20:
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black slaveholders were of mixed race, but nearly 90% of their slaves were classified as black. Koger also noted that many South
Carolina free blacks operated small businesses as skilled artisans, and many owned slaves working in those businesses. "Koger emphasizes that it was all too common for freed slaves to become slaveholders themselves."
194:
terms". For free blacks, who had only a precarious hold on freedom, "slave ownership was not simply an economic convenience but indispensable evidence of the free blacks' determination to break with their slave past and their silent acceptance – if not approval – of slavery."
214:
In his 1985 statewide study of black slaveholders in South
Carolina, Larry Koger challenged this benevolent view. He found that the majority of mixed-race or black slaveholders appeared to hold at least some of their slaves for commercial reasons. For instance, he noted that in 1850, more than 80% of
205:
he evidence is overwhelming that the vast majority of black slaveholders were free men who purchased members of their families or who acted out of benevolence". After 1810, Southern states made it increasingly difficult for any slaveholders to free slaves. Often the purchasers of family members were
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Free blacks were perceived "as a continual symbolic threat to slaveholders, challenging the idea that 'black' and 'slave' were synonymous". Free blacks were sometimes seen as potential allies of fugitive slaves and "slaveholders bore witness to their fear and loathing of free blacks in no uncertain
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In slave societies, nearly everyone – free and slave – aspired to enter the slaveholding class, and upon occasion some former slaves rose into slaveholders' ranks. Their acceptance was grudging, as they carried the stigma of bondage in their lineage and, in the case of
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colonial rule. Relatively few non-white slaveholders were substantial planters; of those who were, most were of mixed race, often endowed by white fathers with some property and social capital. For example, Andrew
Durnford of New Orleans was listed as owning 77 slaves.
189:... the percentage of free black slave owners as the total number of free black heads of families was quite high in several states, namely 43 percent in South Carolina, 40 percent in Louisiana, 26 percent in Mississippi, 25 percent in Alabama and 20 percent in Georgia.
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left with no choice but to maintain, on paper, the owner–slave relationship. In the 1850s, "there were increasing efforts to restrict the right to hold bondsmen on the grounds that slaves should be kept 'as far as possible under the control of white men only.
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A large majority of profit-oriented free black slaveholders resided in the Lower South. For the most part, they were persons of mixed racial origin, often women who cohabited or were mistresses of white men, or mulatto
164:... Provided land and slaves by whites, they owned farms and plantations, worked their hands in the rice, cotton, and sugar fields, and like their white contemporaries were troubled with runaways.
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and later states and territories that allowed slavery; in some early cases, black
Americans also had white indentured servants. It has been widely claimed that an African former
56:. Accordingly, black slave became owners of slaves and relatively common living in the United States in 1850." This event remains a controversial topic among proponents of
604:
463:
98:
There were economic and ethnic differences between free blacks of the Upper South and the Deep South, with the latter fewer in number, but wealthier and typically of
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existed in some cities and others as plantation owners in the country. During this time, ownership of slaves signified both wealth and increased social status.
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Some free black slaveholders in New
Orleans offered to fight for Confederate Louisiana in the Civil War. Over 1,000 free black people volunteered and formed the
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Durnford was known as a stern master who worked his slaves hard and punished them often in his efforts to make his
Louisiana sugar plantation a success.
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571:
549:
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80:, became one of the earliest documented slave owners in the mainland American colonies when he won a civil suit for ownership of
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68:
Slave owners included a comparatively small number of people of at least partial
African ancestry in each of the original
49:
19:
107:
77:
249:
Encyclopedia of
African American History, 1619–1895: From the Colonial Period to the Age of Frederick Douglass
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125:
459:
273:
182:
129:
24:
468:
102:. Half of the black slaveholders lived in cities rather than the countryside, with most living in
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148:, who owned over a hundred slaves, was considered the wealthiest black slaveholder in Louisiana.
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349:"Photos of anti-slavery activist Lewis Hayden falsely labeled as 'first slave owner'"
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121:
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348:
103:
99:
169:
111:
81:
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324:"Myne Owne Ground": Race and Freedom on Virginia's Eastern Shore, 1640–1676
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567:
Black
Slaveowners: Free Black Slave Masters in South Carolina, 1790–1860
33:
28:
201:, in 1982, without providing any statistical support, stated that:
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Black
Slaveowners: Free Black Masters in South Carolina, 1790–1860
297:"Ten Black Slaveowners That Will Tear Apart Historical Perception"
18:
52:; inhabitants of Africa practiced various forms of slavery since
110:. In particular, New Orleans had a large, relatively wealthy
120:) composed of people of mixed race, who had become a third
41:
African American slave owners within the history of the
327:. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 13–15.
544:. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press.
413:
African-American Business Leaders and Entrepreneurs
222:, which was disbanded without ever seeing combat.
87:However, The first "documented slave for life",
386:The American Past: A Survey of American History
203:
187:
174:
157:
138:
48:The original practice precedes the timeline of
23:Order for payment dated 5 March 1818 from the
181:African American history and culture scholar
8:
565:Joyner, Charles (October 1986). "Review of
27:to reimburse Ms. Rosette Montreuil, a free
144:In the years leading up to the Civil War,
124:between whites and enslaved blacks, under
605:Pre-emancipation African-American history
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177:American slavery, color in their skin.
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257:10.1093/acref/9780195167771.001.0001
239:
237:
235:
95:, a white man, not Anthony Johnson.
91:, lived in Virginia but was held by
416:. Infobase Publishing. p. 72.
572:South Carolina Historical Magazine
16:Type of antebellum slave ownership
14:
436:Franklin and Schweninger, p. 201.
389:. Cengage Learning. p. 370.
76:who settled in Virginia in 1621,
462:; Henry Louis (March 4, 2013).
373:Stampp p. 194. Oakes pp. 47–48.
464:"Did Black People Own Slaves?"
278:"Did Black People Own Slaves?"
1:
615:African-American slave owners
155:and Loren Schweninger wrote:
31:person, for the labor of her
136:According to Rachel Kranz:
50:slavery in the United States
631:
295:Hewitt, D. (17 May 2018).
220:1st Louisiana Native Guard
506:Generations of Captivity
447:Generations of Captivity
383:Conlin, Joseph (2011).
410:Kranz, Rachel (2004).
212:
191:
179:
166:
142:
38:
610:American slave owners
536:Koger, Larry (1985).
321:Breen, T. H. (2004).
274:Henry Louis Gates Jr.
183:Henry Louis Gates Jr.
22:
476:on January 23, 2014.
25:Mayor of New Orleans
569:, by Larry Koger".
301:History Collection
153:John Hope Franklin
74:indentured servant
39:
70:Thirteen Colonies
622:
589:
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533:
527:
526:Oakes pp. 47–49.
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517:Oakes pp. 47–48.
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495:Mason pp. 19–20.
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280:. Archived from
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146:Antoine Dubuclet
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151:The historians
117:gens de couleur
78:Anthony Johnson
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579:(4): 251–253.
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251:. 2006-01-01.
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197:The historian
168:The historian
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54:late antiquity
37:slave, Michel.
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122:social class
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114:population (
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86:
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58:Afrocentrism
47:
40:
32:
486:Mason p. 17
199:James Oakes
104:New Orleans
599:Categories
538:"Foreword"
226:References
170:Ira Berlin
112:free black
108:Charleston
100:mixed race
89:John Punch
82:John Casor
508:, p. 138.
460:Gates Jr.
359:April 26,
355:. Reuters
93:Hugh Gwyn
585:27567980
504:Berlin,
469:The Root
445:Berlin,
449:, p. 9.
353:Reuters
306:26 July
245:"Class"
185:wrote:
172:wrote:
130:Spanish
64:History
34:mulatto
29:colored
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331:
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126:French
581:JSTOR
546:ISBN
418:ISBN
391:ISBN
361:2024
329:ISBN
308:2021
128:and
106:and
253:doi
160:men
84:.
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265:^
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