African-American scientists and technicians on the Manhattan Project

2604:, a physical chemist, joined Columbia in 1943 and was promoted to the head of the Corrosion section of the nuclear research team. Knox held an unprecedented position at Columbia University, serving as the only African-American supervisor on the Manhattan Project. Knox's group developed gaseous diffusion techniques for the isolation of uranium isotopes. He and his team developed a method in which uranium was vaporized and combined with fluorine to form the gas uranium hexafluoride. The gas was then pumped through a microscopic barrier that separated lighter U-235 based molecules from slightly heavier U-238. The complex process of breaking apart uranium isotopes utilizing uranium hexafluoride was crucial to the development of the atomic bombs. Following the war, Knox joined 2040: 2014: 2026: 1932: 2092: 2000: 2066: 2106: 1960: 1972: 2657:

Wilkins was instrumental in resolving several issues related to reactor design and quantifying what are now known as "the Wilkins effect, and the Wigner-Wilkins and Wilkins spectra for thermal neutrons." The Wigner-Wilkins approach was used to calculate thermal neutron spectra and estimate the distribution of nuclear energy in reactors. Wilkins went on to lead "one of the most exemplary careers of scholarship and application of an American mathematician/physicist/engineer in the 20th century."

1986: 1946: 2078: 1645: 6669: 2118: 2052: 2314:"It is the policy of the United States to encourage full participation in the national defense program by all citizens of the United States, regardless of race, creed, color, or national origin, in the firm belief that the democratic way of life within the Nation can be defended successfully only with the help and support of all groups within its borders." 2380:

their own neighborhood, and white couples could live together. A neighborhood for higher paid black employees was planned but never provided. They were forced to live in the segregated "hutments", where couples were separated. Restrooms, water fountains, dining facilities and recreational activities were racially divided.

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connecting use of atomic weapons and racist portrayals of the Japanese as subhuman, asking "Who is barbarian and who is civilized?" He and others questioned whether the Allies were fighting a "racial war" when they used the bomb against the Japanese but not against Europeans. Langston Hughes summed

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Educational opportunities were limited, particularly in the south. In 1933, in the southern United States, just 54% of white students and only 18% of black students went on to attend high school. Segregated black high schools and colleges in the south had limited resources and were able to offer few

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A shortage of Black men and Black women also persists in science and engineering, Dr. Dzau noted, which threatens the quality of the scientific enterprise and hampers progress for all... Discrimination, prejudice, and unconscious and conscious bias create exclusionary environments that prevent Black

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African-Americans, like other Americans, were divided in their response to the Manhattan Project. Use of the atomic bomb was viewed variously as a horrific act, as a necessary act to end the war, and as a patriotic accomplishment. Some African-Americans saw inclusion in the scientific community of

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worked at Chicago's Met Lab from 1943 to 1949. Quarterman worked with fluorine, one of the most reactive and dangerous elements. He was chiefly responsible for the design and construction of a distillation system that used electrolysis to purify large quantities of hydrogen fluoride (also extremely

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The work involved in the Manhattan Project was kept deeply secret. However, a number of African-American scientists are known to have made significant scientific contributions in a variety of areas. African-Americans contributed to the theoretical understanding of nuclear physics and the extraction

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in an attempt to prevent such use. Others were unaware of what their work was contributing to. James Forde, a 17-year-old laboratory assistant who cleaned beakers and tubes in a sulfuric acid bath, recalls his moment of realization: 'I saw the headline where we had dropped the bomb. I said, “Oh my

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White and African American workers lived in separate areas, separated initially by a fence topped with barbed wire. Lower level laborers lived in cramped gender-segregated "hutments". The women's area was referred to as the "Pen". Higher paid white workers had the option of living in houses, in

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was faced with the choice of being drafted to the front lines, or working on the Manhattan Project. He did not talk about his involvement in the Manhattan Project later beyond saying “All of us had to make a decision how we would serve the war efforts. I dropped out of school and went into the

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worked on the Manhattan Project at the University of Chicago beginning in 1944, As a physicist and mathematician, he worked immediately under Eugene Wigner, director of the Theoretical Physics group. The group's theoretical work provided the basis for the Hanford, Washington fission reactor.

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to identify the elements in samples of materials. During World War II he was based in Arizona. He developed instruments to detect and measure radioactive materials and radiation emissions. Following the war, he worked at the Naval Research Laboratory, where he continued to develop and patent

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An estimated 130,000 Americans worked at secret facilities in the United States and Canada on the Manhattan Project between 1941 and 1946. Their jobs varied widely, from construction workers and clerks to theoretical physicists. The project was attended by an extreme level of secrecy: in 1945

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Jr. earned a master's degree as an organic chemist at Howard University in 1944. He worked at the Met Lab on the purification of uranium. He tried to convince the draft board to grant him recognition and benefits under the G.I. Bill, comparable to white researchers he worked with, but was

2546:"Knowing that men of high qualifications are scarce these days, I thought that it might be useful that I suggest a capable person for this job. Mr. Wilkins in Wigner's group at the Metallurgical Laboratory has been doing, according to Wigner, excellent work." Edward Teller to Harold Urey. 2530:'s project team at the Met Lab. Wigner and Wilkins worked on neutron absorption. Wilkins' discoveries include the Wilkins Effect, the Wilkins Spectra, and the Wigner-Wilkins approach for calculating thermal neutron spectra and estimating the distribution of nuclear energy in reactors. 2318:

The order further stated, “There shall be no discrimination in the employment of workers in defense industries of Government because of race, creed, color, or national origin”. Clauses prohibiting discrimination were applied to training programs, defense contracts, and subcontractors.

2397:"If through the work done here America has advanced science, it is equally true that in the way it has forced Negroes to live here America has retarded the cause of democracy,... And this is ironical because it was to preserve democracy that this whole project was brought into being." 2533:

When Wigner's team was slated to move from the Chicago Met Lab to Oak Ridge, it was considered impossible for Wilkins to go with them and hold a post comparable to his existing scientific position. (Some accounts say Wilkins would not consider a position under such conditions.)

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appointed William Knox to be the supervisor of the otherwise all-white Corrosion Section of the nuclear research team at Columbia, the highest position held by any African American in the Manhattan Project. The rest of the staff in the section were white. (William's brother

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managed the site and actively recruited African American workers in accordance with departmental guidelines. However, they intentionally limited the number of African Americans they employed to around 10–20% of the workforce, just enough to satisfy regulations.

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the Manhattan Project as evidence that African Americans had earned and shown themselves worthy of civil rights. Optimists applauded the participation of African Americans scientists in the Manhattan project as indicating a scientific "enlightenment" in which

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men and women from entering the pipeline and pursuing careers in science, engineering, and medicine. It is critical that we recognize that persistent structural racism and stereotyping still facing African American males and females is a significant problem.

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Work on federal projects such as the Manhattan Project therefore offered opportunities for advancement for African Americans. However, those involved still experienced various forms of racism. Depending in part on location, workers were affected by

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could be overcome by scientific rationalism. African-American scientists and technicians who worked on the Manhattan Project have been described as "ideal symbols of enlightenment within the struggle for African-American political rights".

2487:, at the University of Chicago, in Chicago, Illinois, was the site most likely to employ African American scientists in high-status positions. The University of Chicago admitted African American students from its founding in 1890, and 2376:, was created for the Manhattan Project. Chosen in 1942, the area was made a military district outside of state control through a presidential proclamation of July 1943. Most but not all African Americans were laborers. 2351:

as of September 2019. No evidence was found of African Americans working as scientists or technicians at Los Alamos prior to 1947. The first African American to work at Los Alamos was Clayborne Carson Sr., the father of

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Jr. is being recognized. They contributed to the theoretical understanding of nuclear physics (Wilkins), the extraction and processing of the fissionable uranium isotope, Uranium-235 (Knox, Quarterman), the use of

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The background and education of the scientists and technicians who worked on the Manhattan Project was strongly influenced by where they lived. As of 1910, over 90% of the African-American population lived in the

1384: 5142:"You are here Home » Programs and Communities » Strengthening Underrepresented Minority Mathematics Achievement (SUMMA) » SUMMA Archival Record » J. Ernest Wilkins, Jr. J. Ernest Wilkins, Jr" 3424:

protested the use of nuclear weapons and nuclear testing. King's spiritual and moral analysis of society explored and called out the connections between racial injustice, poverty, and war. Those who viewed the

1462: 1447: 3351:. While most of those working on the Manhattan Project had no idea that their work would lead to the devastating destruction of two cities full of people, they knew that their work supported the war effort. 2507:(Ph.D. University of Chicago, 1952), Harold Delaney (Ph.D. Howard University, 1958) Ralph Gardner-Chavis (Ph.D. Case Western Reserve, 1959) and Benjamin Franklin Scott (Masters, University of Chicago, 1950). 2494:

A number of the African Americans at Met Lab were University of Chicago graduates, including Jesse Ernest Wilkins (Ph.D. 1942), Moddie Daniel Taylor (Ph.D. 1943), and Jasper Brown Jeffries (Masters, 1940).

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At least two African American scientists, Jasper Brown Jeffries and Jesse Ernest Wilkins Jr., were among the tiny group of people aware by July 1945 of the proposal to bomb Japan. Both of them signed the

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came from a prominent black family in Chicago. He entered the University of Chicago at age 13. When he received his Ph.D. in mathematics from the University in 1942 he was only 19. Wilkins taught at the

100: 2140:. Between 1916 and 1940, many African Americans moved from rural areas to cities, and from the southern to the north and western United States, in search of better economic and social conditions. This 746: 5004: 4763: 1888:, "Probably no more than a few dozen men in the entire country knew the full meaning of the Manhattan Project, and perhaps only a thousand others even were aware that work on atoms was involved." 159: 111: 6606: 1915:

Several hundred scientists and technicians were involved in the Manhattan Project, of whom a few men and women were African-American. Once the project ceased to be a secret, publications like

1457: 1409: 3473:. His granddaughter, Victoria Massie, has written about the difficulty she experiences in reconciling these sides of her grandfather's life, when he is gone and cannot answer her questions. 1419: 1414: 5943: 1685: 1429: 1846:,where researchers considered the theoretical foundations, feasibility and design issues of dealing with atomic particles while carrying out experiments with the Columbia cyclotron; the 1709:. At the time, their work was shrouded in secrecy, intentionally compartmentalized and decontextualized so that almost no one knew the purpose or intended use of what they were doing. 1399: 302: 143: 3461:

chemical warfare service with Dr. Gilman at Ames.” After the war, Massie built an exceptional career as an organic chemist, researching anti-bacterial agents and the treatment of

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unsuccessful. After the war Reed continued to work with the University of Chicago and the Metallurgical Laboratory's successor, the Argonne National Laboratory. He later studied

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that affected and continues to affect African Americans. The realities faced by African American scientists and technicians varied with location. No African Americans lived at

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held a small number of positions among the several hundred scientists and technicians involved. Nonetheless, African-American men and women made important contributions to the

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in New York City employed African American scientists and technicians on the Manhattan Project. Some, like James Forde, held low-level positions within the lab. In contrast,

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Living conditions for African Americans at Oak Ridge worsened over time as the buildings deteriorated. In 1945, ten years before Oak Ridge would start to desegregate,

1907:. A number of the African-American scientists and technicians continued to work at the Argonne National Laboratory, while others sought jobs in teaching and industry. 2152:

opportunities for scientific training. Northern high schools and universities offered more opportunities to study science, though they too were affected by racism.

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dangerous), which was used to isolate the isotope U-235 from uranium. He later helped to design the atomic reactor for the first nuclear powered submarine.

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As government documents have been declassified and historians have examined archives and collected oral histories, the work of people like physical chemist

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The educational paths open to African Americans can be illustrated by looking at specific examples of scientists who worked on the Manhattan Project.

2145: 1289: 1166: 200: 2554:, appealing to President Truman to warn Japan or demonstrate the atomic bomb before using it against Japan. After the war, Wilkins worked for the 4195:"Recent Changes in the African American Population within the United States and the Question of the Color Line at the Beginning of the 21st Century" 1671: 1609: 1374: 1329: 6701: 2430:. The company provided only two buildings for African American workers: others lived in substandard conditions in tents, shacks or trailers. The 2324: 1892: 1575: 1319: 1314: 1299: 5141: 3543:

African Americans at Los Alamos and Oak Ridge: A Historic Context Study Prepared for Manhattan Project National Historical Park (MAPR 540/164282)

5523: 3541: 2357: 1896: 1294: 1279: 1186: 2265:. Both earned Ph.D.’s prior to World War II. In spite of being refused lodging in the dormitories with the white students upon his arrival at 128: 123: 5696: 5662: 5375: 5128: 4878: 4321: 3749: 2270: 1831: 1246: 323: 312: 174: 96: 4009: 5099:

Who's who in colored America : an illustrated biographical directory of notable living persons of African descent in the United States

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as an initiator (Parker), and the development of scientific instruments to detect radioactive materials and measure radiation (Omohundro).

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and weapons development took place at more than thirty sites across the United States, the United Kingdom, and Canada. Key sites included

1931: 1236: 1216: 1061: 630: 476: 5333: 2526:. European-born refugee scientists like Fermi were generally more open to working with African Americans. In 1944, Wilkins was part of 5922: 2670: 2141: 2091: 1364: 1344: 898: 763: 195: 6691: 6004: 5720: 5120: 4921: 4588: 4093: 1885: 244: 76: 17: 5880: 2065: 1999: 1764:

were strictly enforced. For example, white couples were allowed to live together, while black couples were not. Conditions at the

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The Impacts of Racism and Bias on Black People Pursuing Careers in Science, Engineering, and Medicine: Proceedings of a Workshop

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from Uranium and ionic exchange absorption for Plutonium separation. Following the war, several men completed further degrees:

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at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base in Dayton, Ohio. The Monsanto Chemical Company led top-secret research work on the use of

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where he became highly respected for his expertise with surfactants, photographic emulsions and the coating of photographs.

1985: 2202: 2168: 1971: 1824: 1256: 1226: 1211: 1196: 1171: 1151: 773: 407: 274: 5626: 4950: 6611: 5824: 5244: 4248: 2243:. He received a bachelor’s degree in 1943, and joined the Manhattan Project as a junior chemist. Another Philadelphian, 1284: 1176: 1161: 1146: 1113: 412: 91: 6579: 2499:

was a Ph.D. student when he joined the Manhattan Project. He would later receive a patent for the method of separating

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Over time, researchers have begun to examine the role of African Americans in the Manhattan Project, the ways in which

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in which many African American urban laborers moved northward to take up skilled jobs, often in the defense industry.

1904: 1507: 1497: 1492: 1487: 1231: 703: 494: 464: 402: 351: 279: 169: 5771: 6672: 5972: 3549:. National Park Service U.S. Department of the Interior, Manhattan Project National Historical Park. September 2019 2559: 2262: 2232: 2198: 1522: 1502: 1005: 940: 713: 615: 582: 369: 254: 6554: 6549: 5005:"The First African American Woman To Obtain A Graduate Degree In Physics Was Involved In A Top Secret US Mission" 4498: 3852:""In Los Alamos, I feel like I'm a real citizen": Black atomic scientists, education, and citizenship, 1945–1960" 1741: 1477: 1221: 1181: 470: 4274: 2077: 6636: 6169: 6028: 4650: 4348: 3180: 3135: 2803: 2661: 2653: 2558:

in Buffalo, New York as a mathematician. In the 1950s, he managed the Research and Development Division of the

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estimated that 80% of Hanford's businesses chose to segregate and refused to serve African American customers.

2190: 2182: 1991: 1945: 1855: 1781: 1725: 1056: 836: 683: 567: 341: 222: 50: 3335:

The legacy of the Manhattan Project is complex and emotionally difficult. Uranium-235 was used to create the

3306: 3794:"The Sociology of Discrimination: Racial Discrimination in Employment, Housing, Credit, and Consumer Markets" 2117: 6631: 6528: 6083: 5600: 3609:"Mystery Town Cradled Bomb: 75,000 in Oak Ridge, Tenn. Worked Hard and Wondered Long about Their Secret Job" 3065: 2612: 2240: 1570: 1512: 975: 935: 658: 557: 435: 249: 5303: 2273:

for his Master's and Ph.D. degrees, receiving his Ph.D. in 1935. His brother Lawrence completed degrees at

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saw the opportunity to recruit Wilkins to New York, and recommended him to the director of war research,

2051: 6651: 6476: 6219: 6164: 3243: 3089: 2946: 2707: 2605: 2565: 2286: 2222: 2194: 2186: 2178: 1867: 1859: 1854:, where researchers developed methods for uranium processing, enrichment, and plutonium production; the 1785: 893: 883: 815: 778: 562: 552: 452: 133: 3222: 1792:, but African-American scientists still faced both structural barriers and overt incidents of racism. 6461: 6456: 6315: 6189: 5498: 4975: 3686: 3397: 3381: 3264: 2922: 2851: 2515: 2511: 2455: 2384: 2373: 2307: 2156: 2057: 1851: 1753: 1740:

The small number of African Americans employed as scientists and technicians is an indication of the

1729: 1649: 1101: 346: 138: 71: 6320: 6275: 6235: 6058: 3421: 3356: 2970: 2551: 2447: 2411: 2278: 2164: 2031: 1937: 1843: 1773: 1769: 1517: 1000: 995: 957: 374: 205: 4525:"Transcript of Executive Order 8802: Prohibition of Discrimination in the Defense Industry (1941)" 4524: 4446:"University of Chicago to Commemorate Accomplishments of Mathematics Alumnus J. Ernest Wilkins Jr" 6385: 6209: 6179: 6119: 5192: 4222: 4214: 4152:"Atom Scientists: Ten Negro Scientists at Argonne Lab Help in Race to Harness Atomic Materials". 3907: 3763: 3413: 2459: 2303: 2291: 2282: 2266: 1757: 888: 673: 440: 417: 106: 5850:"Transforming the Relationship between Science and Society:The Manhattan Project and Its Legacy" 4445: 1748:, a primary site of the Manhattan Project, prior to 1947. At southern research facilities like 5166: 6600: 6589: 6496: 6400: 6355: 6350: 6300: 6149: 6144: 6134: 5995: 5918: 5912: 5692: 5688:

Voices of Historical and Contemporary Black American Pioneers (Volume I: Medicine and Science)

5658: 5473: 5371: 5365: 5124: 5116: 5112: 5074: 5070: 4917: 4911: 4874: 4868: 4584: 4172: 4089: 3823: 3755: 3745: 3285: 2665: 2427: 2248: 2214: 2172: 2097: 1812: 1789: 1702: 1073: 693: 534: 41: 5686: 3608: 6621: 6420: 6405: 6370: 6345: 6199: 6154: 5881:"W. E. B. Du Bois to Coretta Scott King: The Untold History of the Movement to Ban the Bomb" 5574: 5549: 5274: 4562: 4382: 4206: 3899: 3813: 3805: 3737: 3457: 3430: 3373: 3041: 2993: 2779: 2731: 2496: 2468: 2443: 2353: 2258: 2228: 2083: 1917: 1839: 1835: 1717: 1068: 925: 753: 688: 668: 577: 3888:"African Americans in the Atomic Age: Postwar Perspectives on Race and the Bomb, 1945–1967" 6626: 6466: 6430: 6360: 6295: 6285: 6260: 6159: 6139: 6114: 4576: 3438: 3377: 2898: 2389: 2005: 1880: 1800: 1096: 903: 653: 572: 6375: 5398: 3933: 3809: 3384:

and other African Americans critiqued the bomb and its implications in black newspapers.

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intersect, and the variety of ways in which African Americans viewed their involvement.

6569: 6564: 6335: 6280: 6270: 6265: 6184: 6109: 6038: 4676: 3983: 3958: 3818: 3793: 2874: 2827: 2623: 2619: 2488: 2415: 2328: 2244: 2160: 1951: 1871: 1820: 1761: 1721: 1555: 980: 950: 708: 698: 529: 5798: 5448: 4375:"Perspective: Stumbling Through History: Discovering Unsung African-American Chemists" 6685: 6584: 6446: 6415: 6395: 6340: 6330: 6240: 6129: 6104: 6048: 5914:

By the Bomb's Early Light: American Thought and Culture At the Dawn of the Atomic Age

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was a research associate who developed gaseous diffusion techniques to use corrosive

2274: 1827: 1777: 1624: 1619: 4819:"J. Ernest Wilkins Jr.: 'Superb Mathematician' Broke Barriers at Dawn of Atomic Age" 4555: 6641: 6523: 6380: 6325: 6305: 6290: 6194: 6018: 5304:"My pop-pop was a groundbreaking black chemist — who helped create the atomic bomb" 4581:

The Road to Trinity: A Personal Account of How America's Nuclear Policies Were Made

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and processing of the fissionable uranium isotope, Uranium-235, which was used in

1815:

was a massive research and development initiative led by the United States during

5652: 3660: 2673:, in airports to detect fissionable material, and in portable neutron detectors. 1903:, under AEC direction. The Chicago Metallurgical Laboratory was succeeded by the 6471: 6425: 6390: 6365: 6310: 6214: 6204: 6088: 3450: 3442: 3426: 3385: 2598:

bomb. Others developed instruments for the detection of elements and radiation.

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The end of World War II brought with it the end of the Manhattan Project. The

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was also created in response to World War II. It displaced the population of

1977: 1922: 1796: 379: 118: 6616: 6482: 6250: 6053: 4176: 3405: 3340: 2631: 2523: 2491:, the director of the Met Lab, supported the hiring of a diverse workforce. 1604: 945: 678: 457: 284: 5193:"February 6, 2019 · 1:37 pm Black History Month #3 – The Manhattan Project" 3827: 3759: 5101:. Yonkers-on-Hudson, NY: Christian E. Burckel and Associates. p. 405. 4418:"Chemical Relations: William and Lawrence Knox, African American Chemists" 3576:"The African American Scientists and Technicians of the Manhattan Project" 6656: 6489: 6023: 5334:"LM Highlights 3 Accomplished scientists in Honor of Black History Month" 3401:

column, concluding through the voice of "Simple" that "Japs is colored."

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in Alabama from 1942 to 1944, and joined the Manhattan Project in 1944.

2247:, received his bachelor's and master's degrees from traditionally black 6646: 6513: 3462: 3344: 2639: 2595: 2472: 2332: 1078: 384: 5654:

Fighting for America: Black Soldiers-the Unsung Heroes of World War II

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African Americans in Scientist: An Encyclopedia of People and Progress

4736:"15 African-Americans who were hidden heroes of the Manhattan Project" 3730:

Laurencin, Cato T.; Bright, Cedric M.; Jones, Camara P., eds. (2020).

2269:, William earned his bachelor's degree from Harvard. He then attended 6032: 3466: 3365: 2422:

Housing was both segregated and limited. The only one of the nearby

1899:(AEC). It went into effect on January 1, 1947. Los Alamos became the 985: 5964: 2669:

instruments for radiation detection. His technology was used by the

1699:

African-American scientists and technicians on the Manhattan Project

18:

African American scientists and technicians on the Manhattan Project

4677:"William Jacob Knox Jr. Manhattan Project National Historical Park" 4171:. Washington, D.C.: United States Army Center of Military History. 3741: 2225:, where he completed his M.S. degree in physical sciences in 1940. 1866:, where plutonium was produced and separated from uranium; and the 2431: 758: 4010:"Remembering the Chicago Pile, the World's First Nuclear Reactor" 3731: 6594: 6063: 4848:

Nuclear Weapons FAQ, Section 4.1, Version 2.04: 20 February 1999

4621:"Bias kept black scientists out of Oak Ridge's atomic bomb work" 2310:

by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1941. The preamble read:

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at the University of Chicago as part of the Manhattan Project.

1862:, where the first nuclear reactor was designed and built; the 4913:

The Inventive Spirit of African Americans: Patented Ingenuity

2471:, a biochemist, came to Columbia in 1944 and did research on 2356:

Jr., who was hired as a laboratory security inspector by the

5917:. The University of North Carolina Press. pp. 198–199. 5779:. Argonne, Illinois: Argonne National Laboratory. p. 20 2235:

on May 31, 1918. He attended college and played football at

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tended to be more critical of it than those who focused on

5944:"Lesson Plan: African Americans and the Manhattan Project" 5627:"Benjamin Franklin Scott (1922–2000)date=January 27, 2012" 3713:"A race against time: recording oral history at Oak Ridge" 2343:

A study assessing the involvement of African Americans at

5069:. Bloomington, Ind. : Indiana University Press. pp. 3404:

Over the longer term, African American leaders including

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and Oak Ridge between 1942 and 1958 was prepared for the

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Gates, Henry Louis & Higginbotham, Evelyn Brooks.

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Now it can be told: The Story of the Manhattan Project

4373:

Weininger, Stephen; Gortler, Leon (January 14, 2011).

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which would accept African Americans as residents was

1921:

hailed African-American scientists and technicians as

4416:

Gortler, Leon; Weininger, Stephen J. (July 2, 2010).

1823:. The project was coordinated under the direction of 5367:

Their Day in the Sun: Women of the Manhattan Project

5115:, Oxford University Press, U.S., 2004, pp. 883–884, 4850:. Nuclearweaponarchive.org. Retrieved on 2013-04-28. 1895:

was signed into law on August 1, 1946, creating the

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U.S. National Archives & Records Administration

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Chicago Metallurgical Laboratory, Chicago, Illinois

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Unarmed African Americans killed by police officers

5364:Howes, Ruth Hege; Herzenberg, Caroline L. (2003). 5062: 4554: 3388:wrote an editorial in the September 1945 issue of 2562:, and researched peaceful uses of nuclear energy. 5942:Center for the History of Physics (Aug 9, 2016). 5885:Zinn Education Project: Teaching People's History 5685:Farmer, Vernon L.; Shepherd-Wynn, Evelyn (2012). 4916:. Connecticut: Praeger Publishers. p. 113. 4249:"The Long-Lasting Legacy of the Great Migration" 3736:. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. 3603: 3601: 3599: 3597: 2306:and other labor unionists led to the signing of 5770:Steunenberg, Robert K.; Burris, Leslie (2000). 2544: 2414:, and disrupted local farming communities. The 2395: 2312: 2285:and receiving his Ph.D. in 1940. Child prodigy 5725:Contemporary Black Biography: Encyclopedia.com 5657:. Random House Publishing Group. p. 318. 5245:"Women, minorities, and the Manhattan Project" 3339:atomic bomb, which was dropped on the city of 1772:were slightly better. Conditions improved at 308:Education of freed people during the Civil War 5980: 5370:. Temple University Press. pp. 123–124. 4583:. New York: William Morrow. pp. 99–100. 4499:"African Americans and the Manhattan Project" 2638:" initiator used in the implosion design for 2622:, physicist, worked from 1943 to 1947 on the 1679: 8: 5037:Office of Legacy Management (www.energy.gov) 4944: 4942: 4940: 4561:. New York: Harper & Brothers. pp. 3691:Oak Ridge Public Library Digital Collections 2590:. An African-American physicist worked with 319:Historically black colleges and universities 5297: 5295: 5065:Black women scientists in the United States 4729: 4727: 4725: 4723: 4721: 4719: 4717: 4614: 4612: 4610: 4608: 4606: 4604: 4602: 4600: 4156:. No. September. 1949. pp. 26–28. 3570: 3568: 3566: 3564: 303:Education during the slave period in the US 5987: 5973: 5965: 4843: 4841: 4839: 4715: 4713: 4711: 4709: 4707: 4705: 4703: 4701: 4699: 4697: 4411: 4409: 4407: 4405: 4403: 4297: 4295: 3934:"Why They Called It the Manhattan Project" 3845: 3843: 3841: 3839: 3837: 3343:. Plutonium and polonium were used in the 2680: 2646:on the development of Urchin: she died of 2349:Manhattan Project National Historical Park 1686: 1672: 1543: 1134: 1044: 871: 809: 734: 626:National Black Caucus of State Legislators 603: 499: 227: 55: 28: 5269: 5267: 5265: 5249:Restricted Data: The Nuclear Secrecy Blog 5056: 5054: 4998: 4996: 4793:"African-Americans on the A-Bomb Project" 4439: 4437: 4188: 4186: 4147: 4145: 4143: 4141: 4139: 4137: 4135: 4133: 4131: 4129: 4127: 4125: 3881: 3879: 3877: 3875: 3817: 2642:. Parker is believed to have worked with 2594:, which was used as an initiator for the 2462:. His work was essential to the project. 82:Slavery in the colonial history of the US 6707:20th-century African-American scientists 5906: 5904: 5902: 5359: 5357: 5355: 4905: 4903: 4901: 4899: 4897: 4862: 4860: 4858: 4856: 4645: 4643: 4641: 4123: 4121: 4119: 4117: 4115: 4113: 4111: 4109: 4107: 4105: 3792:Pager, D; Shepherd, H (1 January 2008). 2793:Ames Laboratory, Iowa State University, 5875: 5873: 5243:Wellerstein, Alex (November 27, 2015). 4734:Crocker, Brittany (February 25, 2018). 4493: 4491: 4489: 4487: 4169:Manhattan: The Army and the Atomic Bomb 3661:"Search Results for: Manhattan Project" 3536: 3534: 3532: 3530: 3528: 3526: 3524: 3522: 3520: 3518: 3516: 3514: 3512: 3510: 3508: 3506: 3482: 1927: 1589: 1546: 1476: 1438: 1373: 1265: 1137: 1087: 1047: 1014: 966: 874: 823: 737: 639: 606: 543: 520: 502: 426: 393: 360: 332: 293: 230: 187: 151: 58: 40: 5825:"Virgil Garnett Trice Jr. (1926–1997)" 5524:"DR RALPH A. GARDNER-CHAVIS 1922–2018" 5328: 5326: 5324: 5217:Lanum, Mackenzie (February 24, 2012). 4951:"Robert Johnson Omohundro (1921–2000)" 4758: 4756: 4485: 4483: 4481: 4479: 4477: 4475: 4473: 4471: 4469: 4467: 4008:Wellerstein, Alex (December 2, 2017). 3932:Broad, William J. (October 30, 2007). 3504: 3502: 3500: 3498: 3496: 3494: 3492: 3490: 3488: 3486: 3360:God. That is what I was working on.”' 2677:Scientists and technicians by location 2550:Jeffries and Wilkins later signed the 2358:United States Atomic Energy Commission 2221:during 1933–1935, before going to the 2144:was followed, beginning in 1940, by a 5625:Collins, Sibrina (14 November 2011). 5033:"LM Celebrates Women's History Month" 5027: 5025: 4764:"Benjamin Franklin Scott (1922–2000)" 3395:up the concern in an August 18, 1945 2271:Massachusetts Institute of Technology 824:Athletic associations and conferences 313:History of African-American education 7: 5823:Mahoney, Eleanor (October 7, 2017). 5601:"George Warren Reed Jr. (1920–2015)" 5302:Massie, Victoria M. (May 27, 2016). 4817:Jackson, D. Amari (March 12, 2018). 4771:Center for History of Physics at AIP 4322:"Quarterman, Lloyd Albert 1918–1982" 3810:10.1146/annurev.soc.33.040406.131740 1724:, physicist and mass spectrometrist 747:Association for the Study of African 5219:"George Sherman Carter (1911–1998)" 5146:Mathematical Association of America 4619:Crocker, Brittany (March 1, 2018). 4304:"Jasper Brown Jeffries (1912–1994)" 4199:Journal of African American Studies 3687:"Center for Oak Ridge Oral History" 2542:. Wilkins remained at the Met Lab. 2475:and the effects of nuclear bombs.) 1884:magazine estimated that before the 1561:Race and ethnicity in the US census 1062:African-American Vernacular English 631:National Conference of Black Mayors 6697:Argonne National Laboratory people 6452:Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 5911:Boyer, Paul (September 30, 1994). 4347:Collins, Sibrina (July 25, 2011). 4302:Collins, Sibrina (July 27, 2011). 4275:"Moddie Daniel Taylor (1912–1976)" 4088:. New York: Simon & Schuster. 3717:National Council on Public History 3102:Met Lab, Hanford and Argonne Labs 2671:International Atomic Energy Agency 2438:Columbia University, New York City 1728:, and physicist and mathematician 764:National Black Chamber of Commerce 25: 5599:Munro, Robert (August 24, 2011). 5097:Fleming, GJ; Burckel, CE (1950). 5003:Powers, Anna (January 31, 2020). 4450:University of Chicago News Office 2189:in 1943, and was employed by the 2185:. He received his Ph.D. from the 1886:bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 1468:Places by plurality of population 134:Civil rights movement (1954–1968) 124:Civil rights movement (1865–1896) 77:Abolitionism in the United States 6668: 6667: 5651:Moore, Christopher Paul (2007). 4976:"William J. Knox, Jr., ca. 1925" 4949:Absher, A. (November 14, 2011). 4387:10.1126/science.caredit.a1100004 2485:Chicago Metallurgical Laboratory 2116: 2104: 2090: 2076: 2064: 2050: 2038: 2024: 2012: 1998: 1984: 1970: 1958: 1944: 1930: 1819:, to design and build the first 1643: 165:Black Belt in the American South 4910:Carter Sluby, Patricia (2004). 4655:Voices of the Manhattan Project 4444:Koppes, Steve (July 23, 2007). 3850:Landrum, Shane (May 13, 2005). 3711:Smith, Ray (10 December 2020). 3639:Voices of the Manhattan Project 3347:bomb, which was detonated over 2302:Pressure from African American 769:National Council of Negro Women 6702:20th-century American chemists 5721:"Wilkins, J. Ernest Jr. 1923–" 4867:Carey Jr., Charles W. (2006). 4791:Reed, Wornie (March 1, 2018). 2460:separation of uranium isotopes 1901:Los Alamos National Laboratory 1566:Racism against Black Americans 1: 5951:American Institute of Physics 5773:From Test Tube to Pilot Plant 4193:Wilson, Frank Harold (2005). 4086:The making of the atomic bomb 3615:. 20 August 1945. p. 111 2852:Boykin, Pearline (or Perline) 2298:Working and living conditions 2203:Winston-Salem, North Carolina 1874:development was carried out. 1834:. Research and production of 774:National Pan-Hellenic Council 6612:Oppenheimer security hearing 4349:"Harold Delaney (1919–1994)" 4273:Absher, A. (July 25, 2011). 3641:. Atomic Heritage Foundation 2251:before joining the project. 2167:. He studied and taught at 1832:U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 1576:School segregation in the US 1114:Black American Sign Language 1088:Languages and other dialects 4873:. New York: Facts on File. 2510:Mathematician and engineer 2211:West Virginia State College 1905:Argonne National Laboratory 403:African-American businesses 6723: 5857:Atomic Heritage Foundation 5803:Atomic Heritage Foundation 5750:Atomic Heritage Foundation 5579:Atomic Heritage Foundation 5554:Atomic Heritage Foundation 5478:Atomic Heritage Foundation 5453:Atomic Heritage Foundation 5428:Atomic Heritage Foundation 5403:Atomic Heritage Foundation 5279:Atomic Heritage Foundation 5171:Atomic Heritage Foundation 4503:Atomic Heritage Foundation 4064:Atomic Heritage Foundation 4039:Atomic Heritage Foundation 3988:Atomic Heritage Foundation 3963:Atomic Heritage Foundation 3798:Annual Review of Sociology 2577:from the Apollo missions. 2560:United Nuclear Corporation 2263:New Bedford, Massachusetts 2233:Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 2207:historically black college 2199:Mocksville, North Carolina 1925:and "progressive heroes". 1911:Scientists and technicians 941:Great Dismal Swamp maroons 616:Congressional Black Caucus 583:African Diaspora Religions 370:Martin Luther King Jr. Day 6665: 6555:Bismuth phosphate process 6550:Atomic Energy Act of 1946 6002: 5338:U.S. Department of Energy 4651:"James Forde's Interview" 4422:Science History Institute 4211:10.1007/s12111-005-1007-7 3437:, and the development of 3307:Trice Jr., Virgil Garnett 3136:Wilkins Jr., Jesse Ernest 2804:Omohundro, Robert Johnson 2213:, where he was taught by 1742:structural discrimination 1448:US states and territories 749:American Life and History 471:Lift Every Voice and Sing 180:Treatment of the enslaved 6692:Manhattan Project people 4084:Rhodes, Richard (1986). 3886:Kinchy, Abby J. (2009). 3066:Scott, Benjamin Franklin 2828:Parker, Carolyn Beatrice 2662:Robert Johnson Omohundro 2654:Jesse Ernest Wilkins Jr. 2556:American Optical Company 2257:and his younger brother 2191:Metallurgical Laboratory 2183:Jefferson City, Missouri 1992:Jesse Ernest Wilkins Jr. 1897:Atomic Energy Commission 1856:Metallurgical Laboratory 1782:Metallurgical Laboratory 1726:Robert Johnson Omohundro 1650:United States portal 1057:African-American English 568:African-American Muslims 129:Jim Crow era (1896–1954) 6632:S-1 Executive Committee 6580:Einstein–Szilard letter 5691:. Praeger. p. 35. 5167:"George Sherman Carter" 4452:. University of Chicago 4167:Jones, Vincent (1985). 2756:Knox Jr., William Jacob 2613:Lloyd Albert Quarterman 2241:Raleigh, North Carolina 2237:St. Augustine’s College 1762:discriminatory policies 1571:Reparations for slavery 659:Back-to-Africa movement 558:Black Hebrew Israelites 436:African-American beauty 6074:Salt Wells Pilot Plant 5499:"Ralph Gardner-Chavis" 5474:"Ralph Gardner-Chavis" 5113:African American Lives 3892:Technology and Culture 3418:Martin Luther King Jr. 3042:Russell, Edwin Roberts 2947:Jeffries, Jasper Brown 2708:Carter, George Sherman 2602:William Jacob Knox Jr. 2548: 2518:initially worked with 2505:George Warren Reed Jr. 2452:William Jacob Knox Jr. 2408:Hanford Engineer Works 2399: 2370:Clinton Engineer Works 2339:Los Alamos, New Mexico 2316: 2255:William Jacob Knox Jr. 2219:University of Illinois 2146:Second Great Migration 2138:Southern United States 2124:William Jacob Knox Jr. 1864:Hanford Engineer Works 1848:Clinton Engineer Works 1766:Hanford Engineer Works 1750:Clinton Engineer Works 1746:Los Alamos, New Mexico 1714:William Jacob Knox Jr. 1041:Dialects and languages 201:Second Great Migration 6652:X-10 Graphite Reactor 6607:Nobel Prize laureates 6477:509th Composite Group 5550:"Blanche J. Lawrence" 5275:"Samuel P. Massie Jr" 5061:Warren, Wini (1999). 4681:National Park Service 3420:, and members of the 3112:Taylor, Moddie Daniel 2923:Gardner-Chavis, Ralph 2606:Eastman Kodak Company 2497:Edwin Roberts Russell 2287:J. Ernest Wilkins Jr. 2239:, a black college in 2223:University of Chicago 2195:Jasper Brown Jeffries 2187:University of Chicago 2179:land-grant university 1868:Los Alamos Laboratory 1860:University of Chicago 1786:University of Chicago 1453:US metropolitan areas 1280:List of neighborhoods 894:Alabama Creole people 884:African-American Jews 816:Negro league baseball 779:National Urban League 731:Civic/economic groups 563:African-American Jews 453:African-American hair 315:, after the Civil War 144:Post–civil rights era 6560:British contribution 6462:Operation Peppermint 6457:Operation Crossroads 6316:Maria Goeppert Mayer 5575:"George Warren Reed" 3456:As a Ph.D. student, 3382:Walter Francis White 3170:Columbia University 2971:Lawrence, Blanche J. 2899:Evans Jr., Harold B. 2769:Columbia University 2745:Columbia University 2721:Columbia University 2516:Ralph Gardner-Chavis 2512:Jesse Ernest Wilkins 2456:uranium hexafluoride 2374:Oak Ridge, Tennessee 2364:Oak Ridge, Tennessee 2308:Executive Order 8802 2157:Moddie Daniel Taylor 2058:Ralph Gardner-Chavis 1852:Oak Ridge, Tennessee 1754:Oak Ridge, Tennessee 1730:Jesse Ernest Wilkins 1610:Criminal stereotypes 1385:District of Columbia 1102:Afro-Seminole Creole 544:Non-Christian groups 139:Black power movement 103:during the Civil War 72:Atlantic slave trade 6321:George Kistiakowsky 6276:Charles Critchfield 5340:. February 10, 2021 4247:Wilkerson, Isabel. 3904:10.1353/tech.0.0254 3422:Black Panther Party 3244:Sellars, Phillip A. 3090:Summers, Mildred M. 3018:Reed, George Warren 2581:Major contributions 2448:Columbia University 2412:Hanford, Washington 2402:Hanford, Washington 2279:Stanford University 2165:St. Louis, Missouri 2032:Lloyd A. Quarterman 2019:Herschel D. Wallace 1938:Blanche J. Lawrence 1844:Columbia University 1774:Columbia University 1770:Hanford, Washington 1006:Sierra Leone Creole 967:Specific ancestries 852:Southwestern (SWAC) 375:Black History Month 206:New Great Migration 160:Agriculture history 6386:Henry DeWolf Smyth 6165:Robert Oppenheimer 6120:Priscilla Duffield 5503:The History Makers 5191:Foster, Lauren K. 4823:Atlanta Black Star 4328:. Cengage Learning 3938:The New York Times 3582:. January 29, 2012 3445:opportunities for 3429:in the context of 3414:Coretta Scott King 2566:George Warren Reed 2327:and inequities in 2304:A. Philip Randolph 2292:Tuskegee Institute 2283:Harvard University 2267:Harvard University 2217:. He attended the 2176:historically black 2169:Lincoln University 2163:, later moving to 2131:Race and education 2045:Phillip A. Sellars 1015:Sexual orientation 889:Afro-Puerto Ricans 842:Mid-Eastern (MEAC) 477:Self-determination 441:Black is beautiful 107:Reconstruction era 6679: 6678: 6601:Los Alamos Primer 6590:Interim Committee 6545:African Americans 6497:The Great Artiste 6356:Isidor Isaac Rabi 6351:Norman Ramsey Jr. 6150:Franklin Matthias 6089:Heavy water sites 5996:Manhattan Project 5698:978-0-313-39225-2 5664:978-0-307-41522-6 5399:"Pearline Boykin" 5377:978-1-59213-192-1 5129:978-0-19-516024-6 4980:MIT Black History 4880:978-1-4381-0807-0 3751:978-0-309-67954-1 3372:At the same time 3328: 3327: 3223:Wallace, Herschel 2994:Quarterman, Lloyd 2780:Massie, Samuel P. 2732:Knox, Lawrence H. 2666:mass spectrometry 2428:Pasco, Washington 2249:Howard University 2215:Angie Turner King 2205:. He attended an 2098:Sylvanus A. Tyler 1893:Atomic Energy Act 1813:Manhattan Project 1790:Chicago, Illinois 1703:Manhattan Project 1696: 1695: 1633: 1632: 1531: 1530: 1305:Dallas-Fort Worth 1122: 1121: 1032: 1031: 976:Americo-Liberians 859: 858: 797: 796: 722: 721: 591: 590: 535:Womanist theology 485: 484: 427:Symbols and ideas 213: 212: 92:Antebellum period 87:Revolutionary War 42:African Americans 16:(Redirected from 6714: 6671: 6670: 6622:Quebec Agreement 6406:John von Neumann 6346:George B. Pegram 6155:Dorothy McKibbin 5989: 5982: 5975: 5966: 5961: 5959: 5957: 5948: 5929: 5928: 5908: 5897: 5896: 5894: 5892: 5877: 5868: 5867: 5865: 5863: 5854: 5846: 5840: 5839: 5837: 5835: 5820: 5814: 5813: 5811: 5809: 5795: 5789: 5788: 5786: 5784: 5778: 5767: 5761: 5760: 5758: 5756: 5742: 5736: 5735: 5733: 5731: 5719:Alic, Margaret. 5716: 5710: 5709: 5707: 5705: 5682: 5676: 5675: 5673: 5671: 5648: 5642: 5641: 5639: 5637: 5622: 5616: 5615: 5613: 5611: 5596: 5590: 5589: 5587: 5585: 5571: 5565: 5564: 5562: 5560: 5546: 5540: 5539: 5537: 5535: 5528:The Plain Dealer 5520: 5514: 5513: 5511: 5509: 5495: 5489: 5488: 5486: 5484: 5470: 5464: 5463: 5461: 5459: 5445: 5439: 5438: 5436: 5434: 5424:"Harold Delaney" 5420: 5414: 5413: 5411: 5409: 5395: 5389: 5388: 5386: 5384: 5361: 5350: 5349: 5347: 5345: 5330: 5319: 5318: 5316: 5314: 5299: 5290: 5289: 5287: 5285: 5271: 5260: 5259: 5257: 5255: 5240: 5234: 5233: 5231: 5229: 5214: 5208: 5207: 5205: 5203: 5197:Lauren K. Foster 5188: 5182: 5181: 5179: 5177: 5163: 5157: 5156: 5154: 5152: 5138: 5132: 5109: 5103: 5102: 5094: 5088: 5087: 5068: 5058: 5049: 5048: 5046: 5044: 5039:. March 12, 2020 5029: 5020: 5019: 5017: 5015: 5000: 4991: 4990: 4988: 4986: 4972: 4966: 4965: 4963: 4961: 4946: 4935: 4934: 4932: 4930: 4907: 4892: 4891: 4889: 4887: 4864: 4851: 4845: 4834: 4833: 4831: 4829: 4814: 4808: 4807: 4805: 4803: 4788: 4782: 4781: 4779: 4777: 4768: 4760: 4751: 4750: 4748: 4746: 4731: 4692: 4691: 4689: 4687: 4673: 4667: 4666: 4664: 4662: 4647: 4636: 4635: 4633: 4631: 4616: 4595: 4594: 4577:Nichols, Kenneth 4573: 4567: 4566: 4560: 4547: 4541: 4540: 4538: 4536: 4521: 4515: 4514: 4512: 4510: 4495: 4462: 4461: 4459: 4457: 4441: 4432: 4431: 4429: 4428: 4413: 4398: 4397: 4395: 4393: 4370: 4364: 4363: 4361: 4359: 4344: 4338: 4337: 4335: 4333: 4326:Encyclopedia.com 4318: 4312: 4311: 4299: 4290: 4289: 4287: 4285: 4270: 4264: 4263: 4261: 4259: 4244: 4238: 4237: 4235: 4233: 4190: 4181: 4180: 4164: 4158: 4157: 4149: 4100: 4099: 4081: 4075: 4074: 4072: 4070: 4060:"Los Alamos, NM" 4056: 4050: 4049: 4047: 4045: 4031: 4025: 4024: 4022: 4020: 4005: 3999: 3998: 3996: 3994: 3980: 3974: 3973: 3971: 3969: 3955: 3949: 3948: 3946: 3944: 3929: 3923: 3922: 3920: 3918: 3883: 3870: 3869: 3867: 3865: 3856: 3847: 3832: 3831: 3821: 3789: 3783: 3782: 3776: 3774: 3727: 3721: 3720: 3708: 3702: 3701: 3699: 3697: 3683: 3677: 3676: 3674: 3672: 3657: 3651: 3650: 3648: 3646: 3635:"Oral Histories" 3631: 3625: 3624: 3622: 3620: 3605: 3592: 3591: 3589: 3587: 3572: 3559: 3558: 3556: 3554: 3548: 3538: 3458:Samuel P. Massie 3435:internationalism 3431:anti-colonialism 3398:Chicago Defender 3374:W. E. B. Du Bois 3357:Szilárd petition 3265:Pairs, Robert B. 2681: 2552:Szilárd petition 2522:on the study of 2469:Lawrence H. Knox 2444:SAM Laboratories 2354:Clayborne Carson 2281:before going to 2259:Lawrence H. Knox 2229:Lloyd Quarterman 2120: 2108: 2094: 2084:Samuel P. Massie 2080: 2068: 2054: 2042: 2028: 2016: 2002: 1988: 1974: 1962: 1948: 1934: 1840:SAM Laboratories 1836:fissile material 1718:Lloyd Quarterman 1688: 1681: 1674: 1648: 1647: 1646: 1595:media depictions 1544: 1439:Population count 1135: 1069:Liberian English 1048:English dialects 1045: 1001:Samaná Americans 926:Creoles of color 872: 810: 754:Black conductors 735: 604: 578:Louisiana Voodoo 500: 245:Family structure 228: 175:Military history 170:Business history 101:military history 56: 29: 21: 6722: 6721: 6717: 6716: 6715: 6713: 6712: 6711: 6682: 6681: 6680: 6675: 6661: 6627:RaLa Experiment 6533: 6502: 6467:Project Alberta 6435: 6431:Chien-Shiung Wu 6361:James Rainwater 6296:Richard Feynman 6286:John R. Dunning 6261:Norris Bradbury 6224: 6210:Stafford Warren 6180:William Purnell 6160:Kenneth Nichols 6140:Ernest Lawrence 6115:James B. Conant 6093: 6007: 5998: 5993: 5955: 5953: 5946: 5941: 5938: 5933: 5932: 5925: 5910: 5909: 5900: 5890: 5888: 5887:. July 30, 2015 5879: 5878: 5871: 5861: 5859: 5852: 5848: 5847: 5843: 5833: 5831: 5822: 5821: 5817: 5807: 5805: 5799:"Ella B. Tyree" 5797: 5796: 5792: 5782: 5780: 5776: 5769: 5768: 5764: 5754: 5752: 5744: 5743: 5739: 5729: 5727: 5718: 5717: 5713: 5703: 5701: 5699: 5684: 5683: 5679: 5669: 5667: 5665: 5650: 5649: 5645: 5635: 5633: 5624: 5623: 5619: 5609: 5607: 5598: 5597: 5593: 5583: 5581: 5573: 5572: 5568: 5558: 5556: 5548: 5547: 5543: 5533: 5531: 5530:. April 4, 2018 5522: 5521: 5517: 5507: 5505: 5497: 5496: 5492: 5482: 5480: 5472: 5471: 5467: 5457: 5455: 5447: 5446: 5442: 5432: 5430: 5422: 5421: 5417: 5407: 5405: 5397: 5396: 5392: 5382: 5380: 5378: 5363: 5362: 5353: 5343: 5341: 5332: 5331: 5322: 5312: 5310: 5301: 5300: 5293: 5283: 5281: 5273: 5272: 5263: 5253: 5251: 5242: 5241: 5237: 5227: 5225: 5216: 5215: 5211: 5201: 5199: 5190: 5189: 5185: 5175: 5173: 5165: 5164: 5160: 5150: 5148: 5140: 5139: 5135: 5110: 5106: 5096: 5095: 5091: 5085:carolyn parker. 5081: 5060: 5059: 5052: 5042: 5040: 5031: 5030: 5023: 5013: 5011: 5009:Forbes Magazine 5002: 5001: 4994: 4984: 4982: 4974: 4973: 4969: 4959: 4957: 4948: 4947: 4938: 4928: 4926: 4924: 4909: 4908: 4895: 4885: 4883: 4881: 4866: 4865: 4854: 4846: 4837: 4827: 4825: 4816: 4815: 4811: 4801: 4799: 4797:Roanoke Tribune 4790: 4789: 4785: 4775: 4773: 4766: 4762: 4761: 4754: 4744: 4742: 4733: 4732: 4695: 4685: 4683: 4675: 4674: 4670: 4660: 4658: 4649: 4648: 4639: 4629: 4627: 4618: 4617: 4598: 4591: 4575: 4574: 4570: 4549: 4548: 4544: 4534: 4532: 4531:. June 25, 1941 4523: 4522: 4518: 4508: 4506: 4505:. March 1, 2016 4497: 4496: 4465: 4455: 4453: 4443: 4442: 4435: 4426: 4424: 4415: 4414: 4401: 4391: 4389: 4372: 4371: 4367: 4357: 4355: 4346: 4345: 4341: 4331: 4329: 4320: 4319: 4315: 4301: 4300: 4293: 4283: 4281: 4272: 4271: 4267: 4257: 4255: 4246: 4245: 4241: 4231: 4229: 4192: 4191: 4184: 4166: 4165: 4161: 4151: 4150: 4103: 4096: 4083: 4082: 4078: 4068: 4066: 4058: 4057: 4053: 4043: 4041: 4033: 4032: 4028: 4018: 4016: 4007: 4006: 4002: 3992: 3990: 3984:"Oak Ridge, TN" 3982: 3981: 3977: 3967: 3965: 3959:"Manhattan, NY" 3957: 3956: 3952: 3942: 3940: 3931: 3930: 3926: 3916: 3914: 3885: 3884: 3873: 3863: 3861: 3854: 3849: 3848: 3835: 3791: 3790: 3786: 3772: 3770: 3752: 3729: 3728: 3724: 3710: 3709: 3705: 3695: 3693: 3685: 3684: 3680: 3670: 3668: 3659: 3658: 3654: 3644: 3642: 3633: 3632: 3628: 3618: 3616: 3607: 3606: 3595: 3585: 3583: 3574: 3573: 3562: 3552: 3550: 3546: 3540: 3539: 3484: 3479: 3439:world community 3378:Langston Hughes 3333: 3286:Tyler, Sylvanus 2875:Delaney, Harold 2841:Dayton Project 2679: 2583: 2481: 2440: 2404: 2390:Chicago Tribune 2385:Enoch P. Waters 2366: 2341: 2300: 2261:, were born in 2142:Great Migration 2133: 2126: 2121: 2112: 2109: 2100: 2095: 2086: 2081: 2072: 2071:Robert B. Pairs 2069: 2060: 2055: 2046: 2043: 2034: 2029: 2020: 2017: 2008: 2006:Harold B. Evans 2003: 1994: 1989: 1980: 1975: 1966: 1963: 1954: 1949: 1940: 1935: 1913: 1809: 1801:ethnic identity 1692: 1644: 1642: 1635: 1634: 1629: 1585: 1541: 1533: 1532: 1527: 1472: 1434: 1410:Omaha, Nebraska 1375:Historic places 1369: 1261: 1132: 1124: 1123: 1118: 1083: 1042: 1034: 1033: 1028: 1010: 962: 904:Black Seminoles 869: 868:Sub-communities 861: 860: 847:Southern (SIAC) 807: 799: 798: 793: 748: 732: 724: 723: 718: 635: 601: 593: 592: 587: 573:Nation of Islam 539: 516: 497: 487: 486: 481: 422: 389: 356: 328: 289: 265:Musical theater 225: 215: 214: 196:Great Migration 53: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6720: 6718: 6710: 6709: 6704: 6699: 6694: 6684: 6683: 6677: 6676: 6666: 6663: 6662: 6660: 6659: 6654: 6649: 6644: 6639: 6634: 6629: 6624: 6619: 6614: 6609: 6604: 6597: 6592: 6587: 6582: 6577: 6572: 6570:Chicago Pile-1 6567: 6565:Calutron Girls 6562: 6557: 6552: 6547: 6541: 6539: 6538:Related topics 6535: 6534: 6532: 6531: 6526: 6521: 6516: 6510: 6508: 6504: 6503: 6501: 6500: 6493: 6486: 6479: 6474: 6469: 6464: 6459: 6454: 6449: 6443: 6441: 6437: 6436: 6434: 6433: 6428: 6423: 6418: 6413: 6408: 6403: 6401:Stanisław Ulam 6398: 6393: 6388: 6383: 6378: 6373: 6368: 6363: 6358: 6353: 6348: 6343: 6338: 6336:Edwin McMillan 6333: 6328: 6323: 6318: 6313: 6308: 6303: 6298: 6293: 6288: 6283: 6281:Harry Daghlian 6278: 6273: 6271:John Cockcroft 6268: 6266:James Chadwick 6263: 6258: 6253: 6248: 6243: 6238: 6232: 6230: 6226: 6225: 6223: 6222: 6217: 6212: 6207: 6202: 6197: 6192: 6190:Charles Thomas 6187: 6185:Frank Spedding 6182: 6177: 6172: 6167: 6162: 6157: 6152: 6147: 6145:James Marshall 6142: 6137: 6132: 6127: 6125:Thomas Farrell 6122: 6117: 6112: 6110:Arthur Compton 6107: 6101: 6099: 6098:Administrators 6095: 6094: 6092: 6091: 6086: 6081: 6076: 6071: 6066: 6061: 6056: 6051: 6046: 6041: 6036: 6026: 6021: 6015: 6013: 6009: 6008: 6003: 6000: 5999: 5994: 5992: 5991: 5984: 5977: 5969: 5963: 5962: 5937: 5936:External links 5934: 5931: 5930: 5924:978-0807844809 5923: 5898: 5869: 5841: 5815: 5790: 5762: 5737: 5711: 5697: 5677: 5663: 5643: 5617: 5591: 5566: 5541: 5515: 5490: 5465: 5449:"Harold Evans" 5440: 5415: 5390: 5376: 5351: 5320: 5291: 5261: 5235: 5209: 5183: 5158: 5133: 5104: 5089: 5079: 5050: 5021: 4992: 4967: 4936: 4922: 4893: 4879: 4852: 4835: 4809: 4783: 4752: 4693: 4668: 4637: 4596: 4589: 4568: 4551:Groves, Leslie 4542: 4516: 4463: 4433: 4399: 4365: 4339: 4313: 4291: 4265: 4239: 4182: 4159: 4154:Ebony magazine 4101: 4094: 4076: 4051: 4026: 4014:The New Yorker 4000: 3975: 3950: 3924: 3898:(2): 291–315. 3871: 3859:cliotropic.org 3833: 3784: 3750: 3742:10.17226/25849 3722: 3703: 3678: 3667:. 23 July 2017 3652: 3626: 3593: 3560: 3481: 3480: 3478: 3475: 3332: 3329: 3326: 3325: 3323: 3321: 3318: 3315: 3312: 3309: 3303: 3302: 3300: 3298: 3295: 3292: 3290: 3288: 3282: 3281: 3279: 3277: 3274: 3271: 3269: 3267: 3261: 3260: 3258: 3256: 3253: 3250: 3248: 3246: 3240: 3239: 3237: 3235: 3232: 3229: 3227: 3225: 3219: 3218: 3216: 3214: 3211: 3208: 3206: 3204: 3202:Tyree, Ella B. 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2722: 2719: 2716: 2713: 2710: 2704: 2703: 2700: 2697: 2696:Work location 2694: 2691: 2690:Date of death 2688: 2687:Date of birth 2685: 2678: 2675: 2624:Dayton Project 2620:Carolyn Parker 2582: 2579: 2489:Arthur Compton 2480: 2477: 2439: 2436: 2416:DuPont Company 2403: 2400: 2365: 2362: 2340: 2337: 2299: 2296: 2245:Harold Delaney 2161:Nymph, Alabama 2132: 2129: 2128: 2127: 2122: 2115: 2113: 2110: 2103: 2101: 2096: 2089: 2087: 2082: 2075: 2073: 2070: 2063: 2061: 2056: 2049: 2047: 2044: 2037: 2035: 2030: 2023: 2021: 2018: 2011: 2009: 2004: 1997: 1995: 1990: 1983: 1981: 1976: 1969: 1967: 1964: 1957: 1955: 1952:Carolyn Parker 1950: 1943: 1941: 1936: 1929: 1912: 1909: 1872:nuclear weapon 1821:atomic weapons 1808: 1805: 1722:Carolyn Parker 1694: 1693: 1691: 1690: 1683: 1676: 1668: 1665: 1664: 1663: 1662: 1657: 1652: 1637: 1636: 1631: 1630: 1628: 1627: 1622: 1617: 1612: 1607: 1601: 1598: 1597: 1587: 1586: 1584: 1583: 1578: 1573: 1568: 1563: 1558: 1556:Black genocide 1552: 1549: 1548: 1542: 1539: 1538: 1535: 1534: 1529: 1528: 1526: 1525: 1520: 1515: 1510: 1505: 1500: 1495: 1490: 1484: 1481: 1480: 1474: 1473: 1471: 1470: 1465: 1463:US communities 1460: 1455: 1450: 1444: 1441: 1440: 1436: 1435: 1433: 1432: 1427: 1422: 1420:South Carolina 1417: 1415:North Carolina 1412: 1407: 1402: 1397: 1392: 1387: 1381: 1378: 1377: 1371: 1370: 1368: 1367: 1362: 1357: 1352: 1347: 1342: 1337: 1332: 1327: 1322: 1317: 1312: 1307: 1302: 1297: 1292: 1287: 1282: 1277: 1271: 1268: 1267: 1263: 1262: 1260: 1259: 1254: 1249: 1244: 1239: 1237:South Carolina 1234: 1229: 1224: 1219: 1217:North Carolina 1214: 1209: 1204: 1199: 1194: 1189: 1184: 1179: 1174: 1169: 1164: 1159: 1154: 1149: 1143: 1140: 1139: 1133: 1130: 1129: 1126: 1125: 1120: 1119: 1117: 1116: 1111: 1106: 1105: 1104: 1093: 1090: 1089: 1085: 1084: 1082: 1081: 1076: 1074:Samaná English 1071: 1066: 1065: 1064: 1053: 1050: 1049: 1043: 1040: 1039: 1036: 1035: 1030: 1029: 1027: 1026: 1024:LGBT community 1020: 1017: 1016: 1012: 1011: 1009: 1008: 1003: 998: 993: 988: 983: 981:Creek Freedmen 978: 972: 969: 968: 964: 963: 961: 960: 955: 954: 953: 951:Carmel Indians 943: 938: 933: 928: 923: 918: 913: 912: 911: 906: 896: 891: 886: 880: 877: 876: 870: 867: 866: 863: 862: 857: 856: 855: 854: 849: 844: 839: 834: 832:Central (CIAA) 826: 825: 821: 820: 819: 818: 808: 805: 804: 801: 800: 795: 794: 792: 791: 786: 781: 776: 771: 766: 761: 756: 751: 743: 740: 739: 733: 730: 729: 726: 725: 720: 719: 717: 716: 711: 706: 701: 699:Pan-Africanism 696: 691: 686: 681: 676: 671: 666: 661: 656: 651: 645: 642: 641: 637: 636: 634: 633: 628: 623: 618: 612: 609: 608: 602: 599: 598: 595: 594: 589: 588: 586: 585: 580: 575: 570: 565: 560: 555: 549: 546: 545: 541: 540: 538: 537: 532: 530:Black theology 526: 523: 522: 518: 517: 515: 514: 508: 505: 504: 498: 493: 492: 489: 488: 483: 482: 480: 479: 474: 467: 462: 461: 460: 450: 445: 444: 443: 432: 429: 428: 424: 423: 421: 420: 415: 410: 405: 399: 396: 395: 394:Economic class 391: 390: 388: 387: 382: 377: 372: 366: 363: 362: 358: 357: 355: 354: 349: 344: 338: 335: 334: 333:Academic study 330: 329: 327: 326: 321: 316: 310: 305: 299: 296: 295: 291: 290: 288: 287: 282: 277: 272: 267: 262: 257: 252: 247: 242: 236: 233: 232: 226: 221: 220: 217: 216: 211: 210: 209: 208: 203: 198: 190: 189: 185: 184: 183: 182: 177: 172: 167: 162: 154: 153: 149: 148: 147: 146: 141: 136: 131: 126: 121: 116: 115: 114: 104: 94: 89: 84: 79: 74: 69: 61: 60: 54: 49: 48: 45: 44: 38: 37: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6719: 6708: 6705: 6703: 6700: 6698: 6695: 6693: 6690: 6689: 6687: 6674: 6664: 6658: 6655: 6653: 6650: 6648: 6645: 6643: 6640: 6638: 6635: 6633: 6630: 6628: 6625: 6623: 6620: 6618: 6615: 6613: 6610: 6608: 6605: 6603: 6602: 6598: 6596: 6593: 6591: 6588: 6586: 6585:Franck Report 6583: 6581: 6578: 6576: 6573: 6571: 6568: 6566: 6563: 6561: 6558: 6556: 6553: 6551: 6548: 6546: 6543: 6542: 6540: 6536: 6530: 6527: 6525: 6522: 6520: 6517: 6515: 6512: 6511: 6509: 6505: 6499: 6498: 6494: 6492: 6491: 6487: 6485: 6484: 6480: 6478: 6475: 6473: 6470: 6468: 6465: 6463: 6460: 6458: 6455: 6453: 6450: 6448: 6447:Alsos Mission 6445: 6444: 6442: 6438: 6432: 6429: 6427: 6424: 6422: 6421:Robert Wilson 6419: 6417: 6416:Eugene Wigner 6414: 6412: 6409: 6407: 6404: 6402: 6399: 6397: 6396:Edward Teller 6394: 6392: 6389: 6387: 6384: 6382: 6379: 6377: 6374: 6372: 6371:Glenn Seaborg 6369: 6367: 6364: 6362: 6359: 6357: 6354: 6352: 6349: 6347: 6344: 6342: 6341:Mark Oliphant 6339: 6337: 6334: 6332: 6331:Willard Libby 6329: 6327: 6324: 6322: 6319: 6317: 6314: 6312: 6309: 6307: 6304: 6302: 6299: 6297: 6294: 6292: 6289: 6287: 6284: 6282: 6279: 6277: 6274: 6272: 6269: 6267: 6264: 6262: 6259: 6257: 6254: 6252: 6249: 6247: 6244: 6242: 6241:Robert Bacher 6239: 6237: 6234: 6233: 6231: 6227: 6221: 6220:Roscoe Wilson 6218: 6216: 6213: 6211: 6208: 6206: 6203: 6201: 6198: 6196: 6193: 6191: 6188: 6186: 6183: 6181: 6178: 6176: 6173: 6171: 6168: 6166: 6163: 6161: 6158: 6156: 6153: 6151: 6148: 6146: 6143: 6141: 6138: 6136: 6135:John Lansdale 6133: 6131: 6130:Leslie Groves 6128: 6126: 6123: 6121: 6118: 6116: 6113: 6111: 6108: 6106: 6105:Vannevar Bush 6103: 6102: 6100: 6096: 6090: 6087: 6085: 6082: 6080: 6077: 6075: 6072: 6070: 6067: 6065: 6062: 6060: 6057: 6055: 6052: 6050: 6047: 6045: 6042: 6040: 6037: 6034: 6030: 6027: 6025: 6022: 6020: 6017: 6016: 6014: 6010: 6006: 6001: 5997: 5990: 5985: 5983: 5978: 5976: 5971: 5970: 5967: 5952: 5945: 5940: 5939: 5935: 5926: 5920: 5916: 5915: 5907: 5905: 5903: 5899: 5886: 5882: 5876: 5874: 5870: 5858: 5851: 5845: 5842: 5830: 5826: 5819: 5816: 5804: 5800: 5794: 5791: 5775: 5774: 5766: 5763: 5751: 5747: 5746:"James Forde" 5741: 5738: 5726: 5722: 5715: 5712: 5700: 5694: 5690: 5689: 5681: 5678: 5666: 5660: 5656: 5655: 5647: 5644: 5632: 5628: 5621: 5618: 5606: 5602: 5595: 5592: 5580: 5576: 5570: 5567: 5555: 5551: 5545: 5542: 5529: 5525: 5519: 5516: 5504: 5500: 5494: 5491: 5479: 5475: 5469: 5466: 5454: 5450: 5444: 5441: 5429: 5425: 5419: 5416: 5404: 5400: 5394: 5391: 5379: 5373: 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May 2, 2013 4656: 4652: 4646: 4644: 4642: 4638: 4626: 4622: 4615: 4613: 4611: 4609: 4607: 4605: 4603: 4601: 4597: 4592: 4590:0-688-06910-X 4586: 4582: 4578: 4572: 4569: 4564: 4559: 4558: 4552: 4546: 4543: 4530: 4526: 4520: 4517: 4504: 4500: 4494: 4492: 4490: 4488: 4486: 4484: 4482: 4480: 4478: 4476: 4474: 4472: 4470: 4468: 4464: 4451: 4447: 4440: 4438: 4434: 4423: 4419: 4412: 4410: 4408: 4406: 4404: 4400: 4388: 4384: 4380: 4376: 4369: 4366: 4354: 4350: 4343: 4340: 4327: 4323: 4317: 4314: 4309: 4305: 4298: 4296: 4292: 4280: 4276: 4269: 4266: 4254: 4250: 4243: 4240: 4228: 4224: 4220: 4216: 4212: 4208: 4204: 4200: 4196: 4189: 4187: 4183: 4178: 4174: 4170: 4163: 4160: 4155: 4148: 4146: 4144: 4142: 4140: 4138: 4136: 4134: 4132: 4130: 4128: 4126: 4124: 4122: 4120: 4118: 4116: 4114: 4112: 4110: 4108: 4106: 4102: 4097: 4095:0-671-44133-7 4091: 4087: 4080: 4077: 4065: 4061: 4055: 4052: 4040: 4036: 4035:"Hanford, WA" 4030: 4027: 4015: 4011: 4004: 4001: 3989: 3985: 3979: 3976: 3964: 3960: 3954: 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