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is a wide-ranging species native to Europe, that has more recently spread to North
America, Australian and New Zealand. In North America, it is most common to the northeastern and northwestern United States, as well as the southern regions of Canada. It has spread inland in both nations, and can now
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Adult moths are pale brown, almost tan, with a lighter colored area near the bottom of their wings and a few darker spots found near the edges of the wings. They have a distinguishing brown or reddish spot near the center of each wing. The hemlock moth can be confused with another moth of the family
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in 1973 when it was accidentally introduced. The moth is now widespread throughout the northern half of the United States, southern Canada, northern Europe, and, more recently, New
Zealand and Australia. The larval form grows to around 10 mm, while the adults wingspan is between 17 mm and
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lays is known to be associated with the dry weight of the leaf. However, oviposition was not correlated positively with the concentration of alkaloids in the poison hemlock, which varies widely among individual plants. Therefore, it is difficult to predict whether increased alkaloids in the plant
337:
As eggs, they have a pale, off-white color. As caterpillars, they are yellow with a black head. After growing in size (to around 10 mm), the caterpillars are thin and have a light green color, with three prominent stripes on the sides of their bodies, which are a darker green.
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are yellow with a black head capsule. After feeding on their hostplant and growing in size, the caterpillars have a light green color. After almost a month of growth, the caterpillars are around 10 mm long (.4 in). The last instar larva is green with three dark green stripes.
553:
After pupating, the moths emerge from the soil as adults. This adult emergence usually occurs in mid- to late- June. The adults must therefore stay alive through the winter in order to breed during the spring. Adults generally live from June to March, making
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in 1983–1985, possibly spread by the accidental shipping of dormant moths. The moth was seen in the
Midwest starting in 1990, when it was discovered near Columbus, Ohio. It was established in Illinois in 1993, after being identified by the rolled leaves of
653:’s ability to serve as a stock for a variety of plant diseases, and to overrun fields growing cattle feed, it has been implicated in killing multiple species of plants. Poison hemlock commonly overruns fields growing feed for
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often winters under the bark of firewood; then flies away after being warmed up when the wood is brought into the house. Moths also may come inside buildings and housing during the night, as they are attracted to light.
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and seed heads as well as the leaves. Abandoned tubes can regularly be found on the poison hemlock plant because, if disturbed or attacked, the caterpillar will wriggle free of the tube and onto the ground as a
708:
Preliminary research has not found any negative physiological effects caused by the high alkaloid toxicity of poison hemlock. The moth may actually benefit from the alkaloids present in its feeding behavior.
704:
see behavioral dependency on the host plant as an asset when using this moth as a biological control agent, because this reduces the possibility of the moth affecting other species besides the host plant.
945:
Berenbaum, May R.; Harrison, Terry L. (Spring 1994). "Agonopterix alstroemeriana (Oecophoridae) and Other
Lepidopteran Associates of Poison Hemlock (Conium maculatum) in East Central Illinois".
657:, which creates the possibility of killing the animals (through hay contamination). Therefore, agriculturalists have made it a priority to address the widespread nature of poison hemlock.
307:). The toxicity of its host plant may actually benefit the caterpillar because it helps females recognize locations for oviposition. This species also uses the leaves of its host plant (
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as a biological control method has been limited by the scarcity of information on its life history and feeding habits and the ability to harvest the larvae only in early to mid-spring.
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The species has been breeding in New
Zealand since 1986 and it is likely that the moth then spread from New Zealand to southern Tasmania, where its presence was discovered in 2019.
876:"Laboratory Rearing of Agonopterix alstroemeriana, the Defoliating Poison Hemlock (Conium maculatum L.) Moth, and Effects of Piperidine Alkaloids on Preference and Performance"
1011:
McKenna, D.D.; Zangerl, A.R.; Berenbaum, M.R. (2001). "A native
Hymenopteran predator of Agonopterix alstroemeriana (Lepidoptera: Oecophoridae) in east-central Illinois".
849:
1409:
1218:
1455:
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966:"Citizen science reveals the Palaearctic poison hemlock moth Agonopterix alstroemeriana (Clerck) (Lepidoptera: Depressariidae) has established in Australia"
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often emerge in April and May. Hemlock moth larvae have been known to shelter together in high numbers, since the larvae seem to repel predators with toxic
926:
Berenbaum, M.; Passoa, S. (1983). "Notes on the
Biology of Agonopterix Alstroemeriana (Clerck), with Descriptions of the Immature stages (Oecophoridae)".
533:, usually from late May to early June. The color of pupa is red-brown, with fine hairs densely located. The length of pupae is approximately 6–7 mm.
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obtained from its host plant. They also have the advantage of local predators being less familiar with the species because they are non-native.
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730:
Woodard, Carl Andrew (May 2008). "Poison
Hemlock (Conium maculatum L.): Biology, Implications for Pastures and Response to Herbicides".
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The first North
American sighting of the hemlock moth was of a caterpillar seen in Tompkins County, New York in 1973. After that,
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can cause serious damage to the poison hemlock plant; wherein hundreds of larvae exist on individual host plants. Large areas of
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may also benefit from the toxic alkaloids present in the poison hemlock host plant because they may increase the ability of
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596:, now including the hemlock moth, in order to feed it to its young. This newfound predator may limit the effects that
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Around 200 small eggs are laid by the female, and they are placed on the underside of the leaves of their host plant,
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can now be found throughout the United States. In locations where it has intentionally been released as a
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by rolling the leaves together using a secreted webbing material. Older caterpillars make tubes from the
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1032:"Improved Understanding of Weed Biological Control Safety and Impact with Chemical Ecology: A Review"
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Chen, Jingyi; McQuillan, Peter B.; McDonald, Elaine; Hawkins, Clare (2020-07-02).
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would increase or decrease the use of the hemlock moth as a biological control.
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The eggs hatch into caterpillars about 6 days after being laid. Earlier
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spread quickly throughout the United States. It was found in the
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The biological control of weeds book : a New
Zealand guide
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The poison hemlock moth can be found wherever its host plant (
820:. Opler, Paul A. Berkeley: University of California Press.
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native to the United States, which is part of the family
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1103:
770:. : Manaaki Whenua, Landcare Research New Zealand.
334:does not have a reddish spot, and has a dark head.
311:) to form protective tubes around the caterpillar.
684:Behavioral and physiological effects of alkaloids
381:a characteristic indication of the presence of
874:Castells, Eva; Berenbaum, May R. (June 2006).
8:
1030:Wheeler, Gregory S.; Schaffner, Urs (2013).
848:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
330:, which is similar in coloration. However,
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517:as the correct location for oviposition.
562:Native predator emergence in Great Lakes
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928:Journal of the Lepidopterists' Society
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558:a relatively long-lived moth species.
1036:Invasive Plant Science and Management
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7:
1471:3b2c0e76-11fe-4305-93e2-a2de669cdb1e
1376:597566a5-9e0c-4e7a-8e06-76207c71afb9
1286:3b2c0e76-11fe-4305-93e2-a2de669cdb1e
1086:Agonopterix alstromeriana at UKmoths
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630:can be killed when caterpillars of
766:Hayes, Marie Lynley (March 2007).
688:The effects that the alkaloids in
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468:As eggs, they have a pale color.
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285:It is best known for its use in
213:Denis & Schiffermüller, 1775
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1019:: 71–75 – via CAB Direct.
818:Moths of Western North America
638:Biological control limitations
432:form tubes from the leaves of
277:origin, it was first found in
1:
982:10.1080/00779962.2020.1820125
947:The Great Lakes Entomologist
570:has been predated upon by a
428:The caterpillars in earlier
362:states of the U.S. as well.
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1146:Agonopterix-alstroemeriana
1105:Agonopterix alstroemeriana
1079:Agonopterix alstroemeriana
893:10.1603/0046-225x-35.3.607
816:A., Powell, Jerry (2009).
634:exist at these densities.
476:Agonopterix alstroemeriana
367:Agonopterix alstroemeriana
245:Agonopterix alstroemeriana
205:Agonopterix alstroemeriana
171:Agonopterix alstroemeriana
1311:Agonopterix alstromeriana
1135:Agonopterix alstromeriana
1049:10.1614/ipsm-d-12-00032.1
904:– via ResearchGate.
586:. This wasp is known for
544:showcasing its coloration
358:commonly be found in the
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62:Scientific classification
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1013:Great Lakes Entomologist
970:New Zealand Entomologist
880:Environmental Entomology
692:cause on the moth, both
675:The number of eggs that
620:biological control agent
611:Biological control usage
407:locations. In the U.S.,
250:defoliating hemlock moth
1530:Moths described in 1759
478:larva in a later instar
197:Phalaena alstroemeriana
1525:Moths of North America
732:University of Missouri
672:
576:Euodynerus foraminatus
545:
479:
153:A. alstroemeriana
1081:at Wikimedia Commons
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540:An image of an adult
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248:), also known as the
1545:Moths of New Zealand
1371:Fauna Europaea (new)
668:, the hostplant of
529:for 2 weeks in the
254:poison hemlock moth
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383:A. alstroemeriana.
287:biological control
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1492:Open Tree of Life
1294:Open Tree of Life
1097:Taxon identifiers
1077:Media related to
702:A. alstroemeriana
677:A. alstroemeriana
670:A. alstroemeriana
644:A. alstroemeriana
632:A. alstroemeriana
624:A. alstroemeriana
616:A. alstroemeriana
598:A. alstroemeriana
568:A. alstroemeriana
556:A. alstroemeriana
509:A. alstroemeriana
446:defense mechanism
371:Pacific Northwest
327:Exaeretia canella
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397:Conium maculatum
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631:
627:
623:
615:
614:
605:C. maculatum
604:
597:
591:
575:
567:
565:
555:
552:
541:
524:
512:
508:
502:
486:
475:
462:
460:
433:
427:
424:Leaf rolling
411:
408:
396:
394:
386:
382:
375:
366:
364:
354:
351:
350:
342:Distribution
336:
331:
325:
318:
309:C. maculatum
308:
301:caterpillars
294:
284:
282:19 mm.
253:
249:
244:
243:
240:hemlock moth
239:
237:
225:
221:Hübner, 1796
218:Tinea puella
217:
209:
204:
200:Clerck, 1759
196:
170:
168:
152:
151:
139:
18:
1520:Agonopterix
1397:iNaturalist
1258:NatureServe
1206:iNaturalist
1129:Wikispecies
934:(1): 38–45.
642:The use of
602:defoliating
593:Lepidoptera
584:Hymenoptera
505:caterpillar
275:Palaearctic
140:Agonopterix
119:Lepidoptera
40:camouflaged
1514:Categories
1435:AgonoAlstr
713:References
664:Leaves of
588:paralyzing
566:Recently,
452:Life cycle
360:Midwestern
332:E. canella
99:Arthropoda
1326:Q50404950
1042:: 16–29.
998:225110809
990:0077-9962
844:cite book
836:536166537
786:154237426
655:livestock
580:Eumenidae
574:species,
498:alkaloids
443:predation
258:nocturnal
226:albidella
147:Species:
85:Kingdom:
79:Eukaryota
1432:MaBENA:
1415:10047743
1334:BioLib:
1320:Wikidata
1263:2.914726
1232:LepIndex
1224:10256559
1154:BugGuide
1143:BAMONA:
1120:Q4693418
1114:Wikidata
1058:84247606
902:45478867
600:have in
419:Behavior
401:suburban
188:Synonyms
125:Family:
95:Phylum:
89:Animalia
75:Domain:
1497:3229924
1461:1869417
1402:1208478
1389:4529186
1276:1178052
1198:1840346
649:Due to
489:instars
438:flowers
430:instars
391:Habitat
266:of the
264:species
256:, is a
181:, 1759)
135:Genus:
115:Order:
109:Insecta
105:Class:
1468:NZOR:
1363:300417
1350:197971
1299:219302
1283:NZOR:
1250:0874.1
1237:106066
1211:345618
1185:435185
1172:936051
1056:
996:
988:
953:: 1–5.
900:
834:
824:
784:
774:
527:pupate
494:Larvae
483:Larvae
305:larvae
268:family
179:Clerck
42:adult
1484:25704
1422:LoB:
1410:IRMNG
1358:EUNIS
1337:46133
1219:IRMNG
1159:16551
1054:S2CID
994:S2CID
898:S2CID
549:Adult
525:They
521:Pupae
405:rural
347:Range
291:toxic
273:. Of
1456:NCBI
1425:5317
1384:GBIF
1345:BOLD
1271:NCBI
1245:MONA
1193:GBIF
986:ISSN
850:link
832:OCLC
822:ISBN
782:OCLC
772:ISBN
696:and
572:wasp
531:soil
503:The
457:Eggs
403:and
261:moth
238:The
1443:NBN
1167:EoL
1044:doi
978:doi
888:doi
582:of
252:or
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846:}}
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