurlock (2003-12-12).
3149:
3147:
3145:
3143:
3068:
3066:
3064:
3062:
3060:
3040:
3038:
2989:
2987:
2985:
2918:Philadelphia Architects and Buildings
2859:, No. 2, Recognizing Neglected Design
2782:Wilson, Dreck Spurlock (2004-01-01).
2325:United States Commission of Fine Arts
2034:(1867–1951), architect as well as an
1968:in Paris, and designed buildings for
1856:. While another Trumbauer architect,
813:Athletic associations and conferences
302:History of African-American education
7:
3396:The AIA College of Fellows Quarterly
3122:Craven, Jackie (November 10, 2019).
2845:
2843:
2811:
2809:
2710:
2708:
2706:
2704:
2702:
2700:
2698:
2672:
2670:
2639:
2637:
2622:(1908–1914), New York City, New York
2279:(1895–1969), designed buildings for
736:Association for the Study of African
2717:"African-Americans in Architecture"
2459:Richard Nixon's 1972 visit to China
2359:in 1908, and later New York (1916).
2005:List of African-American architects
1550:Race and ethnicity in the US census
1051:African-American Vernacular English
620:National Conference of Black Mayors
4310:Benedetti, Marti (April 4, 2016).
4060:"Receives Masters in Architecture"
3678:. NewSouth Books. pp. 48–49.
3645:Bell, Carla Jackson (2014-08-01).
2738:Moyer, Justin (October 18, 2019).
753:National Black Chamber of Commerce
14:
4487:Moorland-Spingarn Research Center
4208:Who's Who Among African Americans
3476:African American Registry (AAREG)
3446:"Stylemaker: Building With Heart"
3019:Bengali, Shashank (Spring 2014).
2914:Abele, Julian Francis (1881–1950)
2876:Tillman, Zoe (December 5, 2006).
2721:African American Registry (AAREG)
2644:Fazzare, Elizabeth (2020-08-06).
2616:(1964–present), Detroit, Michigan
2604:(1994–present), Detroit, Michigan
2247:(1935–2009), became a partner of
2206:Associated Architect and Engineer
1889:University of Southern California
1457:Places by plurality of population
123:Civil rights movement (1954–1968)
113:Civil rights movement (1865–1896)
66:Abolitionism in the United States
4574:Lists of African-American people
4423:Guide to New York City Landmarks
4393:Guide to New York City Landmarks
4357:"Donald Frank White (1908–2002)"
3334:Romo, Vanessa (March 12, 2023).
2383:American Institute of Architects
1939:American Institute of Architects
1893:American Institute of Architects
1632:
154:Black Belt in the American South
4363:. Routledge. pp. 600–604.
4165:Spurlock Wilson, Dreck (2004).
4032:Wilson, Kristina (2021-04-13).
4011:. Routledge. pp. 273–278.
2656:from the original on 2020-09-27
2455:Case Western Reserve University
2419:Prairie View A&M University
2299:West Virginia Colored Institute
1787:Prairie View A&M University
758:National Council of Negro Women
4338:MIT Department of Architecture
4258:White III, Frank (July 1983).
4111:Green, Penelope (2021-11-22).
3958:"James H. Garrott (1897–1991)"
3610:Johnson, Roy S. (2020-02-05).
3321:"Beyond the Built Environment"
3263:"2020 NBTN State of Licensure"
1773:(formerly Hampton Institute),
1555:Racism against Black Americans
1:
3977:Piper, Matthew (2019-07-15).
3771:. Routledge. pp. 71–75.
3732:. Routledge. pp. 68–70.
3705:. Routledge. pp. 61–63.
2485:firm in Nashville, Tennessee.
2405:artists in the United States.
2385:(AIA) in Los Angeles in 1946.
2219:
2196:Louis Arnett Stuart Bellinger
1945:on projects that include the
1822:Louis Arnett Stuart Bellinger
763:National Pan-Hellenic Council
4233:"Charles McAfee's Biography"
3444:Betsky, Aaron (1993-09-26).
2602:Hamilton Anderson Associates
2052:Alma Fairfax Murray Carlisle
1941:. Sklarek collaborated with
1854:Zantzinger, Borie and Medary
1754:addition and enforcement of
1565:School segregation in the US
1103:Black American Sign Language
1077:Languages and other dialects
4564:African-American architects
3826:South Carolina Encyclopedia
3672:Weiss, Ellen (2012-01-01).
3365:Finger, Stan (1996-07-14).
2715:Dozier, Richard K. (2006).
2321:Texas Society of Architects
2315:and later became the first
2124:and associate principal at
2046:Georgia Louise Harris Brown
1688:African-American architects
392:African-American businesses
4600:
2994:Huang, Elisa (June 2016).
2932:David B. Brownlee, Ph.D.,
2527:Langston Terrace Dwellings
2423:Tennessee State University
2235:historically black college
2184:Joseph M. Bartholomew, Sr.
2008:
1887:and eventually studied at
1850:Philadelphia Museum of Art
1842:University of Pennsylvania
1775:Florida A&M University
930:Great Dismal Swamp maroons
605:Congressional Black Caucus
572:African Diaspora Religions
359:Martin Luther King Jr. Day
4579:Lists of American artists
3651:. Routledge. p. 18.
2922:Athenaeum of Philadelphia
2850:Bond, Max (Summer 1997).
2608:McKissack & McKissack
2483:McKissack & McKissack
2289:Virginia Union University
2225:–?), early graduate from
2139:Alberta Jeannette Cassell
2058:Alberta Jeannette Cassell
1885:Los Angeles School of Art
1437:US states and territories
738:American Life and History
460:Lift Every Voice and Sing
169:Treatment of the enslaved
4584:African-American artists
4496:Wilson, Dreck Spurlock.
4319:Crain's Detroit Business
3546:Jamaica Gleaner magazine
3245:"2020 NBTN Demographics"
3180:"2020 NBTN Demographics"
2353:George Washington Foster
2102:University of New Mexico
1866:Widener Memorial Library
1816:Some architects such as
1639:United States portal
1046:African-American English
557:African-American Muslims
118:Jim Crow era (1896–1954)
4091:Historic Nashville, Inc
4068:. 1954-09-11. p. 1
3935:. 1942-12-11. p. 2
2883:The Daily Pennsylvanian
2857:Harvard Design Magazine
2489:William Henry Moses Jr.
2409:Wesley Howard Henderson
2285:Morgan State University
2255:Thomas Wilson Boyde Jr.
2131:Martha Cassell Thompson
2066:Martha Cassell Thompson
2032:Elizabeth Carter Brooks
1962:Beverly Lorraine Greene
1749:19th and 20th-centuries
1560:Reparations for slavery
648:Back-to-Africa movement
547:Black Hebrew Israelites
425:African-American beauty
4340:. 2007. Archived from
3881:: CS1 maint: others (
3821:"Cook, William Wilson"
3074:"Top Women Architects"
3025:Trojan Family Magazine
2946:Julian Abele biography
2505:William Sidney Pittman
2445:Howard Hamilton Mackey
2395:William Augustus Hazel
2297:(1881–1924), attended
2174:Lester Oliver Bankhead
2009:This article contains
1957:Beverly Loraine Greene
1920:Beverly Loraine Greene
1910:
1813:
1745:
1722:
1030:Dialects and languages
190:Second Great Migration
3917:– via ProQuest.
2920:(PAB) project of the
2587:John Louis Wilson Jr.
2583:in the United States.
2577:Clarence W. Wigington
2563:in architecture from
2547:Vertner Woodson Tandy
2216:Charles Sumner Bowman
1951:U.S. Embassy in Tokyo
1947:Pacific Design Center
1931:Norma Merrick Sklarek
1926:Norma Merrick Sklarek
1916:Norma Merrick Sklarek
1908:Norma Merrick Sklarek
1906:
1808:
1741:
1442:US metropolitan areas
1269:List of neighborhoods
883:Alabama Creole people
873:African-American Jews
805:Negro league baseball
768:National Urban League
720:Civic/economic groups
552:African-American Jews
442:African-American hair
304:, after the Civil War
133:Post–civil rights era
4485:Howard University's
4087:"Pagoda of Medicine"
3903:Architectural Record
3159:Architectural Digest
2966:"Out of the Shadows"
2369:Harvey Bernard Gantt
2331:William Wilson Cooke
2277:Albert Irvin Cassell
2202:Henry Clifford Boles
2190:Robert Charles Bates
2137:in 1948, along with
2098:Michaele Pride-Wells
2092:Helen Eugenia Parker
2064:in 1948, along with
2015:adding missing items
1881:Paul Revere Williams
1876:Paul Revere Williams
1838:Julian Francis Abele
1833:Julian Francis Abele
1826:Paul Revere Williams
1818:Julian Francis Abele
1810:Paul Revere Williams
1599:Criminal stereotypes
1374:District of Columbia
1091:Afro-Seminole Creole
533:Non-Christian groups
128:Black power movement
92:during the Civil War
61:Atlantic slave trade
4569:American architects
4151:The Washington Post
3966:. 27 November 2017.
3933:The Lincoln Clarion
3863:on January 27, 2024
3429:CS1 maint: others (
3281:"Riding the Vortex"
3047:Architects' Journal
2581:municipal architect
2561:Bachelor of Science
2511:Marshall E. Purnell
2479:Moses McKissack III
2415:Leon Quincy Jackson
2379:Southern California
2375:James Homer Garrott
2363:Louis Edwin Fry Sr.
2357:State of New Jersey
2263:Rochester, New York
2108:Hermine E. Ricketts
2072:Ivenue Love-Stanley
1966:UNESCO headquarters
1935:Columbia University
1795:Tuskegee University
1791:Southern University
1727:Tuskegee University
1694:profession who are
995:Sierra Leone Creole
956:Specific ancestries
841:Southwestern (SWAC)
364:Black History Month
195:New Great Migration
149:Agriculture history
4539:Williams, Paul R.
4454:The New York Times
4418:Dolkart, Andrew S.
4389:Dolkart, Andrew S.
4292:. October 24, 1991
4154:. August 21, 1987.
4118:The New York Times
4065:The Black Dispatch
3854:City of Sacramento
3617:The New York Times
3572:Architect Magazine
3406:– via Issuu.
3375:. pp. 1A, 10A
3161:. 21 February 2019
2955:at Duke University
2951:2009-01-13 at the
2620:Tandy & Foster
2493:Hampton University
2389:Francis E. Griffin
2341:Henry Beard Delany
2303:Tuskegee Institute
2295:Albert Grant Brown
2231:Western University
2227:Tuskegee Institute
2149:Roberta Washington
2143:National Cathedral
2135:Cornell University
2062:Cornell University
1911:
1814:
1771:Hampton University
1767:Claflin University
1746:
1004:Sexual orientation
878:Afro-Puerto Ricans
831:Mid-Eastern (MEAC)
466:Self-determination
430:Black is beautiful
96:Reconstruction era
4549:978-0-8478-1780-1
4515:978-0-8478-2242-3
4505:Hudson, Karen E.
4433:978-0-471-36900-4
4402:978-0-470-28963-1
4370:978-1-135-95629-5
4238:The HistoryMakers
4218:978-0-7876-5915-8
4045:978-0-691-20819-0
4018:978-1-135-95629-5
3805:978-0-203-49312-0
3778:978-0-4159-2959-2
3739:978-1-135-95629-5
3712:978-1-135-95629-5
3685:978-1-58838-248-1
3658:978-1-317-65911-2
3496:. August 27, 2019
3451:Los Angeles Times
3372:The Wichita Eagle
2650:Cultured Magazine
2465:Charles F. McAfee
2451:Robert P. Madison
2399:Howard University
2281:Howard University
2126:Adjaye Associates
1858:Howell Lewis Shay
1779:Howard University
1690:are those in the
1685:
1684:
1622:
1621:
1520:
1519:
1294:Dallas-Fort Worth
1111:
1110:
1021:
1020:
965:Americo-Liberians
848:
847:
786:
785:
711:
710:
580:
579:
524:Womanist theology
474:
473:
416:Symbols and ideas
202:
201:
81:Antebellum period
76:Revolutionary War
31:African Americans
4591:
4473:
4472:
4470:
4469:
4444:
4438:
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4408:
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4172:
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4143:
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4108:
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4101:
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4083:
4077:
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4073:
4056:
4050:
4049:
4029:
4023:
4022:
4002:
3996:
3995:
3993:
3992:
3987:. Vox Media, LLC
3974:
3968:
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3954:
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3947:
3941:
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3925:
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3900:
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3663:
3662:
3642:
3636:
3635:
3633:
3632:
3607:
3601:
3600:
3598:
3597:
3588:. Archived from
3582:
3576:
3575:
3563:
3557:
3556:
3554:
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3538:
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3529:
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3289:
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3277:
3271:
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3253:
3252:
3241:
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3229:. Archived from
3218:
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3209:
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3188:
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3176:
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3135:
3134:
3119:
3092:
3091:
3070:
3055:
3054:
3042:
3033:
3032:
3027:. Archived from
3016:
3010:
3009:
3007:
3006:
2991:
2980:
2979:
2977:
2976:
2962:
2956:
2943:
2937:
2930:
2924:
2911:
2905:
2898:
2892:
2891:
2886:. Archived from
2873:
2867:
2866:
2861:. Archived from
2847:
2838:
2837:
2813:
2804:
2803:
2779:
2758:
2757:
2735:
2729:
2728:
2723:. Archived from
2712:
2693:
2692:
2674:
2665:
2664:
2662:
2661:
2641:
2557:Robert R. Taylor
2523:Hilyard Robinson
2517:Wallace Rayfield
2499:Louis H. Persley
2439:African American
2435:John A. Lankford
2317:African American
2272:Washington, D.C.
2249:Davis Brody Bond
2224:
2221:
2164:Walter T. Bailey
2080:(born c. 1958),
2078:Cheryl L. McAfee
2019:reliable sources
1846:Horace Trumbauer
1729:
1696:African American
1677:
1670:
1663:
1637:
1636:
1635:
1584:media depictions
1533:
1428:Population count
1124:
1058:Liberian English
1037:English dialects
1034:
990:Samaná Americans
915:Creoles of color
861:
799:
743:Black conductors
724:
593:
567:Louisiana Voodoo
489:
234:Family structure
217:
164:Military history
159:Business history
90:military history
45:
18:
4599:
4598:
4594:
4593:
4592:
4590:
4589:
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4554:
4553:
4482:
4480:Further reading
4477:
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4403:
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3990:
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3526:
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3521:Miami New Times
3513:
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3488:
3487:
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3317:Sablan, Pascale
3315:
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3297:
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3292:
3287:. May 25, 2018.
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2959:
2953:Wayback Machine
2944:
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2927:
2912:
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2899:
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2820:(50): 114–115.
2815:
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2745:Washington Post
2737:
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2630:
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2597:
2592:
2571:Donald F. White
2531:Tuskegee Airmen
2245:J. Max Bond Jr.
2222:
2180:church designs.
2159:
2154:
2040:social activist
2027:
2022:
2007:
1978:
1959:
1928:
1901:
1878:
1862:Duke University
1835:
1803:
1764:
1751:
1736:
1731:
1724:
1707:social dynamics
1681:
1633:
1631:
1624:
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1399:Omaha, Nebraska
1364:Historic places
1358:
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1107:
1072:
1031:
1023:
1022:
1017:
999:
951:
893:Black Seminoles
858:
857:Sub-communities
850:
849:
836:Southern (SIAC)
796:
788:
787:
782:
737:
721:
713:
712:
707:
624:
590:
582:
581:
576:
562:Nation of Islam
528:
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486:
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378:
345:
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254:Musical theater
214:
204:
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185:Great Migration
42:
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5:
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4409:
4401:
4376:
4369:
4347:
4344:on 2011-09-27.
4325:
4302:
4275:
4250:
4224:
4217:
4198:
4183:
4157:
4138:
4103:
4093:. July 7, 2016
4078:
4051:
4044:
4024:
4017:
3997:
3984:Curbed Detroit
3969:
3949:
3944:Newspapers.com
3920:
3888:
3838:
3811:
3804:
3784:
3777:
3759:
3745:
3738:
3718:
3711:
3691:
3684:
3664:
3657:
3637:
3602:
3577:
3558:
3533:
3506:
3481:
3463:
3436:
3420:|website=
3385:
3357:
3326:
3308:
3305:. 5 June 2018.
3290:
3272:
3269:. 18 May 2020.
3254:
3251:. 18 May 2020.
3236:
3233:on 2011-09-26.
3213:
3189:
3186:. 18 May 2020.
3171:
3139:
3093:
3056:
3034:
3031:on 2013-05-27.
3011:
2981:
2957:
2938:
2925:
2916:data from the
2906:
2893:
2890:on 2008-06-25.
2868:
2865:on 2010-01-18.
2839:
2805:
2798:
2759:
2730:
2727:on 2009-02-08.
2694:
2666:
2632:
2631:
2629:
2626:
2624:
2623:
2617:
2614:SDG Associates
2611:
2605:
2598:
2596:
2593:
2591:
2590:
2584:
2574:
2568:
2554:
2544:
2541:SDG Associates
2534:
2520:
2514:
2508:
2502:
2496:
2486:
2476:
2462:
2448:
2442:
2432:
2429:Nathan Johnson
2426:
2412:
2406:
2392:
2386:
2372:
2366:
2360:
2350:
2344:
2338:
2328:
2306:
2292:
2274:
2265:
2252:
2242:
2213:
2199:
2193:
2187:
2181:
2171:
2160:
2158:
2155:
2153:
2152:
2146:
2128:
2118:Pascale Sablan
2115:
2105:
2095:
2089:
2075:
2069:
2055:
2049:
2043:
2028:
2026:
2023:
2006:
2003:
1977:
1974:
1958:
1955:
1927:
1924:
1900:
1897:
1877:
1874:
1834:
1831:
1802:
1799:
1763:
1760:
1750:
1747:
1735:
1732:
1715:
1683:
1682:
1680:
1679:
1672:
1665:
1657:
1654:
1653:
1652:
1651:
1646:
1641:
1626:
1625:
1620:
1619:
1617:
1616:
1611:
1606:
1601:
1596:
1590:
1587:
1586:
1576:
1575:
1573:
1572:
1567:
1562:
1557:
1552:
1547:
1545:Black genocide
1541:
1538:
1537:
1531:
1528:
1527:
1524:
1523:
1518:
1517:
1515:
1514:
1509:
1504:
1499:
1494:
1489:
1484:
1479:
1473:
1470:
1469:
1463:
1462:
1460:
1459:
1454:
1452:US communities
1449:
1444:
1439:
1433:
1430:
1429:
1425:
1424:
1422:
1421:
1416:
1411:
1409:South Carolina
1406:
1404:North Carolina
1401:
1396:
1391:
1386:
1381:
1376:
1370:
1367:
1366:
1360:
1359:
1357:
1356:
1351:
1346:
1341:
1336:
1331:
1326:
1321:
1316:
1311:
1306:
1301:
1296:
1291:
1286:
1281:
1276:
1271:
1266:
1260:
1257:
1256:
1252:
1251:
1249:
1248:
1243:
1238:
1233:
1228:
1226:South Carolina
1223:
1218:
1213:
1208:
1206:North Carolina
1203:
1198:
1193:
1188:
1183:
1178:
1173:
1168:
1163:
1158:
1153:
1148:
1143:
1138:
1132:
1129:
1128:
1122:
1119:
1118:
1115:
1114:
1109:
1108:
1106:
1105:
1100:
1095:
1094:
1093:
1082:
1079:
1078:
1074:
1073:
1071:
1070:
1065:
1063:Samaná English
1060:
1055:
1054:
1053:
1042:
1039:
1038:
1032:
1029:
1028:
1025:
1024:
1019:
1018:
1016:
1015:
1013:LGBT community
1009:
1006:
1005:
1001:
1000:
998:
997:
992:
987:
982:
977:
972:
970:Creek Freedmen
967:
961:
958:
957:
953:
952:
950:
949:
944:
943:
942:
940:Carmel Indians
932:
927:
922:
917:
912:
907:
902:
901:
900:
895:
885:
880:
875:
869:
866:
865:
859:
856:
855:
852:
851:
846:
845:
844:
843:
838:
833:
828:
823:
821:Central (CIAA)
815:
814:
810:
809:
808:
807:
797:
794:
793:
790:
789:
784:
783:
781:
780:
775:
770:
765:
760:
755:
750:
745:
740:
732:
729:
728:
722:
719:
718:
715:
714:
709:
708:
706:
705:
700:
695:
690:
688:Pan-Africanism
685:
680:
675:
670:
665:
660:
655:
650:
645:
640:
634:
631:
630:
626:
625:
623:
622:
617:
612:
607:
601:
598:
597:
591:
588:
587:
584:
583:
578:
577:
575:
574:
569:
564:
559:
554:
549:
544:
538:
535:
534:
530:
529:
527:
526:
521:
519:Black theology
515:
512:
511:
507:
506:
504:
503:
497:
494:
493:
487:
482:
481:
478:
477:
472:
471:
469:
468:
463:
456:
451:
450:
449:
439:
434:
433:
432:
421:
418:
417:
413:
412:
410:
409:
404:
399:
394:
388:
385:
384:
383:Economic class
380:
379:
377:
376:
371:
366:
361:
355:
352:
351:
347:
346:
344:
343:
338:
333:
327:
324:
323:
322:Academic study
319:
318:
316:
315:
310:
305:
299:
294:
288:
285:
284:
280:
279:
277:
276:
271:
266:
261:
256:
251:
246:
241:
236:
231:
225:
222:
221:
215:
210:
209:
206:
205:
200:
199:
198:
197:
192:
187:
179:
178:
174:
173:
172:
171:
166:
161:
156:
151:
143:
142:
138:
137:
136:
135:
130:
125:
120:
115:
110:
105:
104:
103:
93:
83:
78:
73:
68:
63:
58:
50:
49:
43:
38:
37:
34:
33:
27:
26:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4596:
4585:
4582:
4580:
4577:
4575:
4572:
4570:
4567:
4565:
4562:
4561:
4559:
4550:
4546:
4542:
4538:
4536:
4533:
4531:
4528:
4526:
4523:
4521:
4518:
4516:
4512:
4508:
4504:
4501:
4500:
4495:
4492:
4488:
4484:
4483:
4479:
4464:
4460:
4456:
4455:
4450:
4443:
4440:
4435:
4429:
4425:
4424:
4419:
4413:
4410:
4404:
4398:
4394:
4390:
4386:
4380:
4377:
4372:
4366:
4362:
4358:
4351:
4348:
4343:
4339:
4335:
4329:
4326:
4321:
4320:
4314:
4306:
4303:
4291:
4290:
4285:
4279:
4276:
4271:
4267:
4266:
4261:
4254:
4251:
4240:
4239:
4234:
4228:
4225:
4220:
4214:
4210:
4209:
4202:
4199:
4194:
4190:
4186:
4180:
4176:
4171:
4170:
4161:
4158:
4153:
4152:
4148:
4142:
4139:
4128:
4124:
4120:
4119:
4114:
4107:
4104:
4092:
4088:
4082:
4079:
4067:
4066:
4061:
4055:
4052:
4047:
4041:
4037:
4036:
4028:
4025:
4020:
4014:
4010:
4009:
4001:
3998:
3986:
3985:
3980:
3973:
3970:
3965:
3964:
3963:BlackPast.org
3959:
3953:
3950:
3945:
3934:
3930:
3924:
3921:
3916:
3912:
3908:
3904:
3899:
3892:
3889:
3884:
3878:
3859:
3855:
3848:
3842:
3839:
3828:
3827:
3822:
3815:
3812:
3807:
3801:
3797:
3796:
3788:
3785:
3780:
3774:
3770:
3763:
3760:
3755:
3749:
3746:
3741:
3735:
3731:
3730:
3722:
3719:
3714:
3708:
3704:
3703:
3695:
3692:
3687:
3681:
3677:
3676:
3668:
3665:
3660:
3654:
3650:
3649:
3641:
3638:
3627:
3623:
3619:
3618:
3613:
3606:
3603:
3592:on 2008-07-06
3591:
3587:
3581:
3578:
3573:
3569:
3562:
3559:
3547:
3543:
3537:
3534:
3523:
3522:
3517:
3514:Doss, Laine.
3510:
3507:
3495:
3491:
3485:
3482:
3477:
3473:
3467:
3464:
3453:
3452:
3447:
3440:
3437:
3432:
3425:
3413:
3398:
3397:
3389:
3386:
3374:
3373:
3368:
3361:
3358:
3354:
3343:
3342:
3337:
3330:
3327:
3322:
3318:
3312:
3309:
3304:
3300:
3294:
3291:
3286:
3282:
3276:
3273:
3268:
3264:
3258:
3255:
3250:
3246:
3240:
3237:
3232:
3228:
3224:
3217:
3214:
3203:
3199:
3193:
3190:
3185:
3181:
3175:
3172:
3160:
3156:
3150:
3148:
3146:
3144:
3140:
3129:
3125:
3118:
3116:
3114:
3112:
3110:
3108:
3106:
3104:
3102:
3100:
3098:
3094:
3089:
3085:
3081:
3080:
3075:
3069:
3067:
3065:
3063:
3061:
3057:
3052:
3048:
3041:
3039:
3035:
3030:
3026:
3022:
3015:
3012:
3001:
2997:
2990:
2988:
2986:
2982:
2971:
2967:
2961:
2958:
2954:
2950:
2947:
2942:
2939:
2935:
2929:
2926:
2923:
2919:
2915:
2910:
2907:
2903:
2897:
2894:
2889:
2885:
2884:
2879:
2872:
2869:
2864:
2860:
2858:
2853:
2846:
2844:
2840:
2835:
2831:
2827:
2823:
2819:
2812:
2810:
2806:
2801:
2799:0-415-92959-8
2795:
2791:
2787:
2786:
2778:
2776:
2774:
2772:
2770:
2768:
2766:
2764:
2760:
2755:
2751:
2747:
2746:
2741:
2734:
2731:
2726:
2722:
2718:
2711:
2709:
2707:
2705:
2703:
2701:
2699:
2695:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2681:
2673:
2671:
2667:
2655:
2651:
2647:
2640:
2638:
2634:
2627:
2621:
2618:
2615:
2612:
2609:
2606:
2603:
2600:
2599:
2594:
2588:
2585:
2582:
2578:
2575:
2572:
2569:
2566:
2562:
2558:
2555:
2552:
2548:
2545:
2542:
2538:
2535:
2532:
2528:
2524:
2521:
2518:
2515:
2512:
2509:
2506:
2503:
2500:
2497:
2494:
2490:
2487:
2484:
2480:
2477:
2474:
2470:
2466:
2463:
2460:
2456:
2452:
2449:
2446:
2443:
2440:
2436:
2433:
2430:
2427:
2424:
2420:
2416:
2413:
2410:
2407:
2404:
2403:stained glass
2400:
2396:
2393:
2390:
2387:
2384:
2380:
2376:
2373:
2370:
2367:
2364:
2361:
2358:
2354:
2351:
2348:
2347:James C. Dodd
2345:
2342:
2339:
2336:
2332:
2329:
2326:
2322:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2309:John S. Chase
2307:
2304:
2300:
2296:
2293:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2278:
2275:
2273:
2269:
2266:
2264:
2260:
2256:
2253:
2250:
2246:
2243:
2240:
2236:
2232:
2228:
2217:
2214:
2211:
2207:
2203:
2200:
2197:
2194:
2191:
2188:
2185:
2182:
2179:
2175:
2172:
2169:
2165:
2162:
2161:
2156:
2150:
2147:
2144:
2140:
2136:
2132:
2129:
2127:
2123:
2120:(born 1983),
2119:
2116:
2113:
2109:
2106:
2103:
2099:
2096:
2093:
2090:
2087:
2086:1996 Olympics
2083:
2079:
2076:
2073:
2070:
2067:
2063:
2059:
2056:
2053:
2050:
2047:
2044:
2041:
2037:
2033:
2030:
2029:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2011:dynamic lists
2004:
2002:
2000:
1996:
1990:
1988:
1984:
1975:
1973:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1956:
1954:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1925:
1923:
1921:
1917:
1909:
1905:
1898:
1896:
1894:
1890:
1886:
1882:
1875:
1873:
1871:
1867:
1863:
1859:
1855:
1851:
1847:
1843:
1839:
1832:
1830:
1827:
1823:
1819:
1811:
1807:
1800:
1798:
1796:
1792:
1788:
1784:
1780:
1776:
1772:
1768:
1761:
1759:
1757:
1756:Jim Crow laws
1748:
1744:
1740:
1733:
1730:
1728:
1721:
1720:
1714:
1712:
1708:
1705:
1701:
1700:United States
1697:
1693:
1692:architectural
1689:
1678:
1673:
1671:
1666:
1664:
1659:
1658:
1656:
1655:
1650:
1647:
1645:
1642:
1640:
1630:
1629:
1628:
1627:
1615:
1614:Minstrel show
1612:
1610:
1609:Magical Negro
1607:
1605:
1602:
1600:
1597:
1595:
1592:
1591:
1589:
1588:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1571:
1568:
1566:
1563:
1561:
1558:
1556:
1553:
1551:
1548:
1546:
1543:
1542:
1540:
1539:
1534:
1526:
1525:
1513:
1510:
1508:
1505:
1503:
1500:
1498:
1495:
1493:
1490:
1488:
1485:
1483:
1480:
1478:
1475:
1474:
1472:
1471:
1468:
1464:
1458:
1455:
1453:
1450:
1448:
1445:
1443:
1440:
1438:
1435:
1434:
1432:
1431:
1426:
1420:
1419:West Virginia
1417:
1415:
1412:
1410:
1407:
1405:
1402:
1400:
1397:
1395:
1392:
1390:
1387:
1385:
1382:
1380:
1377:
1375:
1372:
1371:
1369:
1368:
1365:
1361:
1355:
1354:San Francisco
1352:
1350:
1347:
1345:
1342:
1340:
1337:
1335:
1334:New York City
1332:
1330:
1327:
1325:
1322:
1320:
1317:
1315:
1312:
1310:
1307:
1305:
1302:
1300:
1297:
1295:
1292:
1290:
1287:
1285:
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1280:
1277:
1275:
1272:
1270:
1267:
1265:
1262:
1261:
1259:
1258:
1253:
1247:
1244:
1242:
1239:
1237:
1234:
1232:
1229:
1227:
1224:
1222:
1219:
1217:
1214:
1212:
1209:
1207:
1204:
1202:
1199:
1197:
1194:
1192:
1189:
1187:
1184:
1182:
1179:
1177:
1174:
1172:
1169:
1167:
1164:
1162:
1159:
1157:
1154:
1152:
1149:
1147:
1144:
1142:
1139:
1137:
1134:
1133:
1131:
1130:
1125:
1117:
1116:
1104:
1101:
1099:
1096:
1092:
1089:
1088:
1087:
1084:
1083:
1081:
1080:
1075:
1069:
1066:
1064:
1061:
1059:
1056:
1052:
1049:
1048:
1047:
1044:
1043:
1041:
1040:
1035:
1027:
1026:
1014:
1011:
1010:
1008:
1007:
1002:
996:
993:
991:
988:
986:
985:Nova Scotians
983:
981:
978:
976:
973:
971:
968:
966:
963:
962:
960:
959:
954:
948:
945:
941:
938:
937:
936:
933:
931:
928:
926:
923:
921:
918:
916:
913:
911:
908:
906:
903:
899:
896:
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2268:Calvin Brent
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2112:Coral Gables
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1314:Jacksonville
910:Brass Ankles
663:Conservatism
638:Afrocentrism
610:Joint Center
501:Black church
492:Institutions
407:Billionaires
397:Middle class
350:Celebrations
313:Fraternities
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4289:Daily Press
3867:January 27,
2970:Smithsonian
2792:, 443–445.
2537:Howard Sims
2223: 1873
1943:Cesar Pelli
1580:Stereotypes
1507:Nova Scotia
1389:Mississippi
1349:San Antonio
1329:Los Angeles
1264:Black mecca
1191:Mississippi
1098:Negro Dutch
920:Dominickers
864:Multiethnic
773:TransAfrica
683:Nationalism
653:Black power
437:Black pride
402:Upper class
101:Politicians
4558:Categories
4468:2023-02-21
4296:2023-10-21
4244:2023-02-15
4184:0203493125
4132:2024-01-22
4097:2023-01-25
4072:2023-01-25
3991:2024-01-30
3939:2023-09-08
3832:2023-02-26
3754:"Overview"
3631:2023-02-22
3596:2018-10-20
3552:2023-02-15
3527:2023-02-15
3500:2023-02-12
3457:2023-02-12
3403:2023-02-16
3379:2023-02-16
3207:2024-09-12
3165:2019-10-15
3133:2023-02-12
3005:2019-10-15
2975:2019-10-15
2660:2021-02-24
2628:References
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2237:(HBCU) in
2210:Paul Parks
1983:architects
1146:California
1120:Population
693:Patriotism
678:Liberalism
658:Capitalism
629:Ideologies
510:Theologies
369:Juneteenth
341:Literature
269:Newspapers
177:Migrations
108:Juneteenth
4489:and the "
4463:0362-4331
4127:0362-4331
3915:222134005
3626:0362-4331
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3412:cite book
3347:March 12,
3285:Now What?
3227:MIT World
3128:ThoughtCo
3088:0012-9011
2826:1077-3711
2754:0190-8286
2689:0012-9011
2241:, Kansas.
2178:modernist
1604:Hollywood
1594:Blackface
1529:Prejudice
1447:US cities
1324:Lexington
1299:Davenport
1279:Baltimore
1255:US cities
1231:Tennessee
1181:Louisiana
1127:US states
935:Melungeon
905:Blaxicans
703:Socialism
668:Garveyism
643:Anarchism
447:Good hair
274:Soul food
244:Folktales
4420:(2004).
4193:60712152
3911:ProQuest
3877:cite web
3198:"STATES"
3000:USC News
2949:Archived
2834:25073391
2654:Archived
2551:New York
2239:Quindaro
2036:educator
1949:and the
1829:credit.
1644:Category
1467:Diaspora
1394:Missouri
1319:Kentucky
1246:Virginia
1216:Oklahoma
1201:New York
1196:Nebraska
1186:Maryland
1161:Illinois
1141:Arkansas
980:Merikins
925:Freedmen
898:Mascogos
698:Populism
589:Politics
484:Religion
454:Stepping
220:Lifeways
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23:a series
21:Part of
2469:Wichita
1870:Harvard
1762:Schools
1734:History
1698:in the
1502:Liberia
1384:Georgia
1379:Florida
1309:Houston
1304:Detroit
1289:Chicago
1274:Atlanta
1166:Indiana
1156:Georgia
1151:Florida
1136:Alabama
1068:Tutnese
947:Redbone
673:Leftism
374:Kwanzaa
331:Studies
283:Schools
212:Culture
141:Aspects
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1536:Racism
1497:Israel
1487:France
1482:Canada
1477:Africa
1284:Boston
1221:Oregon
1176:Kansas
1086:Gullah
975:Gullah
795:Sports
542:Hoodoo
4265:Ebony
3861:(PDF)
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2830:JSTOR
2680:Ebony
2025:Women
2017:with
1899:Women
1711:black
1649:Index
1492:Ghana
1414:Texas
1339:Omaha
1236:Texas
748:NAACP
259:Names
249:Music
229:Dance
4545:ISBN
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4459:ISSN
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4189:OCLC
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