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era, during which they unreasonably ascribe all events to
Turkish domination. In fact the great majority of these troops were not Turks. It has been frequently pointed out that Arabic sources use the term Turk in a very loose manner. The Hephthalites are referred to as Turks, so are the peoples of Gurgan, Khwarizm and Sistan. Indeed, with the exception of the Soghdians, Arabic sources refer to all peoples not subjects of the Sassanian empire as Turks. In Samarra separate quarters were provided for new recruits from every locality. The group from Farghana were called after their district, and the name continued in usage because it was easy to pronounce. But such groups as the Ishtakhanjiyya, the Isbijabbiya and groups from similar localities who were in small numbers at first, were lumped together under the general term Turks, because of the obvious difficulties the Arabs had in pronouncing such foreign names. The Khazars who also came from small localities which could not even be identified, as they were mostly nomads, were perhaps the only group that deserved to be called Turks on the ground of racial affinity. However, other groups from Transcaucasia were classed together with the Khazars under the general description."
388:
49:
526:, the Byzantine army attacked at dawn, and initially made good progress, but noon Afshin launched his Turkish horse-archers in a ferocious counter-attack which stymied the Byzantine advance and allowed the Arab forces to regroup. At the same time, Theophilos decided to lead reinforcements to one of his wings, and his sudden absence disquieted his troops, thinking he had been killed. The Byzantine army collapsed, with some units breaking and fleeing disorderly, while others were apparently able to retreat in good order. Theophilos himself barely escaped the battle with his guard, and was surrounded by Afshin's men on a low hill. Afshin sent for catapults to be brought up to batter the Byzantine position, but the Byzantines managed to break through the Arab lines and the Emperor escaped.
562:, and for three days both sides exchanged missile fire while Arab sappers tried to undermine the walls. According to Arab accounts, an Arab prisoner who had converted to Christianity defected back to the caliph, and informed him about a place in the wall which had been badly damaged by heavy rainfall and only hastily and superficially repaired due to the city commander's negligence. As a result, the Arabs concentrated their efforts on this section. The defenders tried to protect the wall by hanging wooden beams to absorb the shock, but they splintered, and after two days a breach was made. The Arabs now launched repeated attacks on the breach, with Afshin, Ashinas, and
538:
862:ʻUthmān Sayyid Aḥmad Ismāʻīl Bīlī, "Prelude to the Generals", Published by Garnet & Ithaca Press, 2001. pg 47:"The name Turk was given to all these troops, despite the inclusion amongst them of some elements of Iranian origin, Ferghana, Ushrusana, and Shash – places were in fact the centers were the slave material was collected together....Judging from the specific names of their origin, Soghd, Farghana, Urshusuna, Shahs, the majority of them might have been of Iranian origin"
455:
522:. A few days later, on 19 June, the vanguard of the main Abbasid army also invaded Byzantine territory, followed two days after by the Caliph with the main body. Emperor Theophilos chose to confront Afshin first, since although his army was smaller, it threatened to cut off his supply lines. On 21 July, the imperial army came into view of the Arab force, and encamped on the hill of Anzen south of Dazimon. In the ensuing
689:"At the time of the Arab incursions into Transoxania, Osrušana had its own line of Iranian princes, the Afšins (Ebn Ḵordāḏbeh, p. 40), of whom the most famous was the general of the caliph Moʿtaṣem (q.v. 833-42), the Afšin Ḵayḏar or Ḥaydar b. Kāvus (d. 841; see AFŠIN)", "The region was little urbanized, and it long preserved its ancient Iranian feudal and patriarchal society. "
602:
to fall from favour. His situation was made worse by the finding of correspondence between him and Mazyar. Further, the
Khurasanian governor, Abdallah ibn Tahir, alleged that he had intercepted some of Babak's wealth Afshin had obtained in the earlier campaign and was seeking to transfer secretly to Afshin's lands in Oshrusana. When Mazyar arrived in
771:. excerpt from pg 482: "Babak's Iranianizing Rebellion in Azerbaijan gave occasion for sentiments at the capital to harden against men who were sympathetic to the more explicitly Iranian tradition. Victor (837) over Babak was al-Afshin, who was the hereditary Persian ruler of a district beyond the Oxus, but also a masterful general for the caliph."
852:
M.A. Shaban, “Islamic
History”, Cambridge University Press, v.2 1978. Page 63:"These new troops were the so-called “Turks”. It must be said without hesitation that this is the most misleading misnomer which has led some scholars to harp ad nauseam on utterly unfounded interpretation of the following
601:
in the
Caspian region. Afshin allegedly encouraged Mazyar in secret, in the hope that `Abdallāh bin Tāher would be deprived of his governorship allowing Afšīn to take over the governorship. Mazyar's rebellion was quashed in 839 and Afshin's position became increasingly difficult, which caused Afshin
533:
reached Ancyra, which had been abandoned by its inhabitants, on 26 July. Afshin arrived there a few days later, and united with the main
Abbasid army, which now turned south towards Amorium. Afshin commanded the rear guard, while Ashinas was once again in front, and the caliph in the middle. Looting
296:
Afshin is generally considered an
Iranian, and although two classical sources (and some modern authors) have called him a Turk. He came from an Iranian cultural region and was not usually considered Turkish. The confusion comes from the fact that the term “Turk” was used loosely by Arab writers of
618:
to Al Wathiq. Afshin had answers to all the allegations. He claimed that
Zoroastrian artefacts and books in his possession were family heirlooms from before he had become Muslim. He explained that when he punished a pair of Muslim fanatics destroying idols in Ushrusanah he was exercising reasonable
842:
Sourdel, D. "The
Abbasid Caliphate." Pages 104-39 in P.M. Holt, Ann K.S. Lambton, and Bernard Lewis (eds.), The Cambridge History of Islam, I. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970. Quote from Pg 125: "and finally of Mazyar, a local chieftain of Tabaristan, against whom the caliph sent the
566:
taking turns in leading their men in attack, but the defenders held firm. In the event, the city fell by treachery in mid-August, when the
Byzantine officer commanding the breach tried to open up separate negotiations with al-Mu'tasim, and the Abbasids used the lull in order to launch a surprise
619:
leadership aimed at maintaining the harmony of his religiously diverse territory. He told his detractors that the formulaic address his people used in writing to him in
Persian as "lord of lords", was simply a tradition and did not invalidate his personal belief in one God.
48:
785:. Footnote 176 on pg 59: "Abu Dulaf's contingent of volunteers from lower Iraq would be mainly Arabs, and there seems in fact to have been hostility between him, as a representative of Arab influence at the caliphate court, and the Iranian Al-Afshin"
780:
Clifford Edmund Bosworth (Translator with Commentary), The History of al-Tabari Vol. 33 "Storm and Stress along the Northern Frontiers of the 'Abbasid Caliphate: The Caliphate of al-Mu'tasim A.D. 833-842/A.H. 218-227", SUNY Press,
720:
During the reign of the caliph Mahdi (158-69/775-85) the Afshin of Oshrusana is mentioned among several Iranian and Turkish rulers of Transoxania and the Central Asian steppes who submitted nominally to him (Yaqubi, II, p.
609:
Mazyar participated in the interrogation of the former general, asserting that Afshin had conspired with him. Others present raised additional questions concerning the sincerity of Afshin's conversion to Islam from
989:
Among the prisoners captured by Bogha al-Kabir in 854, John Catholicos and Tovma Arcruni mention three Albanian princes: Atrnerseh, lord of Khachen, Sahl ibn-Sunbat, lord of Shake, Esay Abu Musa, lord of Ktish in
458:
Map of the Byzantine and Arab campaigns in the years 837–838, showing Theophilos's raid into Upper Mesopotamia and Mu'tasim's retaliatory invasion of Asia Minor (Anatolia), culminating in the conquest of
427:
in August 837. Ya'qubi (Tarikh II, 579) records Afshin freeing 7,600 Arab prisoners from this fortress and he destroyed the castle. The Khurramite leader went into hiding under the protection of a local
832:
D. Pipes. Turks in Early Muslim Service — JTS, 1978, 2, 85—96. excerpt:"Although two classical sources claim him a Turk, he came from Farghana, an Iranian cultural region and was not usually considered
814:
Mottahedeh, Roy, "The Abbassid Caliphate in Iran", Cambridge History of Iran, IV, ed. R.N. Frye, 57-89. 1975 pg 75:" Al Mu'atism chose for this task the Afshin, the Iranian king of Ushrusuna".
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and consequently of particular symbolic importance; according to the chronicles, al-Mu'tasim's soldiers painted the word "Amorium" on their shields and banners. A vast army was gathered at
270:. The term is a modern persian form of the Middle Persian Pishin and Avestan Pisinah, a proper name of uncertain etymology. Minorsky suggests that the title Afshin was of Sogdian origin.
1585:
387:
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805:, vol. 292. pg 292:Some of the soldiers were slaves, others, such as al-Afshin, the scion of a ruling Central Asian (Ustrushana/Ushrusana) Iranian family, clearly were not".
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seconded high-ranking officers to serve under him and ordered exceptionally large salaries, expense allowances, and rations for him. In 831-833, Afshin suppressed
629:
The Tigris river was used as a dumping ground for his cremated remains. A single location was used for the crucifixion of Afshin, Maziyar, and Babak's corpses.
483:(80,000 men according to Treadgold), which was then divided into two main forces. Afshin was placed in command of the northern force, that would invade the
534:
the countryside as they advanced, they arrived before Amorium seven days after their departure from Ancyra, and began their siege of the city on 1 August.
1580:
758:
Kramers, J.H. "Usrūshana." Encyclopaedia of Islam. Edited by: P. Bearman , Th. Bianquis , C.E. Bosworth , E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill, 2007
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the time to denote the new troops of the caliph despite the inclusion among them of some elements of Iranian origin, including Ferghana and Oshrusana.
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who later turned him into Afshin. In return for Afshin's achievements, the caliph rewarded him with the governorship of Sind in addition to that of
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led an expedition into Transoxania and received the submission of Afshin Kharākana, the ruling Akin. Further expeditions were sent to Oshrusana by
463:
In 838, al-Mu'tasim decided to launch a major punitive expedition against Byzantium, aiming to capture the two major Byzantine cities of central
503:, the entire Arab army of Armenia, and numbered 20,000 (Haldon) to 30,000 men (Treadgold), among whom were some 10,000 Turkish horse-archers.
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All such replies were unsuccessful. Al-Mu'tasim had a special prison built for Afshin. It was known as "The Pearl" and was in the shape of a
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The city's fortifications were strong, with a wide moat and a thick wall protected by 44 towers, according to the contemporary geographer
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The History of al-Ṭabarī, Volume XXXII: The Reunification of the ʿAbbāsid Caliphate: The Caliphate of al-Maʾmūn, A.D. 813–33/A.H. 198–213
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and head to Ancyra. After the city was taken, the Arab armies would join and march to Amorium. Afshin's force included, according to
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whose name, by inference from Tabari, III, p. 1066, was something like Kharākana; according to Gardīzī led. Habibi, p. 130
733:
736:" Encyclopaedia Islamica. Editors-in-Chief: Wilferd Madelung and, Farhad Daftary. Brill Online, 2014. 15 September 2014
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356:, the son of the Afshin Karākana, withdrew his allegiance from the Arabs. However, shortly after Ma'mun arrived in
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who Afshin apparently regarded as an upstart and a rival for power in Transoxania. Afshin had begun intriguing with
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from the east (817-18 or 819-20), a power struggle and dissension broke out among the reigning family of Oshrusana.
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475:. The latter was probably the largest city in Asia Minor at the time, as well as the birthplace of the reigning
558:, and the caliph assigned each of his generals to a stretch of the walls. Both besiegers and besieged had many
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Sectarian and national movements in Iran, Khurasan and Transoxania during Umayyad and early Abbasid times
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A History of the Eastern Roman Empire from the Fall of Irene to the Accession of Basil I (A.D. 802–867)
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Despite his successes, Afshin's star began to decline, apparently as a result of his jealousy towards
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History of Civilizations of Central Asia: Age of Achievement, 8750 Ad to the End of the 15th Century
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245:. Eventually he was suspected of disloyalty and was arrested, tried and then executed in June 841.
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1367:. SUNY Series in Near Eastern Studies. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press.
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Lewis,Bernard. "The Political Language of Islam", Published by University of Chicago Press,
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Dowsett, C.J.F. (1957). "A Neglected Passage in the "History of the Caucasian Albanians".
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C. Edmund Bosworth(2005), "OSRUŠANA" in Encyclopædia Iranica. Accessed November 2010
626:. There he spent the final nine months of his life and there he died in May–June 841.
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After a fierce resistance by Babak's army, Afshin eventually defeated it and captured
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375:. The town surrendered to Afshin following his advice that al-Ma'mun promised
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from the region of Melitene, joining up with the forces of the city's emir,
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1486:. Brussels: Éditions de l'Institut de Philologie et d'Histoire Orientales.
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518:, a strategically important location which the Byzantines also used as a
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1500:. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press.
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Samarcande et Samarra. Elites d'Asie centrale dans l'empire Abbasside
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According to Yaqubi, during the reign of the third Abbasid caliph
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parleys with the Afshin Haydar, the Caliph al-Mu'tasim's general
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Byzance et les Arabes, Tome I: La Dynastie d'Amorium (820–867)
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The Byzantine Wars: Battles and Campaigns of the Byzantine Era
229:, and was responsible for the suppression of the rebellion of
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1025:
1023:
749:, Cambridge University Press, 1957, (footnote on page 111).
320:(775-85), Afshin of Oshrusana was mentioned among several
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William Hardy McNeill; Marilyn Robinson Waldman (1973).
1236:
William Hardy McNeill; Marilyn Robinson Waldman (1973).
1183:
William Hardy McNeill; Marilyn Robinson Waldman (1973).
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Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies
225:. He played a leading role in the campaigns of Caliph
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Encyclopedia Iranica, "Babak Khorrami" by G.H. Yusofi
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The Prison Papers of Bozorg Alavi: A Literary Odyssey
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who submitted nominally to him. But it was not until
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Sogdian Painting: The Pictorial Epic in Oriental Art
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According to most of the sources, al-Ma'mun's heir,
1426:. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press.
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289:(94-5 AH/712-14 CE), Ushrusana was inhabited by
30:"al-Afshin" redirects here. For other uses, see
843:Turkish general Afshin, the conqueror of Babak"
1307:William Hardy McNeill; Jean W. Sedlar (1977).
1263:William Hardy McNeill; Jean W. Sedlar (1977).
1210:William Hardy McNeill; Jean W. Sedlar (1977).
550:manuscript depicting the Arab siege of Amorium
1621:9th-century people from the Abbasid Caliphate
1616:8th-century people from the Abbasid Caliphate
510:and encamped at the fort of Dazimon, between
8:
1447:A History of the Byzantine State and Society
178:), better known by his hereditary title of
1330:. University of California Press. pp.
881:. Syracuse University Press. pp. 85–.
933:. In Asimov, M.S.; Bosworth, C.E. (eds.).
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27:Sogdian Iranian Abbasid general (died 841)
1576:Abbasid people of the Arab–Byzantine wars
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1189:. Oxford University Press. p. 148.
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1531:, Hodder and Stoughton, London, 1963
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875:Donné Raffat; Buzurg ʻAlavī (1985).
506:In mid-June 838, Afshin crossed the
1402:. Stroud, Gloucestershire: Tempus.
732:Bahramian, Ali; Negahban, Farzin. "
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1581:Generals of the Abbasid Caliphate
1497:The Making of Byzantium, 600–1025
1391:. London: Macmillan and Company.
970:(3). University of London: 463.
408:appointed Afshin as governor of
53:Afshin, upon the camel, parades
1324:Guitty Azarpay (January 1981).
1423:The Byzantine Revival, 780–842
1:
1101:, pp. 152–154, 158–161.
747:Studies in Caucasian history
529:The caliph's vanguard under
342:al-Fadl ibn Yahya al-Barmaki
217:descent at the court of the
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237:over the Byzantine emperor
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1452:Stanford University Press
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273:At the time of the first
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616:There is no God but God!
348:when he was governor in
340:'s reign in 794-95 that
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1601:9th-century generals
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1520:Encyclopedia Iranica
929:Daftary, F. (1998).
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647:Islamization of Iran
520:forward staging area
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577:`Abdallah bin Taher
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1566:8th-century births
1544:2019-08-16 at the
1383:Bury, John Bagnell
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916:2007-10-06 at the
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1433:978-0-8047-1462-4
1418:Treadgold, Warren
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1341:978-0-520-03765-6
1293:978-0-19-501571-3
1283:The Islâmic world
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1239:The Islâmic world
1196:978-0-19-501571-3
1186:The Islâmic world
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918:Wayback Machine
909:
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731:
727:
710:C.E. Bosworth.
709:
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693:
685:
674:
670:
638:
573:
524:Battle of Anzen
477:Amorian dynasty
452:
450:Sack of Amorium
446:
434:Sahl ibn-Sunbat
404:In 835, Caliph
402:
385:
338:Harun al-Rashid
314:
257:
251:
219:Abbasid caliphs
108:
96:
79:
71:Abu Ali Bal'ami
42:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
1634:
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1611:Sogdian people
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1480:Henri Grégoire
1466:
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1438:
1432:
1414:
1408:
1393:
1379:
1373:
1361:, ed. (1987).
1353:
1350:
1348:
1347:
1340:
1316:
1313:. p. 150.
1299:
1292:
1272:
1269:. p. 144.
1255:
1248:
1228:
1219:
1216:. p. 148.
1202:
1195:
1175:
1163:
1159:Treadgold 1988
1151:
1139:
1137:, p. 302.
1135:Treadgold 1988
1127:
1115:
1103:
1091:
1079:
1067:
1048:
1036:
1034:, p. 441.
1032:Treadgold 1997
1019:
1015:Treadgold 1997
1007:
995:
954:
947:
921:
903:
894:
887:
864:
855:
845:
835:
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773:
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738:
725:
691:
671:
669:
666:
665:
664:
659:
654:
649:
644:
637:
634:
612:Zoroastrianism
572:
569:
556:Ibn Khordadbeh
493:Cilician Gates
485:Armeniac theme
448:Main article:
445:
442:
398:Main article:
384:
381:
313:
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250:
247:
143:
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1489:
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1484:Marius Canard
1481:
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1471:
1467:
1463:
1461:0-8047-2630-2
1457:
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1409:0-7524-1795-9
1405:
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1171:Vasiliev 1935
1167:
1164:
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1136:
1131:
1128:
1124:
1123:Vasiliev 1935
1119:
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1107:
1104:
1100:
1099:Vasiliev 1935
1095:
1092:
1088:
1083:
1080:
1076:
1071:
1068:
1065:, p. 80.
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948:92-3-103467-7
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764:
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748:
745:V. Minorsky,
742:
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560:siege engines
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45:
38:
33:
19:
1535:
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1496:
1474:
1446:
1422:
1398:
1387:
1363:
1326:
1319:
1309:
1302:
1282:
1275:
1265:
1258:
1238:
1231:
1222:
1212:
1205:
1185:
1178:
1166:
1154:
1142:
1130:
1118:
1106:
1094:
1082:
1070:
1039:
1010:
1003:Whittow 1996
998:
988:
987:
967:
963:
957:
938:
934:
924:
906:
897:
877:
858:
848:
838:
810:
802:
797:
782:
776:
768:
763:
754:
746:
741:
728:
719:
715:
657:Babak Castle
631:
628:
621:
615:
608:
592:
574:
553:
545:
528:
505:
489:Omar al-Aqta
462:
422:
403:
377:safe conduct
362:
315:
299:
295:
272:
258:
233:and for his
179:
156:حيدر بن كاوس
147:
146:
131:Abbasid army
74:
67:Safavid Iran
1075:Haldon 2001
1063:Haldon 2001
1044:Haldon 2001
591:prince and
418:Khurramites
410:Adharbayjan
406:al-Mu'tasim
365:Al-Mu'tasim
330:Transoxania
312:Early years
281:(including
279:Transoxiana
241:during the
227:al-Mu'tasim
95:8th century
84:Nickname(s)
1571:841 deaths
1555:Categories
668:References
614:. He said
599:Tabaristan
497:Cappadocia
465:Asia Minor
328:rulers of
239:Theophilos
116:Allegiance
76:Tarikhnama
1147:Bury 1912
1111:Bury 1912
1087:Bury 1912
984:161234960
594:ispahbadh
544:from the
542:Miniature
501:Skylitzes
430:Christian
346:Al-Ma'mun
283:Oshrusana
264:Oshrusana
223:Oshrusana
201:romanized
180:al-Afshīn
169:romanized
98:Osrushana
87:al-Afshin
18:Al-Afshin
1542:Archived
1516:"Afshin"
1494:(1996).
1472:(1935).
1444:(1997).
1420:(1988).
1385:(1912).
990:Artsakh.
914:Archived
833:Turkish"
712:"Afshin"
636:See also
581:Khorasan
571:Downfall
567:attack.
459:Amorium.
332:and the
318:Al-Mahdi
291:Iranians
285:) under
126:Service/
107:June 841
1352:Sources
624:minaret
604:Samarra
589:Karenid
531:Ashinas
512:Amaseia
473:Amorium
438:Armenia
432:prince
358:Baghdad
326:Turkish
322:Iranian
302:Sogdian
215:Iranian
212:Sogdian
203::
192:Persian
188:الأفشين
171::
160:Persian
140:General
110:Samarra
59:Samarra
1504:
1458:
1430:
1406:
1371:
1338:
1290:
1246:
1193:
982:
945:
885:
789:
734:Afshīn
662:Mazyar
585:Mazyar
516:Tokate
481:Tarsus
469:Ancyra
260:Afshin
255:Afshin
207:Afshin
196:اَفشین
184:Arabic
152:Arabic
128:branch
32:Afshin
980:S2CID
937:[
564:Itakh
495:into
392:Babak
373:Egypt
55:Babak
1502:ISBN
1456:ISBN
1428:ISBN
1404:ISBN
1369:ISBN
1336:ISBN
1288:ISBN
1244:ISBN
1191:ISBN
943:ISBN
883:ISBN
803:2004
787:ISBN
783:1991
769:1991
721:479)
587:, a
514:and
471:and
350:Merv
324:and
304:(an
136:Rank
104:Died
92:Born
1334:–.
972:doi
931:"2"
597:of
308:).
277:of
1557::
1527:,
1518:,
1482:,
1454:.
1332:19
1051:^
1022:^
986:.
978:.
968:19
966:.
867:^
819:^
718:.
714:.
694:^
675:^
467:,
420:.
379:.
198:,
194::
190:,
186::
166:,
162::
158:,
154::
61:.
1510:.
1464:.
1436:.
1412:.
1377:.
1344:.
1296:.
1252:.
1199:.
974::
951:.
891:.
182:(
150:(
34:.
20:)
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