Age of Earth - Knowledge (XXG)

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that lead was the final stable product of the decay of radium. It was already known that radium was an intermediate product of the decay of uranium. Rutherford joined in, outlining a decay process in which radium emitted five alpha particles through various intermediate products to end up with lead, and speculated that the radium–lead decay chain could be used to date rock samples. Boltwood did the legwork and by the end of 1905 had provided dates for 26 separate rock samples, ranging from 92 to 570 million years. He did not publish these results, which was fortunate because they were flawed by measurement errors and poor estimates of the half-life of radium. Boltwood refined his work and finally published the results in 1907.

1931: 22: 2019: 1971: 4432: 1491: 4358: 1281: 1616:, a professor of geology at Yale, redrew geological history as it was understood at the time to conform to Holmes's findings in radiometric dating. Barrell's research determined that the layers of strata had not all been laid down at the same rate, and so current rates of geological change could not be used to provide accurate timelines of the history of Earth. 4396: 4420: 4408: 4384: 1559:

point, I saw the old bird sit up, open an eye, and cock a baleful glance at me! Then a sudden inspiration came, and I said, "Lord Kelvin had limited the age of the Earth, provided no new source was discovered. That prophetic utterance refers to what we are now considering tonight, radium!" Behold! the old boy beamed upon me.

1710:(a species of atom characterised by the number of neutrons and protons an atom contains) or an intermediate daughter nuclide may have been partially removed from the sample, which will skew the resulting isotopic date. To mitigate this effect it is usual to date several minerals in the same sample, to provide an 2240: 1627:

in 1927 in which he presented a range of 1.6 to 3.0 billion years. No great push to embrace radiometric dating followed, however, and the die-hards in the geological community stubbornly resisted. They had never cared for attempts by physicists to intrude in their domain, and had successfully ignored

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Although Boltwood published his paper in a prominent geological journal, the geological community had little interest in radioactivity. Boltwood gave up work on radiometric dating and went on to investigate other decay series. Rutherford remained mildly curious about the issue of the age of Earth but

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had just determined the rate at which radium produces alpha particles, and Rutherford proposed that he could determine the age of a rock sample by measuring its concentration of helium. He dated a rock in his possession to an age of 40 million years by this technique. Rutherford wrote of addressing a

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and is found in the sulfide at a much greater concentration than in the silicate, versus uranium. Because of this segregation in the parent and daughter nuclides during the formation of the meteorite, this allowed a much more precise date of the formation of the solar disk and hence the planets than

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have been used to date the formation of Earth as these represent the earliest formed lead-only minerals on the planet and record the earliest homogeneous lead–lead isotope systems on the planet. These have returned age dates of 4.54 billion years with a precision of as little as 1% margin for error.

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Some meteorites are furthermore considered to represent the primitive material from which the accreting solar disk was formed. Some have behaved as closed systems (for some isotopic systems) soon after the solar disk and the planets formed. To date, these assumptions are supported by much scientific

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Rutherford assumed that the rate of decay of radium as determined by Ramsay and Soddy was accurate and that helium did not escape from the sample over time. Rutherford's scheme was inaccurate, but it was a useful first step. Boltwood focused on the end products of decay series. In 1905, he suggested

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out of the sample. His studies were flawed by the fact that the decay series of thorium was not understood, which led to incorrect results for samples that contained both uranium and thorium. However, his calculations were far more accurate than any that had been performed to that time. Refinements

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radiation in the process. They also determined that a particular isotope of a radioactive element decays into another element at a distinctive rate. This rate is given in terms of a "half-life", or the amount of time it takes half of a mass of that radioactive material to break down into its "decay

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The age determined from the Canyon Diablo meteorite has been confirmed by hundreds of other age determinations, from both terrestrial samples and other meteorites. The meteorite samples, however, show a spread from 4.53 to 4.58 billion years ago. This is interpreted as the duration of formation of

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I came into the room, which was half dark, and presently spotted Lord Kelvin in the audience and realized that I was in trouble at the last part of my speech dealing with the age of the Earth, where my views conflicted with his. To my relief, Kelvin fell fast asleep, but as I came to the important

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determining the relative proportions of radioactive materials in geological samples. In reality, radioactive elements do not always decay into nonradioactive ("stable") elements directly, instead, decaying into other radioactive elements that have their own half-lives and so on, until they reach a

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It is hypothesised that the accretion of Earth began soon after the formation of the calcium-aluminium-rich inclusions and the meteorites. Because the time this accretion process took is not yet known, and predictions from different accretion models range from a few million up to about 100 million

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Some radioactive materials have short half-lives; some have long half-lives. Uranium and thorium have long half-lives and so persist in Earth's crust, but radioactive elements with short half-lives have generally disappeared. This suggested that it might be possible to measure the age of Earth by

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Many geologists felt these new discoveries made radiometric dating so complicated as to be worthless. Holmes felt that they gave him tools to improve his techniques, and he plodded ahead with his research, publishing before and after the First World War. His work was generally ignored until the

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announced that radium produces enough heat to melt its own weight in ice in less than an hour. Geologists quickly realized that this upset the assumptions underlying most calculations of the age of Earth. These had assumed that the original heat of Earth and the Sun had dissipated steadily into

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alloys, plus silicate minerals. This is important because the presence of the three mineral phases allows investigation of isotopic dates using samples that provide a great separation in concentrations between parent and daughter nuclides. This is particularly true of uranium and lead. Lead is

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Radiometric dating continues to be the predominant way scientists date geologic time scales. Techniques for radioactive dating have been tested and fine-tuned on an ongoing basis since the 1960s. Forty or so different dating techniques have been utilized to date, working on a wide variety of

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to give Earth its current 24-hour day. His value of 56 million years was additional evidence that Thomson was on the right track. The last estimate Kelvin gave, in 1897, was: "that it was more than 20 and less than 40 million year old, and probably much nearer 20 than 40". In 1899 and 1900,

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and physicist Rutherford. Boltwood had conducted studies of radioactive materials as a consultant, and when Rutherford lectured at Yale in 1904, Boltwood was inspired to describe the relationships between elements in various decay series. Late in 1904, Rutherford took the first step toward

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Most geological samples from Earth are unable to give a direct date of the formation of Earth from the solar nebula because Earth has undergone differentiation into the core, mantle, and crust, and this has then undergone a long history of mixing and unmixing of these sample reservoirs by

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became interested in radiometric dating and continued to work on it after everyone else had given up. Holmes focused on lead dating because he regarded the helium method as unpromising. He performed measurements on rock samples and concluded in 1911 that the oldest (a sample from

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The Moon, as another extraterrestrial body that has not undergone plate tectonics and that has no atmosphere, provides quite precise age dates from the samples returned from the Apollo missions. Rocks returned from the Moon have been dated at a maximum of 4.51 billion years old.

1225:'s works, popularized the concept that the features of Earth were in perpetual change, eroding and reforming continuously, and the rate of this change was roughly constant. This was a challenge to the traditional view, which saw the history of Earth as dominated by intermittent 2006:

Altogether, the concordance of age dates of both the earliest terrestrial lead reservoirs and all other reservoirs within the Solar System found to date are used to support the fact that Earth and the rest of the Solar System formed at around 4.53 to 4.58 billion years ago.

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much longer. Even more constraining were Thomson's estimates of the age of the Sun, which were based on estimates of its thermal output and a theory that the Sun obtains its energy from gravitational collapse; Thomson estimated that the Sun is about 20 million years old.

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jointly had continued their work on radioactive materials and concluded that radioactivity was caused by a spontaneous transmutation of atomic elements. In radioactive decay, an element breaks down into another, lighter element, releasing alpha, beta, or

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Holmes, being one of the few people who was trained in radiometric dating techniques, was a committee member and in fact wrote most of the final report. Thus, Holmes' report concluded that radioactive dating was the only reliable means of pinning down a

1324:(in 1892) contributed their own calculations of 22 and 18 million years, respectively, to the debate: they independently calculated the amount of time it would take for the Sun to condense down to its current diameter and brightness from the 1300:

requires great durations of time, and Darwin stated that Thomson's estimates did not appear to provide enough time. According to modern biology, the total evolutionary history from the beginning of life to today has taken place since

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Boltwood's paper pointed out that samples taken from comparable layers of strata had similar lead-to-uranium ratios, and that samples from older layers had a higher proportion of lead, except where there was evidence that lead had

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tried to obtain a value for the age of Earth using an experiment: he created a small globe that resembled Earth in composition and then measured its rate of cooling. This led him to estimate that Earth was about 75,000 years old.

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Gradstein, F. M.; Agterberg, F.P.; Ogg, J.G.; Hardenbol, J.; van Veen, P.; Thierry, J. and Zehui Huang., 1995. A Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous time scale. IN: Bergren, W. A.; Kent, D.V.; Aubry, M-P. and Hardenbol, J. (eds.),

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published calculations that fixed the age of Earth at between 20 million and 400 million years. He assumed that Earth had formed as a completely molten object, and determined the amount of time it would take for the near-surface

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and published in 1956. The quoted age of Earth is derived, in part, from the Canyon Diablo meteorite for several important reasons and is built upon a modern understanding of cosmochemistry built up over decades of research.

1442:, such nonradioactive end products typically escape or are redistributed. Thus the age of the oldest terrestrial rock gives a minimum for the age of Earth, assuming that no rock has been intact for longer than Earth itself. 3575:

Baadsgaard, H.; Lerbekmo, J.F.; Wijbrans, J.R., 1993. Multimethod radiometric age for a bentonite near the top of the Baculites reesidei Zone of southwestern Saskatchewan (Campanian-Maastrichtian stage boundary?).

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All of these processes may adversely affect isotopic dating mechanisms because the sample cannot always be assumed to have remained as a closed system, by which it is meant that either the parent or daughter

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Wyche, S.; Nelson, D. R.; Riganti, A. (2004). "4350–3130 Ma detrital zircons in the Southern Cross Granite–Greenstone Terrane, Western Australia: implications for the early evolution of the Yilgarn Craton".

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the solar nebula and its collapse into the solar disk to form the Sun and the planets. This 50 million year time span allows for accretion of the planets from the original solar dust and meteorites.

1644:. Questions of bias were deflected by the great and exacting detail of the report. It described the methods used, the care with which measurements were made, and their error bars and limitations. 1597:) was about 1.6 billion years old. These calculations were not particularly trustworthy. For example, he assumed that the samples had contained only uranium and no lead when they were formed. 3583:

Baadsgaard, H. and Lerbekmo, J.F., 1988. A radiometric age for the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary based on K-Ar, Rb-Sr, and U-Pb ages of bentonites from Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Montana.

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hypothesized that if two layers of rock at widely differing locations contained similar fossils, then it was very plausible that the layers were the same age. Smith's nephew and student,

1526:", such as the uranium-radium and thorium series, were known within a few years of the discovery of radioactivity and provided a basis for constructing techniques of radiometric dating. 2161:; Dupréa, Bernard & Hamelin, Bruno (1980). "Lead isotope study of basic-ultrabasic layered complexes: Speculations about the age of the earth and primitive mantle characteristics". 1657:

problems do exist, but they have been studied and dealt with by careful investigation, leading to sample preparation procedures being minimized to limit the chance of contamination.

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suggested that Earth had been created separately from, and several hundred thousand years before, the rest of the universe. Lomonosov's ideas were mostly speculative. In 1779 the

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Eberth, D.A. and Braman, D., 1990. Stratigraphy, sedimentology, and vertebrate paleontology of the Judith River Formation (Campanian) near Muddy Lake, west-central Saskatchewan.

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Wilde, S. A.; Valley, J. W.; Peck, W. H.; Graham C. M. (2001-01-11). "Evidence from detrital zircons for the existence of continental crust and oceans on the Earth 4.4 Gyr ago".

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observation and repeated isotopic dates, and it is certainly a more robust hypothesis than that which assumes a terrestrial rock has retained its original composition.

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is only useful on material that has not been melted, since melting erases the crystalline structure of the material, and wipes away the tracks left by the particles.

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in the 17th century was one of the first naturalists to appreciate the connection between fossil remains and strata. His observations led him to formulate important

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Baker, J.; Bizzarro, M.; Wittig, N.; Connelly, J.; et al. (2005-08-25). "Early planetesimal melting from an age of 4.5662 Gyr for differentiated meteorites".

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atoms. At the time, Rutherford was only guessing at the relationship between alpha particles and helium atoms, but he would prove the connection four years later.

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Geologists such as Lyell had difficulty accepting such a short age for Earth. For biologists, even 100 million years seemed much too short to be plausible. In

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space, but radioactive decay meant that this heat had been continually replenished. George Darwin and John Joly were the first to point this out, in 1903.

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from which it was born. Their values were consistent with Thomson's calculations. However, they assumed that the Sun was only glowing from the heat of its

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years, the difference between the age of Earth and of the oldest rocks is difficult to determine. It is also difficult to determine the exact age of the

1608:". In that same year, other research was published establishing the rules for radioactive decay, allowing more precise identification of decay series. 3394: 3337: 1991:. Lunar samples, since they have not been disturbed by weathering, plate tectonics or material moved by organisms, can also provide dating by direct 3187:"Sur une nouvelle substance fortement radio-active, contenue dans la pechblende (On a new, strongly radioactive substance contained in pitchblende)" 1999:

tracks. The accumulation of dislocations generated by high energy cosmic ray particle impacts provides another confirmation of the isotopic dates.

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Goodwin, M.B. and Deino, A.L., 1989. The first radiometric ages from the Judith River Formation (Upper Cretaceous), Hill County, Montana.

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Barboni, Melanie; Boehnke, Patrick; Keller, Brenhin; Kohl, Issaku E.; Schoene, Blair; Young, Edward D.; McKeegan, Kevin D. (2017-01-06).

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materials. Dates for the same sample using these different techniques are in very close agreement on the age of the material. Possible

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More important research was published in 1913. It showed that elements generally exist in multiple variants with different masses, or "

3085: 3003: 1316:, attacked Thomson's calculations, suggesting they appeared precise in themselves but were based on faulty assumptions. The physicist 4457: 3711: 3632: 3520: 3430: 3260: 2903: 2510:

Amelin, Y; Krot, An; Hutcheon, Id; Ulyanov, Aa (Sep 2002). "Lead isotopic ages of chondrules and calcium-aluminum-rich inclusions".

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Radioactivity, which had overthrown the old calculations, yielded a bonus by providing a basis for new calculations, in the form of

1248: 1242: 1217:, though their timelines were inexact as they did not know how long it took to lay down stratigraphic layers. In 1830, geologist 865: 4063: 3781: 2932: 1418:

and initial concentration of the decaying element, the age of the rock can be calculated. Typical radioactive end products are

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HISTOIRE NATURELLE, GA (C)NA (C)RALE ET PARTICULIARE, : introduction a l'histoire... des mina (c)raux (classic reprint)

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came to a rough consensus that Earth was a few billion years old and that radiometric dating was credible. Holmes published

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had broken apart in their early days when they were both molten. He calculated the amount of time it would have taken for

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to solve problems of astonishing complexity." Other scientists backed up Kelvin's figures. Darwin's son, the astronomer

783: 2383:"On the ultimate disintegration products of the radio-active elements. Part II. The disintegration products of uranium" 2087: 4234: 4156: 2063: 2000: 1945:

meteorite was used because it is both large and representative of a particularly rare type of meteorite that contains

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Elements of Geology; or, The Ancient Changes of the Earth and its Inhabitants as Illustrated by Geological Monuments

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showed that some were in excess of a billion years old. The oldest such minerals analyzed to date—small crystals of

4161: 3743: 3308: 1604:". In the 1930s, isotopes would be shown to have nuclei with differing numbers of the neutral particles known as " 4462: 4166: 3472: 1925: 1674: 1654: 1329: 1195: 1191: 1168:

an appreciation that Earth may have been through many changes during its existence. These layers often contained

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In 1892, Thomson was ennobled as Lord Kelvin in appreciation of his many scientific accomplishments. In 1895

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in the technique would later give ages for Boltwood's 26 samples of 410 million to 2.2 billion years.

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Holmes' persistence finally began to pay off in 1921, when the speakers at the yearly meeting of the

1569: 1348: 1253: 1183: 383: 3609:. Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists, Special Publication No. 54, p. 95–126. 2844:"John Perry's neglected critique of Kelvin's age for the Earth: A missed opportunity in geodynamics" 2773: 2730: 1471: 4239: 4196: 4030: 3973: 3824: 3816: 3774: 3246:

Radioactivity and Geology: An Account of the Influence of Radioactive Energy on Terrestrial History

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Lead isotope isochron diagram showing data used by Patterson to determine the age of Earth in 1956.

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material and is consistent with the radiometric ages of the oldest-known terrestrial material and

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Obradovich, J.D., 1993. A Cretaceous time scale. IN: Caldwell, W.G.E. and Kauffman, E.G. (eds.).

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Harland, W.B., Cox, A.V.; Llewellyn, P.G.; Pickton, C.A.G.; Smith, A.G.; and Walters, R., 1982.

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of unknown creatures, leading some to interpret a progression of organisms from layer to layer.

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decided to resolve the question of the age of Earth by appointing a committee to investigate.

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tinkered with Rutherford's helium method until 1910 and then ceased. However, Strutt's student

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formation, or of the material from which Earth formed. This dating is based on evidence from

4400: 4388: 4251: 4118: 4103: 3980: 3960: 3902: 3806: 3801: 3691: 3655: 3386: 2999: 2949: 2863: 2778: 2586: 2527: 2492: 2394: 2378: 2345: 2329: 2274: 2180: 2176: 2131: 2048: 1439: 1403: 1344: 1273: 1214: 3674:

Palmer, Allison R (1983). "The Decade of North American Geology 1983 Geologic Time Scale".

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An age of 4.55 ± 0.07 billion years, very close to today's accepted age, was determined by

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them so far. The growing weight of evidence finally tilted the balance in 1931, when the

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Burchfield, Joe D. (1998). "The age of the Earth and the invention of geological time".

2582: 2523: 2488: 2325: 2270: 2127: 1970: 1714:. Alternatively, more than one dating system may be used on a sample to check the date. 4436: 4361: 4279: 4269: 4133: 4128: 3887: 3877: 3767: 3659: 3465: 3301: 2350: 2309: 1613: 1546: 1535: 1519: 1490: 1396: 1333: 1289: 2723:"Smith's other debt, John Strachey, William Smith and the strata of England 1719–1801" 1737:

Statistics for several meteorites that have undergone isochron dating are as follows:

4446: 4289: 4219: 4171: 4138: 4010: 4000: 3990: 3950: 3945: 3390: 3038: 2790: 2666: 2620: 2496: 2406: 2184: 2143: 2043: 2038: 1934: 1589: 1411: 1352: 1321: 1226: 1218: 1175: 1067: 2555: 2114:(2001). "The age of the Earth in the twentieth century: a problem (mostly) solved". 1987:

that have landed upon Earth have also been dated to around 4.5 billion years old by

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The discovery of radioactivity introduced another factor in the calculation. After

1269: 1222: 1179: 945: 97: 2782: 2135: 96:—the oldest known solid constituents within meteorites that are formed within the 2893: 2624: 1376:

processes and determined that the oceans were about 80 to 100 million years old.

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challenged Kelvin's figure on the basis of his assumptions on conductivity, and

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Following the development of radiometric age-dating in the early 20th century,

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Ancient Earth, Ancient Skies: The Age of the Earth and Its Cosmic Surroundings

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entered the dialogue, considering it "a vehicle to display the ability of his

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Rutherford: Being the life and letters of the Rt. Hon. Lord Rutherford, O. M.

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and not others; but in rocks containing radioactive isotopes, the process of

4113: 4058: 4043: 4015: 3985: 3912: 3854: 3739: 2531: 1510: 1423: 1415: 1365: 1293: 1198:, later calculated by such means that Earth was about 96 million years old. 475: 415: 70: 66: 35: 3420:"Lead–Lead Constraints on the Timescale of Early Planetary Differentiation" 2805: 2598: 2547: 2359: 2333: 2286: 3734: 2954: 2927: 2868: 2843: 1950: 1711: 1605: 1463: 1047: 496: 478: 3249:(1st ed.). London, UK: Archibald Constable & Co., ltd. p. 2590: 4206: 4083: 4053: 3869: 3859: 1946: 1722: 1707: 1601: 1435: 1431: 1399: 1373: 1272:

to remain high much longer, maintaining a high thermal gradient in the

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to decrease to its present value. His calculations did not account for

1161: 563: 530: 3670:. Geological Association of Canada, Special Paper 39, p. 379–396. 3627:, 1989 edition. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, p. 1–263. 1538:

released by radioactive decay could be trapped in a rocky material as

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of the stable end product of the decay, coupled with knowledge of the

4073: 3940: 3920: 2278: 1954: 1730: 1594: 1539: 1467: 1369: 1169: 540: 512: 81: 3145:"Sur les radiations invisibles émises par les corps phosphorescents" 2382: 4407: 4261: 4038: 4020: 4005: 3790: 3638:

Harper, C.W. Jr (1980). "Relative age inference in paleontology".

3502:"In-situ ion microprobe U-Pb dating of phosphates in H-chondrites" 1969: 1929: 1680: 1489: 1419: 1279: 1257: 1243:

William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin § Age of the Earth: geology

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Geochronology, Time Scales, and Global Stratigraphic Correlation

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Oliver Heaviside, Fractional Operators, and the Age of the Earth

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calculated the rate at which the oceans should have accumulated

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Chemical Abstracts Service, American Chemical Society (1907).

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Valley, John W.; Peck, William H.; Kin, Elizabeth M. (1999).

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Mysteries of Terra Firma: the Age and Evolution of the Earth

3616:: 1982 edition. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 131p. 3429:. Houston, Texas: Lunar and Planetary Institute. p. 6. 3222:"Sur la chaleur dégagée spontanément par les sels de radium" 1296:, the process of random heritable variation with cumulative 100:—are 4.567 billion years old, giving a lower limit for the 3623:; Cox, A.V.; Craig, L.E.; Smith, A.G.; Smith, D.G., 1990. 3185:

Curie, Pierre; Curie, Marie & Bémont, Gustave (1898).

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10.1130/0091-7613(1983)11<503:tdonag>2.0.co;2

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Proceedings, Eleventh Annual V. M. Goldschmidt Conference

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The Age of the Earth, an Introduction to Geological Ideas

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Pre-1900 Non-Religious Estimates of the Age of the Earth

3511:. Hot Springs, Virginia: Lunar and Planetary Institute. 2106: 2104: 1937:, Arizona, where the Canyon Diablo meteorite was found. 1309:

of all living organisms as shown by geological dating.

1233:" who believed that changes were constant and uniform. 1229:. Many naturalists were influenced by Lyell to become " 1213:

Other naturalists used these hypotheses to construct a

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generates exotic elements over time. By measuring the

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England, P.; Molnar, P.; Righter, F. (January 2007).

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Conference Proceedings, Origin of the Earth and Moon

2310:"Early formation of the Moon 4.51 billion years ago" 1438:. If the rock becomes molten, as happens in Earth's 4319: 4303: 4260: 4205: 4147: 4082: 4029: 3959: 3911: 3868: 3815: 2629:(Sixth ed.). New York: D. Appleton and company 2449:. University of Wisconsin-Madison. pp. 34–35. 3464: 3300: 2665: 2116:Special Publications, Geological Society of London 1621:British Association for the Advancement of Science 3076:Nichols, Gary (2009). "21.2 Radiometric Dating". 2229:. University of Chicago Press. pp. 142–162. 1264:(a then unknown process) or, more significantly, 3735:NASA exposition on the age of Martian meteorites 2753:Geological Society, London, Special Publications 1669:using uranium–lead isotope dating (specifically 3418:Carlson, R. W.; Tera, F. (December 1–3, 1998). 3103:"Sur les radiations émises par phosphorescence" 2898:. University of Chicago Press. pp. 69 ff. 2223:"9: Meteorites and the Age of the Solar System" 1556: 1312:In a lecture in 1869, Darwin's great advocate, 2986:"Oldest fossil found: Meet your microbial mom" 112:on Earth, exposed at the surface, as they are 3775: 2928:"Kelvin's age of the Earth paradox revisited" 2691: 2689: 1974:Fragment of the Canyon Diablo iron meteorite. 152: 78:measurements of lead in uranium-rich minerals 45:is estimated to be 4.54 ± 0.05 billion years 8: 2646:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 1577:Arthur Holmes establishes radiometric dating 1305:, the amount of time which passed since the 3080:. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 325–327. 3025: 3023: 3021: 2659: 2657: 2252: 2250: 1529:The pioneers of radioactivity were chemist 3782: 3768: 3760: 3071: 3069: 3067: 2373: 2371: 2369: 2200:"How Science Figured Out the Age of Earth" 1534:radiometric dating by suggesting that the 159: 145: 3255:Reprinted by BookSurge Publishing (2004) 2953: 2867: 2772: 2349: 3500:Terada, K.; Sano, Y. (May 20–24, 2001). 2729:. The Geological Society. Archived from 1201:In the mid-18th century, the naturalist 116:of minerals of possibly different ages. 4379: 3668:Evolution of the Western Interior Basin 3220:Curie, Pierre; Laborde, Albert (1903). 2075: 1470:in 1898; and in 1903, Pierre Curie and 120:Development of modern geologic concepts 92:—are at least 4.404 billion years old. 3592:Bulletin of Canadian Petroleum Geology 3331:The Age of the Earth Debate Badash, L 2984:Borenstein, Seth (November 13, 2013). 2804:BUFFON, GEORGES LOUIS LECLERC (2022). 2639: 2447:The Outcrop, Geology Alumni Newsletter 1856: 1799: 1742: 1673:) on several meteorites including the 1268:, which allows the temperature in the 3526:from the original on 16 December 2008 3436:from the original on 16 December 2008 2700:. Blackwell Publishing. p. 116. 2090:from the original on 23 December 2005 1164:—the layering of rocks and soil—gave 16:Scientific dating of the age of Earth 7: 4334:Geology of solar terrestrial planets 3730:USGS preface on the Age of the Earth 2895:Lord Kelvin and the Age of the Earth 2477:Australian Journal of Earth Sciences 1857:3. Allende (carbonaceous chondrite) 1743:1. St. Severin (ordinary chondrite) 1462:discovered the radioactive elements 1101: 1077: 1056: 1036: 1015: 995: 975: 954: 934: 914: 894: 874: 854: 833: 813: 792: 772: 752: 732: 712: 692: 672: 2164:Earth and Planetary Science Letters 1446:Convective mantle and radioactivity 1188:principle of original horizontality 3726:by Chris Stassen (TalkOrigins.org) 3660:10.1111/j.1502-3931.1980.tb00638.x 3599:Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 3585:Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 3578:Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 3281:Reprinted by Juniper Grove (2007) 3279:. London: Charles Scribner's Sons. 3201:from the original on 6 August 2009 3006:from the original on June 29, 2015 2721:Fuller, J. G. C. M. (2007-07-17). 49:This age may represent the age of 14: 3364:"Age of meteorites and the earth" 2892:Burchfield, Joe D. (1990-05-15). 1800:2. Juvinas (basaltic achondrite) 1249:William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin 94:Calcium–aluminium-rich inclusions 4430: 4418: 4406: 4394: 4382: 4357: 4356: 2971:, Charles Darwin, 1872 edition, 2912:from the original on 2018-02-14. 2497:10.1046/j.1400-0952.2003.01042.x 2243:from the original on 2018-02-14. 2210:from the original on 2016-04-12. 2086:. U.S. Geological Survey. 1997. 2017: 4064:Human impact on the environment 3400:from the original on 2010-06-21 3371:Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 2933:Journal of Geophysical Research 2696:Brookfield, Michael E. (2004). 2456:from the original on 2009-02-26 1479:Invention of radiometric dating 3893:Climate variability and change 3702:Powell, James Lawrence, 2001, 3594:, v.38, no.4, p. 387–406. 3078:Sedimentology and Stratigraphy 3047:IEEE Transactions on Education 2882:Dalrymple (1994) pp. 14–17, 38 2672:. Oxford University Press US. 1454:'s initial discovery in 1896, 1336:was not yet known to science. 1: 4329:Evolution of the Solar System 3554:. Stanford University Press. 2996:Mindspark Interactive Network 2783:10.1144/GSL.SP.1998.143.01.12 2664:Stiebing, William H. (1994). 2136:10.1144/GSL.SP.2001.190.01.14 1284:William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) 4069:Evolutionary history of life 3463:Dalrymple, Brent G. (2004). 3453:Dalrymple (1994) pp. 310–341 3391:10.1016/0016-7037(56)90036-9 3299:Eve, Arthur Stewart (1939). 2185:10.1016/0012-821X(80)90024-2 1870:4.553 ± 0.004 billion years 1826:4.540 ± 0.001 billion years 1813:4.556 ± 0.012 billion years 1756:4.543 ± 0.019 billion years 1634:National Academy of Sciences 1303:3.5 to 3.8 billion years ago 1221:, developing ideas found in 3276:Radioactive Transformations 3173:translated by Carmen Giunta 3131:translated by Carmen Giunta 3061:Dalrymple (1994) pp. 14, 43 3049:E-28(2): 94–104, link from 2387:American Journal of Science 2198:Braterman, Paul S. (2013). 2064:Timeline of natural history 1909:4.56 ± 0.05 billion years 1896:4.55 ± 0.03 billion years 1883:4.52 ± 0.02 billion years 1852:4.50 ± 0.07 billion years 1839:4.56 ± 0.08 billion years 1795:4.68 ± 0.15 billion years 1782:4.51 ± 0.15 billion years 1769:4.55 ± 0.33 billion years 886:Earliest multicellular life 4479: 3601:, v.26, p. 1384–1391. 3587:, v.25, p. 1088–1097. 3362:Patterson, Claire (1956). 3352:Dalrymple (1994) pp. 77–78 3309:Cambridge University Press 3029:Dalrymple (1994) pp. 14–17 2698:Principles of Stratigraphy 1919: 1395:By their chemical nature, 1383: 1355:, proposed that Earth and 1240: 1153: 1147: 4352: 3797: 3473:Stanford University Press 3175:. Accessed 12 April 2021. 3133:. Accessed 12 April 2021. 1926:Canyon Diablo (meteorite) 1747: 1648:Modern radiometric dating 1630:National Research Council 1330:gravitational contraction 1320:(in 1856) and astronomer 1125: 137: 126: 4458:History of Earth science 4339:Location in the Universe 4270:Antarctic/Southern Ocean 3969:List of sovereign states 3706:, Simon & Schuster, 3580:, v.30, p. 769–775. 3143:Henri Becquerel (1896). 3101:Henri Becquerel (1896). 2399:10.2475/ajs.s4-23.134.78 2221:Hedman, Matthew (2007). 1906:Ar-Ar age spectrum 1700:hydrothermal circulation 312:−1000 — 292:−1500 — 272:−2000 — 252:−2500 — 232:−3000 — 212:−3500 — 192:−4000 — 172:−4500 — 3273:Rutherford, E. (1906). 2532:10.1126/science.1073950 2412:For the abstract, see: 2177:1980E&PSL..47..370M 1949:minerals (particularly 1922:Age of the Solar System 1916:Canyon Diablo meteorite 1675:Canyon Diablo meteorite 1667:Clair Cameron Patterson 1582:did little work on it. 1332:. The process of solar 1307:last universal ancestor 1266:convection inside Earth 1247:In 1862, the physicist 332:−500 — 102:age of the Solar System 47:(4.54 × 10 years ± 1%). 3321:Dalrymple (1994) p. 74 2334:10.1126/sciadv.1602365 1975: 1938: 1721:Nevertheless, ancient 1686: 1612:1920s, though in 1917 1561: 1498: 1326:nebula of gas and dust 1285: 63:radiometric age-dating 38: 4049:Biogeochemical cycles 3974:dependent territories 3625:A Geologic Time Scale 3614:A Geologic Time Scale 2810:. : FORGOTTEN BOOKS. 2440:"Zircons Are Forever" 2227:The Age of Everything 1973: 1933: 1920:Further information: 1684: 1493: 1318:Hermann von Helmholtz 1283: 1241:Further information: 1182:concepts (i.e., the " 1154:Further information: 34:as seen in 1972 from 24: 4097:Computer cartography 3830:Prebiotic atmosphere 3724:The Age of the Earth 3552:The Age of the Earth 2955:10.1029/2000JB900028 2869:10.1130/GSAT01701A.1 1254:temperature gradient 1184:law of superposition 4240:Geologic time scale 3961:Culture and society 3825:Atmosphere of Earth 3688:1983Geo....11..503P 3652:1980Letha..13..239H 3548:Dalrymple, G. Brent 3517:2001eag..conf.3306T 3383:1956GeCoA..10..230P 3333:Scientific American 3243:Joly, John (1909). 2946:2000JGR...10513155S 2940:(B6): 13155–13158. 2860:2007GSAT...17R...4E 2765:1998GSLSP.143..137B 2733:on 24 November 2008 2668:Uncovering the Past 2621:Lyell, Charles, Sir 2591:10.1038/nature03882 2583:2005Natur.436.1127B 2577:(7054): 1127–1131. 2524:2002Sci...297.1678A 2489:2004AuJES..51...31W 2326:2017SciA....3E2365B 2271:2001Natur.409..175W 2204:Scientific American 2128:2001GSLSP.190..205D 2112:Dalrymple, G. Brent 2034:Age of the universe 1993:electron microscope 1642:geologic time scale 1531:Bertram B. Boltwood 1314:Thomas Henry Huxley 866:Sexual reproduction 845:Huronian glaciation 4235:Geological history 4109:Geodetic astronomy 3340:2016-11-05 at the 3171:: 501–503 (1896), 2417:Chemical Abstracts 2159:Allègre, Claude J. 2084:"Age of the Earth" 2059:Oldest dated rocks 1985:Martian meteorites 1976: 1939: 1893:Ar-Ar age spectrum 1880:Ar-Ar age spectrum 1687: 1499: 1485:radiometric dating 1386:Radiometric dating 1380:Radiometric dating 1286: 1237:Early calculations 1190:"). In the 1790s, 1170:fossilized remains 1150:History of geology 1113:Quaternary ice age 1048:Earliest tetrapods 1007:Cambrian explosion 966:Cryogenian ice age 825:Atmospheric oxygen 804:Pongola glaciation 432:Multicellular life 384:Single-celled life 39: 4370: 4369: 4321:Planetary science 4304:Natural satellite 4225:Extremes on Earth 4192:Signal processing 3561:978-0-8047-2331-2 3486:978-0-8047-4933-6 3287:978-1-60355-054-3 2969:Origin of Species 2817:978-0-265-92735-9 2707:978-1-4051-1164-5 2679:978-0-19-508921-9 2518:(5587): 1678–83. 2265:(6817): 175–178. 2157:Manhesa, Gérard; 2001:Cosmic ray dating 1953:, FeS), metallic 1913: 1912: 1661:Use of meteorites 1552:Royal Institution 1502:Ernest Rutherford 1495:Ernest Rutherford 1408:radioactive decay 1262:radioactive decay 1203:Mikhail Lomonosov 1146: 1145: 1130:million years ago 1121: 1120: 1100: 1099: 1076: 1075: 1055: 1054: 1035: 1034: 1027:Andean glaciation 1014: 1013: 994: 993: 974: 973: 953: 952: 933: 932: 913: 912: 893: 892: 873: 872: 853: 852: 832: 831: 812: 811: 791: 790: 771: 770: 751: 750: 731: 730: 711: 710: 691: 690: 90:Western Australia 4470: 4463:Geology theories 4435: 4434: 4423: 4422: 4421: 4411: 4410: 4399: 4398: 4397: 4387: 4386: 4385: 4378: 4360: 4359: 4252:History of Earth 3903:Paleoclimatology 3784: 3777: 3770: 3761: 3740:Ageing the Earth 3699: 3663: 3565: 3535: 3534: 3532: 3531: 3525: 3506: 3497: 3491: 3490: 3470: 3460: 3454: 3451: 3445: 3444: 3442: 3441: 3435: 3424: 3415: 3409: 3408: 3406: 3405: 3399: 3368: 3359: 3353: 3350: 3344: 3328: 3322: 3319: 3313: 3312: 3306: 3296: 3290: 3280: 3270: 3264: 3254: 3240: 3234: 3233: 3217: 3211: 3210: 3208: 3206: 3182: 3176: 3163: 3157: 3156: 3140: 3134: 3121: 3115: 3114: 3098: 3092: 3091: 3073: 3062: 3059: 3053: 3036: 3030: 3027: 3016: 3014: 3012: 3011: 3000:Associated Press 2981: 2975: 2966: 2960: 2959: 2957: 2924:Stacey, Frank D. 2920: 2914: 2913: 2889: 2883: 2880: 2874: 2873: 2871: 2839: 2830: 2829: 2801: 2795: 2794: 2776: 2748: 2742: 2741: 2739: 2738: 2718: 2712: 2711: 2693: 2684: 2683: 2671: 2661: 2652: 2651: 2645: 2637: 2635: 2634: 2617: 2611: 2610: 2566: 2560: 2559: 2507: 2501: 2500: 2471: 2465: 2464: 2462: 2461: 2455: 2444: 2435: 2429: 2428: 2426: 2425: 2410: 2375: 2364: 2363: 2353: 2314:Science Advances 2305: 2299: 2298: 2279:10.1038/35051550 2254: 2245: 2244: 2218: 2212: 2211: 2195: 2189: 2188: 2154: 2148: 2147: 2108: 2099: 2098: 2096: 2095: 2080: 2049:History of Earth 2027: 2022: 2021: 1989:lead–lead dating 1935:Barringer Crater 1740: 1739: 1671:lead–lead dating 1402:contain certain 1353:George H. Darwin 1345:Oliver Heaviside 1215:history of Earth 1107: 1102: 1083: 1078: 1062: 1057: 1042: 1037: 1021: 1016: 1001: 996: 981: 976: 960: 955: 946:Earliest animals 940: 935: 920: 915: 900: 895: 880: 875: 860: 855: 839: 834: 819: 814: 798: 793: 778: 773: 758: 753: 744:Earliest fossils 738: 733: 718: 713: 698: 693: 678: 673: 652: 621: 583: 581: 555: 553: 460: 353: 348: 343: 338: 333: 328: 323: 318: 313: 308: 303: 298: 293: 288: 283: 278: 273: 268: 263: 258: 253: 248: 243: 238: 233: 228: 223: 218: 213: 208: 203: 198: 193: 188: 183: 178: 173: 161: 154: 147: 141: 131: 124: 48: 4478: 4477: 4473: 4472: 4471: 4469: 4468: 4467: 4443: 4442: 4441: 4429: 4419: 4417: 4405: 4395: 4393: 4383: 4381: 4373: 4371: 4366: 4348: 4315: 4299: 4256: 4247:Geologic record 4201: 4187:Plate tectonics 4177:Mineral physics 4157:Earth structure 4143: 4078: 4025: 3955: 3907: 3864: 3811: 3793: 3788: 3720: 3673: 3637: 3621:Armstrong, R.L. 3619:Harland, W.B.; 3572: 3570:Further reading 3562: 3546: 3543: 3538: 3529: 3527: 3523: 3504: 3499: 3498: 3494: 3487: 3462: 3461: 3457: 3452: 3448: 3439: 3437: 3433: 3422: 3417: 3416: 3412: 3403: 3401: 3397: 3366: 3361: 3360: 3356: 3351: 3347: 3342:Wayback Machine 3329: 3325: 3320: 3316: 3298: 3297: 3293: 3272: 3271: 3267: 3242: 3241: 3237: 3219: 3218: 3214: 3204: 3202: 3184: 3183: 3179: 3164: 3160: 3142: 3141: 3137: 3122: 3118: 3100: 3099: 3095: 3088: 3075: 3074: 3065: 3060: 3056: 3037: 3033: 3028: 3019: 3009: 3007: 2994:. 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B. 2377: 2376: 2367: 2320:(1): e1602365. 2307: 2306: 2302: 2256: 2255: 2248: 2237: 2220: 2219: 2215: 2197: 2196: 2192: 2156: 2155: 2151: 2110: 2109: 2102: 2093: 2091: 2082: 2081: 2077: 2073: 2068: 2054:Natural history 2023: 2016: 2013: 1995:examination of 1928: 1918: 1692:plate tectonics 1663: 1650: 1579: 1550:meeting of the 1536:alpha particles 1506:Frederick Soddy 1481: 1452:Henri Becquerel 1448: 1393: 1388: 1382: 1349:operator method 1245: 1239: 1231:uniformitarians 1207:Comte du Buffon 1158: 1156:Relative dating 1152: 1142: 1141: 1133: 1117: 1116: 1105: 1096: 1095: 1081: 1072: 1071: 1060: 1051: 1050: 1040: 1031: 1030: 1019: 1010: 1009: 999: 990: 989: 987:Ediacaran biota 979: 970: 969: 958: 949: 948: 938: 929: 928: 926:Earliest plants 918: 909: 908: 898: 889: 888: 878: 869: 868: 858: 849: 848: 837: 828: 827: 817: 808: 807: 796: 787: 786: 784:Earliest oxygen 776: 767: 766: 756: 747: 746: 736: 727: 726: 716: 707: 706: 696: 687: 686: 676: 669: 668: 667: 662: 661: 660: 655: 654: 653: 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3880: 3878:Climate system 3874: 3872: 3866: 3865: 3863: 3862: 3857: 3852: 3847: 3842: 3837: 3832: 3827: 3821: 3819: 3813: 3812: 3810: 3809: 3804: 3798: 3795: 3794: 3789: 3787: 3786: 3779: 3772: 3764: 3758: 3757: 3752: 3737: 3732: 3727: 3719: 3718:External links 3716: 3715: 3714: 3700: 3682:(9): 503–504. 3671: 3664: 3646:(3): 239–248. 3635: 3617: 3610: 3602: 3595: 3588: 3581: 3571: 3568: 3567: 3566: 3560: 3550:(1994-02-01). 3542: 3539: 3537: 3536: 3492: 3485: 3455: 3446: 3410: 3377:(4): 230–237. 3354: 3345: 3323: 3314: 3291: 3265: 3235: 3226:Comptes Rendus 3212: 3191:Comptes Rendus 3177: 3166:Comptes Rendus 3158: 3149:Comptes Rendus 3135: 3129:: 420 (1896), 3124:Comptes Rendus 3116: 3107:Comptes Rendus 3093: 3087:978-1405193795 3086: 3063: 3054: 3031: 3017: 2976: 2961: 2915: 2904: 2884: 2875: 2831: 2816: 2796: 2759:(1): 137–143. 2743: 2713: 2706: 2685: 2678: 2653: 2612: 2561: 2502: 2466: 2430: 2393:(134): 77–88. 2365: 2300: 2246: 2235: 2213: 2190: 2171:(3): 370–382. 2149: 2122:(1): 205–221. 2100: 2074: 2072: 2069: 2067: 2066: 2061: 2056: 2051: 2046: 2041: 2036: 2030: 2029: 2028: 2012: 2009: 1917: 1914: 1911: 1910: 1907: 1904: 1901: 1898: 1897: 1894: 1891: 1888: 1885: 1884: 1881: 1878: 1875: 1872: 1871: 1868: 1867:Pb-Pb isochron 1865: 1862: 1859: 1858: 1854: 1853: 1850: 1849:Rb-Sr isochron 1847: 1844: 1841: 1840: 1837: 1836:Sm-Nd isochron 1834: 1831: 1828: 1827: 1824: 1823:Pb-Pb isochron 1821: 1818: 1815: 1814: 1811: 1810:Pb-Pb isochron 1808: 1805: 1802: 1801: 1797: 1796: 1793: 1792:Re-Os isochron 1790: 1787: 1784: 1783: 1780: 1779:Rb-Sr isochron 1777: 1774: 1771: 1770: 1767: 1766:Sm-Nd isochron 1764: 1761: 1758: 1757: 1754: 1753:Pb-Pb isochron 1751: 1748: 1745: 1744: 1662: 1659: 1649: 1646: 1614:Joseph Barrell 1578: 1575: 1547:William Ramsay 1545:Soddy and Sir 1520:stable element 1480: 1477: 1472:Albert Laborde 1447: 1444: 1430:from decay of 1422:from decay of 1392: 1389: 1384:Main article: 1381: 1378: 1361:tidal friction 1334:nuclear fusion 1290:Charles Darwin 1238: 1235: 1148:Main article: 1144: 1143: 1134: 1127: 1126: 1123: 1122: 1119: 1118: 1111: 1110: 1108: 1098: 1097: 1087: 1086: 1084: 1074: 1073: 1066: 1065: 1063: 1053: 1052: 1046: 1045: 1043: 1033: 1032: 1025: 1024: 1022: 1012: 1011: 1005: 1004: 1002: 992: 991: 985: 984: 982: 972: 971: 964: 963: 961: 951: 950: 944: 943: 941: 931: 930: 924: 923: 921: 911: 910: 906:Earliest fungi 904: 903: 901: 891: 890: 884: 883: 881: 871: 870: 864: 863: 861: 851: 850: 843: 842: 840: 830: 829: 823: 822: 820: 810: 809: 802: 801: 799: 789: 788: 782: 781: 779: 769: 768: 764:LHB meteorites 762: 761: 759: 749: 748: 742: 741: 739: 729: 728: 722: 721: 719: 709: 708: 704:Earliest water 702: 701: 699: 689: 688: 682: 681: 679: 670: 665: 664: 663: 658: 657: 656: 627: 626: 625: 589: 588: 587: 561: 560: 559: 538: 537: 536: 529: 528: 527: 520: 519: 518: 511: 510: 509: 504: 503: 502: 495: 494: 493: 486: 485: 484: 474: 473: 472: 467: 466: 465: 446: 445: 444: 439: 438: 437: 430: 429: 428: 423: 422: 421: 414: 413: 412: 407: 406: 405: 400:Photosynthesis 398: 397: 396: 391: 390: 389: 382: 381: 380: 375: 374: 373: 366: 365: 364: 359: 358: 357: 355: 352:0 — 350: 345: 340: 335: 330: 325: 320: 315: 310: 305: 300: 295: 290: 285: 280: 275: 270: 265: 260: 255: 250: 245: 240: 235: 230: 225: 220: 215: 210: 205: 200: 195: 190: 185: 180: 175: 170: 167: 166: 164: 163: 156: 149: 138: 135: 134: 127: 121: 118: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4475: 4464: 4461: 4459: 4456: 4454: 4453:Geochronology 4451: 4450: 4448: 4438: 4433: 4428: 4426: 4416: 4414: 4409: 4404: 4402: 4392: 4390: 4380: 4376: 4363: 4355: 4354: 4351: 4345: 4342: 4340: 4337: 4335: 4332: 4330: 4327: 4326: 4324: 4322: 4318: 4312: 4309: 4308: 4306: 4302: 4296: 4293: 4291: 4290:Pacific Ocean 4288: 4286: 4283: 4281: 4278: 4276: 4273: 4271: 4268: 4267: 4265: 4263: 4259: 4253: 4250: 4248: 4245: 4241: 4238: 4237: 4236: 4233: 4231: 4228: 4226: 4223: 4221: 4220:Earth science 4218: 4216: 4213: 4212: 4210: 4208: 4204: 4198: 4195: 4193: 4190: 4188: 4185: 4183: 4180: 4178: 4175: 4173: 4172:Magnetosphere 4170: 4168: 4165: 4163: 4160: 4158: 4155: 4154: 4152: 4150: 4146: 4140: 4139:Virtual globe 4137: 4135: 4132: 4130: 4127: 4125: 4122: 4120: 4117: 4115: 4112: 4110: 4107: 4105: 4104:Earth's orbit 4102: 4098: 4095: 4094: 4093: 4090: 4089: 4087: 4085: 4081: 4075: 4072: 4070: 4067: 4065: 4062: 4060: 4057: 4055: 4052: 4050: 4047: 4045: 4042: 4040: 4037: 4036: 4034: 4032: 4028: 4022: 4019: 4017: 4014: 4012: 4011:World history 4009: 4007: 4004: 4002: 4001:World economy 3999: 3997: 3994: 3992: 3989: 3987: 3984: 3982: 3979: 3975: 3972: 3971: 3970: 3967: 3966: 3964: 3962: 3958: 3952: 3951:South America 3949: 3947: 3946:North America 3944: 3942: 3939: 3937: 3934: 3932: 3929: 3927: 3924: 3922: 3919: 3918: 3916: 3914: 3910: 3904: 3901: 3899: 3896: 3894: 3891: 3889: 3886: 3884: 3881: 3879: 3876: 3875: 3873: 3871: 3867: 3861: 3858: 3856: 3853: 3851: 3848: 3846: 3843: 3841: 3838: 3836: 3833: 3831: 3828: 3826: 3823: 3822: 3820: 3818: 3814: 3808: 3805: 3803: 3800: 3799: 3796: 3792: 3785: 3780: 3778: 3773: 3771: 3766: 3765: 3762: 3756: 3753: 3751: 3747: 3746: 3741: 3738: 3736: 3733: 3731: 3728: 3725: 3722: 3721: 3717: 3713: 3712:0-684-87282-X 3709: 3705: 3701: 3697: 3693: 3689: 3685: 3681: 3677: 3672: 3669: 3665: 3661: 3657: 3653: 3649: 3645: 3641: 3636: 3634: 3633:0-521-38765-5 3630: 3626: 3622: 3618: 3615: 3611: 3608: 3603: 3600: 3596: 3593: 3589: 3586: 3582: 3579: 3574: 3573: 3569: 3563: 3557: 3553: 3549: 3545: 3544: 3540: 3522: 3518: 3514: 3510: 3503: 3496: 3493: 3488: 3482: 3478: 3474: 3469: 3468: 3459: 3456: 3450: 3447: 3432: 3428: 3421: 3414: 3411: 3396: 3392: 3388: 3384: 3380: 3376: 3372: 3365: 3358: 3355: 3349: 3346: 3343: 3339: 3336: 3334: 3327: 3324: 3318: 3315: 3310: 3307:. Cambridge: 3305: 3304: 3295: 3292: 3288: 3284: 3278: 3277: 3269: 3266: 3262: 3261:1-4021-3577-7 3258: 3252: 3248: 3247: 3239: 3236: 3231: 3227: 3223: 3216: 3213: 3200: 3197:: 1215–1217. 3196: 3192: 3188: 3181: 3178: 3174: 3170: 3167: 3162: 3159: 3154: 3150: 3146: 3139: 3136: 3132: 3128: 3125: 3120: 3117: 3112: 3108: 3104: 3097: 3094: 3089: 3083: 3079: 3072: 3070: 3068: 3064: 3058: 3055: 3052: 3048: 3044: 3040: 3039:Paul J. Nahin 3035: 3032: 3026: 3024: 3022: 3018: 3005: 3001: 2997: 2993: 2992: 2987: 2980: 2977: 2974: 2970: 2965: 2962: 2956: 2951: 2947: 2943: 2939: 2935: 2934: 2929: 2925: 2919: 2916: 2911: 2907: 2905:9780226080437 2901: 2897: 2896: 2888: 2885: 2879: 2876: 2870: 2865: 2861: 2857: 2853: 2849: 2845: 2838: 2836: 2832: 2827: 2823: 2819: 2813: 2809: 2808: 2800: 2797: 2792: 2788: 2784: 2780: 2775: 2770: 2766: 2762: 2758: 2754: 2747: 2744: 2732: 2728: 2724: 2717: 2714: 2709: 2703: 2699: 2692: 2690: 2686: 2681: 2675: 2670: 2669: 2660: 2658: 2654: 2649: 2643: 2628: 2627: 2622: 2616: 2613: 2608: 2604: 2600: 2596: 2592: 2588: 2584: 2580: 2576: 2572: 2565: 2562: 2557: 2553: 2549: 2545: 2541: 2537: 2533: 2529: 2525: 2521: 2517: 2513: 2506: 2503: 2498: 2494: 2490: 2486: 2482: 2478: 2470: 2467: 2452: 2448: 2441: 2434: 2431: 2419: 2418: 2408: 2404: 2400: 2396: 2392: 2388: 2384: 2380: 2374: 2372: 2370: 2366: 2361: 2357: 2352: 2347: 2343: 2339: 2335: 2331: 2327: 2323: 2319: 2315: 2311: 2304: 2301: 2296: 2292: 2288: 2284: 2280: 2276: 2272: 2268: 2264: 2260: 2253: 2251: 2247: 2242: 2238: 2236:9780226322940 2232: 2228: 2224: 2217: 2214: 2209: 2205: 2201: 2194: 2191: 2186: 2182: 2178: 2174: 2170: 2166: 2165: 2160: 2153: 2150: 2145: 2141: 2137: 2133: 2129: 2125: 2121: 2117: 2113: 2107: 2105: 2101: 2089: 2085: 2079: 2076: 2070: 2065: 2062: 2060: 2057: 2055: 2052: 2050: 2047: 2045: 2044:Geochronology 2042: 2040: 2039:Creation myth 2037: 2035: 2032: 2031: 2026: 2020: 2015: 2010: 2008: 2004: 2002: 1998: 1994: 1990: 1986: 1980: 1972: 1968: 1967:ever before. 1965: 1960: 1956: 1952: 1948: 1944: 1943:Canyon Diablo 1936: 1932: 1927: 1923: 1915: 1908: 1905: 1902: 1900: 1899: 1895: 1892: 1889: 1887: 1886: 1882: 1879: 1876: 1874: 1873: 1869: 1866: 1863: 1861: 1860: 1855: 1851: 1848: 1845: 1843: 1842: 1838: 1835: 1832: 1830: 1829: 1825: 1822: 1819: 1817: 1816: 1812: 1809: 1806: 1804: 1803: 1798: 1794: 1791: 1788: 1786: 1785: 1781: 1778: 1775: 1773: 1772: 1768: 1765: 1762: 1760: 1759: 1755: 1752: 1749: 1746: 1741: 1738: 1735: 1732: 1728: 1724: 1719: 1715: 1713: 1709: 1703: 1701: 1697: 1693: 1683: 1679: 1676: 1672: 1668: 1660: 1658: 1656: 1655:contamination 1647: 1645: 1643: 1637: 1635: 1631: 1626: 1622: 1617: 1615: 1609: 1607: 1603: 1598: 1596: 1591: 1590:Arthur Holmes 1587: 1586:Robert Strutt 1583: 1576: 1574: 1571: 1565: 1560: 1555: 1553: 1548: 1543: 1541: 1537: 1532: 1527: 1525: 1521: 1515: 1512: 1507: 1503: 1496: 1492: 1488: 1486: 1478: 1476: 1473: 1469: 1465: 1461: 1457: 1453: 1445: 1443: 1441: 1437: 1433: 1429: 1425: 1421: 1417: 1413: 1412:concentration 1409: 1405: 1401: 1398: 1390: 1387: 1379: 1377: 1375: 1371: 1367: 1362: 1358: 1354: 1350: 1346: 1342: 1337: 1335: 1331: 1327: 1323: 1322:Simon Newcomb 1319: 1315: 1310: 1308: 1304: 1299: 1295: 1292:'s theory of 1291: 1282: 1278: 1275: 1271: 1267: 1263: 1259: 1258:heat produced 1255: 1250: 1244: 1236: 1234: 1232: 1228: 1224: 1220: 1219:Charles Lyell 1216: 1211: 1208: 1204: 1199: 1197: 1196:John Phillips 1193: 1192:William Smith 1189: 1185: 1181: 1180:stratigraphic 1177: 1176:Nicolas Steno 1173: 1171: 1167: 1163: 1157: 1151: 1140: 1139: 1131: 1124: 1114: 1109: 1104: 1103: 1094: 1090: 1089:Earliest apes 1085: 1080: 1079: 1069: 1068:Karoo ice age 1064: 1059: 1058: 1049: 1044: 1039: 1038: 1028: 1023: 1018: 1017: 1008: 1003: 998: 997: 988: 983: 978: 977: 967: 962: 957: 956: 947: 942: 937: 936: 927: 922: 917: 916: 907: 902: 897: 896: 887: 882: 877: 876: 867: 862: 857: 856: 846: 841: 836: 835: 826: 821: 816: 815: 805: 800: 795: 794: 785: 780: 775: 774: 765: 760: 755: 754: 745: 740: 735: 734: 725: 720: 715: 714: 705: 700: 695: 694: 685: 680: 675: 674: 671: 651: 620: 582: 554: 532: 523: 514: 498: 489: 480: 477: 461: 433: 417: 401: 385: 369: 356: 169: 168: 162: 157: 155: 150: 148: 143: 142: 136: 132: 130:Life timeline 125: 119: 117: 115: 111: 105: 103: 99: 95: 91: 87: 83: 79: 74: 72: 71:lunar samples 68: 64: 60: 56: 52: 44: 37: 33: 29: 28: 23: 19: 4344:Solar System 4295:Oceanography 4285:Indian Ocean 4275:Arctic Ocean 4215:Age of Earth 4214: 4167:Geomagnetism 3850:Thermosphere 3840:Stratosphere 3744: 3703: 3679: 3675: 3667: 3643: 3639: 3624: 3613: 3606: 3598: 3591: 3584: 3577: 3551: 3541:Bibliography 3528:. Retrieved 3508: 3495: 3466: 3458: 3449: 3438:. Retrieved 3426: 3413: 3402:. Retrieved 3374: 3370: 3357: 3348: 3335:1989 esp p95 3332: 3326: 3317: 3302: 3294: 3275: 3268: 3245: 3238: 3229: 3225: 3215: 3203:. Retrieved 3194: 3190: 3180: 3168: 3165: 3161: 3152: 3148: 3138: 3126: 3123: 3119: 3110: 3106: 3096: 3077: 3057: 3051:IEEE Explore 3034: 3008:. Retrieved 2989: 2979: 2968: 2964: 2937: 2931: 2918: 2894: 2887: 2878: 2851: 2847: 2806: 2799: 2756: 2752: 2746: 2735:. Retrieved 2731:the original 2727:Geoscientist 2726: 2716: 2697: 2667: 2631:. Retrieved 2625: 2615: 2574: 2570: 2564: 2515: 2511: 2505: 2483:(1): 31–45. 2480: 2476: 2469: 2458:. Retrieved 2446: 2433: 2422:. Retrieved 2416: 2390: 2386: 2317: 2313: 2303: 2262: 2258: 2226: 2216: 2203: 2193: 2168: 2162: 2152: 2119: 2115: 2092:. Retrieved 2078: 2025:World portal 2005: 1981: 1977: 1964:chalcophilic 1940: 1736: 1720: 1716: 1704: 1688: 1664: 1651: 1638: 1624: 1618: 1610: 1599: 1584: 1580: 1566: 1562: 1557: 1544: 1528: 1524:decay chains 1516: 1500: 1482: 1460:Pierre Curie 1449: 1394: 1338: 1311: 1287: 1270:upper mantle 1246: 1227:catastrophes 1223:James Hutton 1212: 1200: 1174: 1159: 1136: 684:Earth formed 683: 110:oldest rocks 106: 98:Solar System 75: 43:age of Earth 42: 40: 25: 18: 4425:Outer space 4092:Cartography 4031:Environment 3898:Climatology 3835:Troposphere 3745:In Our Time 3475:. pp. 1186:" and the " 1166:naturalists 1160:Studies of 140:This box: 4447:Categories 4197:Tomography 4182:Seismology 4149:Geophysics 4124:Navigation 4016:Time zones 3981:In culture 3926:Antarctica 3913:Continents 3845:Mesosphere 3817:Atmosphere 3530:2008-12-22 3440:2008-12-22 3404:2009-07-07 3232:: 673–675. 3155:: 501–503. 3113:: 420–421. 3010:2015-03-02 2854:(1): 4–9. 2826:1354275595 2737:2008-12-19 2633:2008-12-19 2460:2008-12-22 2424:2008-12-19 2094:2006-01-10 2071:References 1997:cosmic ray 1696:weathering 1632:of the US 1514:product". 1341:John Perry 476:Arthropods 416:Eukaryotes 114:aggregates 86:Jack Hills 4401:Astronomy 4389:Geography 4114:Geomatics 4059:Ecosystem 4044:Biosphere 4006:Etymology 3986:Earth Day 3936:Australia 3855:Exosphere 2848:GSA Today 2791:129443412 2769:CiteSeerX 2642:cite book 2540:0036-8075 2407:131688682 2342:2375-2548 2144:130092094 1962:strongly 1554:in 1904: 1522:. These " 1426:-40, and 1424:potassium 1416:half life 1366:John Joly 1298:selection 1294:evolution 497:Dinosaurs 84:from the 67:meteorite 55:accretion 36:Apollo 17 4362:Category 3521:Archived 3431:Archived 3395:Archived 3338:Archived 3205:12 April 3199:Archived 3004:Archived 2973:page 286 2926:(2000). 2910:Archived 2623:(1866). 2599:16121173 2556:24923770 2548:12215641 2451:Archived 2381:(1907). 2360:28097222 2287:11196637 2241:Archived 2208:Archived 2088:Archived 2011:See also 1951:troilite 1723:Archaean 1712:isochron 1606:neutrons 1602:isotopes 1464:polonium 1404:elements 1400:minerals 1391:Overview 1138:Ice Ages 531:Primates 479:Molluscs 4437:Science 4375:Portals 4207:Geology 4119:Gravity 4084:Geodesy 4054:Ecology 3870:Climate 3860:Weather 3807:History 3802:Outline 3748:at the 3684:Bibcode 3676:Geology 3648:Bibcode 3640:Lethaia 3513:Bibcode 3479:, 169. 3379:Bibcode 3041:(1985) 2942:Bibcode 2856:Bibcode 2761:Bibcode 2607:4304613 2579:Bibcode 2520:Bibcode 2512:Science 2485:Bibcode 2351:5226643 2322:Bibcode 2295:4319774 2267:Bibcode 2173:Bibcode 2124:Bibcode 1947:sulfide 1708:nuclide 1570:leached 1497:in 1908 1436:thorium 1432:uranium 1374:erosion 1106:← 1082:← 1061:← 1041:← 1020:← 1000:← 980:← 959:← 939:← 919:← 899:← 879:← 859:← 838:← 818:← 797:← 777:← 757:← 737:← 717:← 697:← 677:← 513:Mammals 488:Flowers 347:– 342:— 337:– 327:– 322:— 317:– 307:– 302:— 297:– 287:– 282:— 277:– 267:– 262:— 257:– 247:– 242:— 237:– 227:– 222:— 217:– 207:– 202:— 197:– 187:– 182:— 177:– 4262:Oceans 4230:Future 4074:Nature 3996:Symbol 3941:Europe 3921:Africa 3710: 3631: 3558: 3483: 3285: 3259: 3084: 2991:Excite 2902: 2824: 2814: 2789: 2771: 2704: 2676: 2605: 2597: 2571:Nature 2554: 2546: 2538: 2405: 2358: 2348: 2340: 2293: 2285: 2259:Nature 2233: 2142: 1955:nickel 1731:galena 1595:Ceylon 1540:helium 1468:radium 1440:mantle 1162:strata 1093:humans 666: 659: 505: 468: 440: 424: 408: 392: 376: 360: 82:zircon 4413:Stars 4039:Biome 4021:World 3791:Earth 3524:(PDF) 3505:(PDF) 3434:(PDF) 3423:(PDF) 3398:(PDF) 3367:(PDF) 2787:S2CID 2603:S2CID 2552:S2CID 2454:(PDF) 2443:(PDF) 2403:S2CID 2291:S2CID 2140:S2CID 1725:lead 1511:gamma 1456:Marie 1420:argon 1372:from 1274:crust 522:Birds 368:Water 57:, or 51:Earth 32:Earth 4311:Moon 3991:Flag 3931:Asia 3708:ISBN 3629:ISBN 3556:ISBN 3481:ISBN 3283:ISBN 3257:ISBN 3207:2021 3082:ISBN 2900:ISBN 2822:OCLC 2812:ISBN 2702:ISBN 2674:ISBN 2648:link 2595:PMID 2544:PMID 2536:ISSN 2356:PMID 2338:ISSN 2283:PMID 2231:ISBN 1959:iron 1941:The 1924:and 1727:ores 1698:and 1504:and 1466:and 1458:and 1434:and 1428:lead 1397:rock 1370:salt 1357:Moon 1260:via 724:LUCA 160:edit 153:talk 146:view 59:core 41:The 3750:BBC 3742:on 3692:doi 3656:doi 3477:147 3387:doi 3230:136 3195:127 3169:122 3153:122 3127:122 3111:122 2950:doi 2938:105 2864:doi 2779:doi 2757:143 2587:doi 2575:436 2528:doi 2516:297 2493:doi 2395:doi 2346:PMC 2330:doi 2275:doi 2263:409 2181:doi 2132:doi 2120:190 1729:of 88:of 65:of 53:'s 4449:: 3690:. 3680:11 3678:. 3654:. 3644:13 3642:. 3519:. 3507:. 3471:. 3425:. 3393:. 3385:. 3375:10 3373:. 3369:. 3251:36 3228:. 3224:. 3193:. 3189:. 3151:. 3147:. 3109:. 3105:. 3066:^ 3045:, 3020:^ 3002:. 2998:. 2988:. 2948:. 2936:. 2930:. 2908:. 2862:. 2852:17 2850:. 2846:. 2834:^ 2820:. 2785:. 2777:. 2767:. 2755:. 2725:. 2688:^ 2656:^ 2644:}} 2640:{{ 2601:. 2593:. 2585:. 2573:. 2550:. 2542:. 2534:. 2526:. 2514:. 2491:. 2481:51 2479:. 2445:. 2401:. 2391:23 2389:. 2385:. 2368:^ 2354:. 2344:. 2336:. 2328:. 2316:. 2312:. 2289:. 2281:. 2273:. 2261:. 2249:^ 2239:. 2225:. 2206:. 2202:. 2179:. 2169:47 2167:. 2138:. 2130:. 2118:. 2103:^ 1903:4. 1890:3. 1877:2. 1864:1. 1846:4. 1833:3. 1820:2. 1807:1. 1789:4. 1776:3. 1763:2. 1750:1. 1702:. 1694:, 1487:. 1091:/ 104:. 73:. 30:, 4377:: 3783:e 3776:t 3769:v 3698:. 3694:: 3686:: 3662:. 3658:: 3650:: 3564:. 3533:. 3515:: 3489:. 3443:. 3407:. 3389:: 3381:: 3311:. 3289:. 3263:. 3253:. 3209:. 3090:. 3015:) 3013:. 2958:. 2952:: 2944:: 2872:. 2866:: 2858:: 2828:. 2793:. 2781:: 2763:: 2740:. 2710:. 2682:. 2650:) 2636:. 2609:. 2589:: 2581:: 2558:. 2530:: 2522:: 2499:. 2495:: 2487:: 2463:. 2427:. 2409:. 2397:: 2362:. 2332:: 2324:: 2318:3 2297:. 2277:: 2269:: 2187:. 2183:: 2175:: 2146:. 2134:: 2126:: 2097:. 1957:- 1135:* 1132:) 1128:( 1115:* 1070:* 1029:* 968:* 847:* 806:* 650:c 648:i 646:o 644:z 642:o 640:r 638:e 636:n 634:a 632:h 630:P 619:c 617:i 615:o 613:z 611:o 609:r 607:e 605:t 603:o 601:r 599:P 580:n 578:a 576:e 574:h 572:c 570:r 568:A 552:n 550:a 548:e 546:d 544:a 542:H 459:s 457:t 455:n 453:a 451:l 449:P

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