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century India had suffered waves of destructive attacks on many of its cities, and
Islamic armies had taken numerous Hindu slaves to Persia, which – claimed Biruni – contributed to Hindus becoming suspicious of all foreigners, not just Muslims. Hindus considered Muslims violent and impure, and did not want to share anything with them. Over time, Biruni won the welcome of Hindu scholars. Al-Biruni collected books and studied with these Hindu scholars to become fluent in Sanskrit, discover and translate into Arabic the mathematics, science, medicine, astronomy and other fields of arts as practiced in 11th-century India. He was inspired by the arguments offered by Indian scholars who believed earth must be globular in shape, which they felt was the only way to fully explain the difference in daylight hours by latitude, seasons and Earth's relative positions with Moon and stars. At the same time, Biruni was also critical of Indian scribes, who he believed carelessly corrupted Indian documents while making copies of older documents. He also criticized the Hindus on what he saw them do and not do, for example finding them deficient in curiosity about history and religion.
1150:
military history, Biruni did indeed record important dates and noted actual sites of where significant battles occurred. Additionally, he chronicled stories of Indian rulers and told of how they ruled over their people with their beneficial actions and acted in the interests of the nation. His details are brief and mostly just list rulers without referring to their real names, and he did not go on about deeds that each one carried out during their reign, which keeps in line with Biruni's mission to try to stay away from political histories. Biruni also described the geography of India in his work. He documented different bodies of water and other natural phenomena. These descriptions are useful to today's modern historians because they are able to use Biruni's scholarship to locate certain destinations in modern-day India. Historians are able to make some matches while also concluding that certain areas seem to have disappeared and been replaced with different cities. Different forts and landmarks were able to be located, legitimizing Biruni's contributions with their usefulness to even modern history and archeology.
1057:. He assumed the superiority of Islam: "We have here given an account of these things in order that the reader may learn by the comparative treatment of the subject how much superior the institutions of Islam are, and how more plainly this contrast brings out all customs and usages, differing from those of Islam, in their essential foulness." However he was happy on occasion to express admiration for other cultures, and quoted directly from the sacred texts of other religions when reaching his conclusions. He strove to understand them on their own terms rather than trying to prove them wrong. His underlying concept was that all cultures are at least distant relatives of all other cultures because they are all human constructs. "Rather, what Al-Biruni seems to be arguing is that there is a common human element in every culture that makes all cultures distant relatives, however foreign they might seem to one another."
876:, whose arguments Avicenna uses, contradicted himself when he stated that the universe and matter has a start whilst holding on to the idea that matter is pre-eternal. In his letters to Avicenna, he stated the argument of Aristotle, that there is a change in the creator. He further argued that stating there is a change in the creator would mean there is a change in the effect (meaning the universe has change) and that the universe coming into being after not being is such a change (and so arguing there is no change – no beginning – means Aristotle believes the creator is negated). Al-Biruni was proud of the fact that he followed the textual evidence of the religion without being influenced by Greek philosophers such as Aristotle.
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1146:. His scholarship on the topic exhibited great determination and focus, not to mention the excellence in his approach of the in-depth research he performed. He developed a method for converting the dates of the Hindu calendar to the dates of the three different calendars that were common in the Islamic countries of his time period, the Greek, the Arab/Muslim, and the Persian. Biruni also employed astronomy in the determination of his theories, which were complex mathematical equations and scientific calculation that allows one to convert dates and years between the different calendars.
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450:. He studied almost all the sciences of his day and was rewarded abundantly for his tireless research in many fields of knowledge. Royalty and other powerful elements in society funded al-Biruni's research and sought him out with specific projects in mind. Influential in his own right, Al-Biruni was himself influenced by the scholars of other nations, such as the Greeks, from whom he took inspiration when he turned to the study of philosophy. A gifted linguist, he was conversant in
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896:. Al-Biruni's method of using the hydrostatic balance was precise, and he was able to measure the density of many different substances, including precious metals, gems, and even air. He also used this method to determine the radius of the earth, which he did by measuring the angle of elevation of the horizon from the top of a mountain and comparing it to the angle of elevation of the horizon from a nearby plain.
1112:, in which he explored nearly every aspect of Indian life. During his journey through India, military and political history were not Biruni's main focus: he decided rather to document the civilian and scholarly aspects of Hindu life, examining culture, science, and religion. He explored religion within a rich cultural context. He expressed his objectives with simple eloquence: He also translated the
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938:, so the accuracy of his estimate compared to the modern value depends on what conversion is used for cubits. The exact length of a cubit is not clear; with an 18-inch cubit his estimate would be 3,600 miles, whereas with a 22-inch cubit his estimate would be 4,200 miles. One significant problem with this approach is that Al-Biruni was not aware of
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1026:") is now known only from quotations in Bayhaqī's Tārīkh-e Masʿūdī. In addition to this various discussions of historical events and methodology are found in connection with the lists of kings in his al-Āthār al-bāqiya and in the Qānūn as well as elsewhere in the Āthār, in India, and scattered throughout his other works. Al-Biruni's
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acquainted with all things related to India. During this time he wrote his study of India, finishing it around 1030. Along with his writing, Al-Biruni also made sure to extend his study to science while on the expeditions. He sought to find a method to measure the height of the sun, and created a makeshift
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compares it to "a magic island of quiet, impartial research in the midst of a world of clashing swords, burning towns, and plundered temples." Biruni's writing was very poetic, which may diminish some of the historical value of the work for modern times. The lack of description of battle and politics
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I shall not produce the arguments of our antagonists in order to refute such of them, as I believe to be in the wrong. My book is nothing but a simple historic record of facts. I shall place before the reader the theories of the Hindus exactly as they are, and I shall mention in connection with them
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he rotation of the earth does in no way impair the value of astronomy, as all appearances of an astronomic character can quite as well be explained according to this theory as to the other. There are, however, other reasons which make it impossible. This question is most difficult to solve. The most
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captured Rey. Most scholars, including al-Biruni, were taken to Ghazni, the capital of the
Ghaznavid dynasty. Biruni was made court astrologer and accompanied Mahmud on his invasions into India, living there for a few years. He was 44 when he went on the journeys with Mahmud of Ghazni. Biruni became
1149:
The book does not limit itself to tedious records of battle because Biruni found the social culture to be more important. The work includes research on a vast array of topics of Indian culture, including descriptions of their traditions and customs. Although he tried to stay away from political and
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Al-Biruni wrote about the peoples, customs and religions of the Indian subcontinent. According to Akbar S. Ahmed, like modern anthropologists, he engaged in extensive participant observation with a given group of people, learnt their language and studied their primary texts, presenting his findings
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into an educated and an uneducated class. He describes the educated as monotheistic, believing that God is one, eternal, and omnipotent and eschewing all forms of idol worship. He recognizes that uneducated Hindus worshiped a multiplicity of idols yet points out that even some
Muslims (such as the
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An example of Biruni's analysis is his summary of why many Hindus hate
Muslims. Biruni notes in the beginning of his book how the Muslims had a hard time learning about Hindu knowledge and culture. He explains that Hinduism and Islam are totally different from each other. Moreover, Hindus in 11th
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The dispassionate account of
Hinduism given by Biruni was remarkable for its time. He stated that he was fully objective in his writings, remaining unbiased like a proper historian should. Biruni documented everything about India just as it happened. But, he did note how some of the accounts of
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In addition to developing the hydrostatic balance, Al-Biruni also wrote extensively on the topic of density, including the different types of densities and how they are measured. His work on the subject was very influential and was later used by scientists like
Galileo and Newton in their own
730:
Of the 146 books written by al-Bīrūnī, 95 are devoted to astronomy, mathematics, and related subjects like mathematical geography. He lived during the
Islamic Golden Age, when the Abbasid Caliphs promoted astronomical research, because such research possessed not only a scientific but also a
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and Arabic, showing his mastery over both languages. Bīrūnī's catalogue of his own literary production up to his 65th lunar/63rd solar year (the end of 427/1036) lists 103 titles divided into 12 categories: astronomy, mathematical geography, mathematics, astrological aspects and transits,
826:, describing how to use it to tell the time and as a quadrant for surveying. One particular diagram of an eight-geared device could be considered an ancestor of later Muslim astrolabes and clocks. More recently, Biruni's eclipse data was used by Dunthorne in 1749 to help determine the
930:(present-day Pakistan). He used trigonometry to calculate the radius of the Earth using measurements of the height of a hill and measurement of the dip in the horizon from the top of that hill. His calculated radius for the Earth of 3928.77 miles was 2% higher than the actual
754:, which he criticises. In a later work, he wrote a refutation of astrology, in contradistinction to the legitimate science of astronomy, for which he expresses wholehearted support. Some suggest that his reasons for refuting astrology relate to the methods used by
656:("The remaining traces of past centuries", translated as "Chronology of ancient nations" or "Vestiges of the Past") on historical and scientific chronology, probably around 1000, though he later made some amendments to the book. He also visited the court of the
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with objectivity and neutrality using cross-cultural comparisons. Akhbar S. Ahmed concluded that Al-Biruni can be considered as the first anthropologist, others, however, have argued that he can hardly be considered an anthropologist in the conventional sense.
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must surely have given rise to lands in the vast ocean between Asia and Europe. He also theorized that at least some of the unknown landmass would lie within the known latitudes which humans could inhabit, and therefore would be inhabited.
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and made no allowance for it. He used a dip angle of 34 arc minutes in his calculations, but refraction can typically alter the measured dip angle by about 1/6, making his calculation only accurate to within about 20% of the true value.
737:
His major work on astrology is primarily an astronomical and mathematical text; he states: "I have begun with
Geometry and proceeded to Arithmetic and the Science of Numbers, then to the structure of the Universe and finally to Judicial
958:(1037), Al-Biruni theorized the existence of a landmass along the vast ocean between Asia and Europe, or what is today known as the Americas. He argued for its existence on the basis of his accurate estimations of the
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Biruni is widely considered to be one of the most important Muslim authorities on the history of religion. He is known as a pioneer in the field of comparative religion in his study of, among other creeds,
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religious dimension: in Islam worship and prayer require a knowledge of the precise directions of sacred locations, which can be determined accurately only through the use of astronomical data.
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makes those parts of the picture completely lost. However, many have used Biruni's work to check facts of history in other works that may have been ambiguous or had their validity questioned.
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1258:), a comparative study of calendars of cultures and civilizations, (including several chapters on Christian cults), which contains mathematical, astronomical, and historical information.
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prominent of both modern and ancient astronomers have deeply studied the question of the moving of the earth, and tried to refute it. We, too, have composed a book on the subject called
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endured – for it is hard to imagine that the commanding figure of Biruni, a repository of so much knowledge, should have appeared in a cultural vacuum. He was sympathetic to the
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information that he was given by natives of the land may not have been reliable in terms of complete accuracy, however, he did try to be as honest as possible in his writing.
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faith practiced in India. He was, for his time, an admirably impartial writer on the customs and creeds of various nations, his scholarly objectivity earning him the title
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Following Al-Biruni's death, his work was neither built upon or referenced by scholars. Centuries later, his writings about India, which had become of interest to the
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mostly translation of
Aryabhatta's work, in which he claims to have resolved the matter of Earth's rotation in a work on astronomy that is no longer extant, his
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Alberuni's India: An
Account of the Religion, Philosophy, Literature, Geography, Chronology, Astronomy, Customs, Laws and Astrology of India about A.D. 1030
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An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines: Conceptions of Nature and Methods used for its Study by the Ikhwān al-Ṣafāʾ, al-Bīrūnī, and Ibn Sīnā"
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to determine the density and purity of metals and precious stones. He classified gems by what he considered their primary physical properties, such as
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for that purpose. Al-Biruni was able to make much progress in his study over the frequent travels that he went on throughout the lands of India.
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Bīrūnī devised a novel method of determining the Earth's radius by means of the observation of the height of a mountain. He carried it out at
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750:] who is not thoroughly conversant with these for sciences." In these earlier chapters he lays the foundations for the final chapter, on
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966:'s size, which he found spanned only two-fifths of the Earth's circumference, reasoning that the geological processes that gave rise to
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astronomical instruments, chronology, comets, an untitled category, astrology, anecdotes, religion, and books he no longer possesses.
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In carrying out his research, al-Biruni used a variety of different techniques dependent upon the particular field of study involved.
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664:. Accepting the definite demise of the Afrighids at the hands of the Ma'munids, he made peace with the latter who then ruled
581:, medicine and philosophy and dabbled not only in the field of physics, but also in those of most of the other sciences. The
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Bosworth, C. E. (1968). "The Political and Dynastic History of the Iranian World (A.D. 1000–1217)". In Boyle, J.A. (ed.).
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3835:. Islamic Philosophy and Occidental Phenomenology in Dialogue. Vol. 5. Netherlands: Springer. pp. 137–146.
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993:"). It lists synonyms for drug names in Syriac, Persian, Greek, Baluchi, Afghan, Kurdi, and some Indian languages.
31:
2522:. Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Change. Washington, D.C.: The Council for Research in Values and Philosophy.
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Diagram illustrating a method proposed and used by Al-Biruni to estimate the radius and circumference of the Earth
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2784:. Palgrave Series in Islamic Theology, Law, and History. Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 31–70.
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Samian, A.L. (2011). "Reason and Spirit in Al-Biruni's Philosophy of Mathematics". In Tymieniecka, A-T. (ed.).
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Biruni's fame as an Indologist rests primarily on two texts. Biruni wrote an encyclopedic work on India called
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806:, in which we think we have surpassed our predecessors, if not in the words, at all events in the matter.
668:. Their court at Gorganj (also in Khwarezm) was gaining fame for its gathering of brilliant scientists.
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Wilczynski, Jan Z. (1959). "On the Presumed Darwinism of Alberuni Eight Hundred Years before Darwin".
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830:, and his data on equinox times and eclipses was used as part of a study of Earth's past rotation.
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3207:. Great Muslim Philosophers and Scientists of the Middle Ages. New York: Rosen Publishing Group.
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is named after al-Biruni. In Iran, surveying engineers are celebrated on al-Biruni's birthday.
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Abbasov, Shukhrat; Saidkasymov, Pulat; Shukurov, Bakhtiyer; Khamrayev, Razak (14 April 1975).
1427:
1270:), an encyclopaedia of astronomy, geography, and engineering, dedicated to Mas'ud, son of the
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868:"Other people, besides, hold this foolish persuasion, that time has no terminus quo at all."
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3043:"The Semantic Distinction between the Terms Astronomy and Astrology according to al-Biruni"
1290:), a question and answer style book about mathematics and astronomy, in Arabic and Persian.
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2327:"Permanent mission of the Islamic Republic of Iran to the United Nations office – Vienna"
506:("The Master") in recognition of his remarkable description of early 11th-century India.
3553:(1987) . "al-Biruni". In Houtsma, M. T.; Arnold, T.W.; Basset, R.; Hartmann, R. (eds.).
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3703:(1970). "Al-Biruni". In Gillispie, Charles Coulston; Holmes, Frederic Lawrence (eds.).
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similar theories of the Greeks in order to show the relationship existing between them.
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and also to a conflict between the views of the astrologers and those of the orthodox
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Epître de Beruni contenant le répertoire des ouvrages de Muhammad b. Zakariya ar-Razi
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892:. He developed experimental methods to determine density, using a particular type of
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Al-Biruni spent the first twenty-five years of his life in Khwarezm where he studied
463:
3932:
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7926:
7907:
7726:
7676:
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5021:
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4521:
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4228:
3916:
3566:
2624:
1457:
1439:
1360:
1117:
963:
443:
317:
205:
7600:
3313:
Tapper, Richard (1995). ""Islamic Anthropology" and the "Anthropology of Islam"".
695:
605:
3781:
3518:
3409:
3293:
3202:
3142:
Rozhanskaya, Mariam; Levinova, I. S. (1996). "Statics". In Rushdī, Rāshid (ed.).
3016:
2995:
2883:
2844:
2808:
2743:
2671:
God's Philosophers: How the Medieval World Laid the Foundations of Modern Science
2643:
2517:
2444:
2144:
822:(highest point in the heavens) was mobile, not fixed. He wrote a treatise on the
7883:
7804:
7645:
7630:
7625:
7605:
7585:
7323:
7308:
7283:
7036:
6685:
6566:
6499:
6448:
6443:
6089:
6033:
5788:
5753:
5682:
5302:
5292:
5257:
5066:
5046:
4925:
4765:
4501:
4450:
4410:
4178:
3840:
3808:
A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam
3588:
3381:
Verdon, Noémie (2015). "Cartography and Cultural Identity: Conceptualisation of
2789:
2745:
Early Arabic Pharmacology: An Introduction Based on Ancient and Medieval Sources
1467:
1463:
1389:
1308:), a geology manual about minerals and gems. Dedicated to Mawdud, son of Mas'ud.
931:
771:
661:
123:
86:
3387:
Negotiating Cultural Identity: Landscapes in Early Medieval South Asian History
914:
7774:
7681:
7555:
7540:
7520:
7500:
7495:
7490:
7460:
7399:
7348:
7313:
6975:
6877:
6816:
6428:
5997:
5824:
5697:
5667:
5642:
5637:
5247:
5237:
5227:
5132:
5112:
5036:
4704:
4653:
4491:
4481:
4319:
4314:
4299:
3623:
3542:
2908:
2571:
2500:
1408:
1365:
849:
845:
763:
744:], for no one who is worthy of the style and title of Astrologer [
687:
636:
551:
479:
321:
295:
225:
165:
119:
94:
3726:
3692:
3473:
3442:
3373:
3336:
3073:
2891:
2519:
Understanding Other Religions: Al-Biruni's and Gadamer's "Fusion of Horizons"
2329:. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Islamic Republic of Iran. Archived from
1008:, rather than the common practice of the time of classifying them by colour.
7560:
7414:
7103:
6862:
6562:
6413:
5992:
5880:
5707:
5657:
5612:
5607:
5531:
5282:
5222:
5001:
4780:
4724:
4329:
4304:
4188:
3969:– manuscripts, critical editions, and translations compiled by Jan Hogendijk
3651:
3606:
3509:
3390:
3223:
2843:(1975). "The Exact Sciences". In Frye, R. N.; Fisher, William Bayne (eds.).
2492:
2268:
1271:
1120:
889:
873:
823:
751:
718:
An illustration from al-Biruni's astronomical works, explains the different
617:
601:
578:
535:
435:
221:
217:
213:
161:
64:
38:
2929:
2426:
1106:
Verifying All That the Indians Recount, the Reasonable and the Unreasonable
2410:"Constitutional legitimacy: Sharia law, secularism and the social compact"
1200:
A Critical Study of What India Says, Whether Accepted by Reason or Refused
1110:
The book confirming what pertains to India, whether rational or despicable
482:, in modern-day central-eastern Afghanistan. In 1017, he travelled to the
7706:
7409:
7383:
7318:
7072:
6923:
6867:
5763:
5702:
5521:
5307:
5277:
5242:
5232:
5172:
4991:
4506:
4476:
4420:
4354:
4344:
4269:
4183:
1511:
1431:
1066:
1050:
1046:
1032:
attempted to accurately establish the length of various historical eras.
861:
703:
699:
691:
665:
657:
625:
597:
588:, which was Biruni's mother tongue, survived for several centuries after
539:
459:
447:
420:
404:
397:
313:
287:
17:
2353:
856:
position that the universe had a beginning, being a strong supporter of
7779:
7082:
7077:
6933:
6457:
6208:
5212:
5202:
5137:
5086:
5026:
5016:
4981:
4339:
3344:
3249:
3204:
Al-Biruni: Master Astronomer and Muslim Scholar of the Eleventh Century
2400:
967:
923:
918:
Four directions and Political divisions of Iran by Abū Rayḥān al-Bīrūnī
815:
632:
613:
609:
531:
431:
416:
201:
6326:
3879:
3081:
3042:
2764:
2696:. Vol. 2: The Expansion of Islam in the Middle Periods. Chicago:
2481:"Re-Reading al-Biruni's India: a Case for Intercultural Understanding"
1142:
One of the specific aspects of Hindu life that Biruni studied was the
628:, and there are extant exchanges of views between these two scholars.
7731:
7696:
7671:
7237:
7041:
5187:
5182:
3483:
The Genius of their Age: Ibn Sina, Biruni, and the Lost Enlightenment
1346:
1168:
1061:
935:
819:
621:
497:
475:
190:
169:
115:
3328:
2916:
Kujundzić, E.; Masić, I. (1999). "Al-Biruni—a universal scientist".
2693:
The Venture of Islam: Conscience and History in a World Civilization
2480:
2392:
7902:
3871:
3352:
Vibert, Douglas A. (1973). "Al-Biruni, Persian Scholar, 973–1048".
3065:
2824:
7741:
7188:
5252:
5117:
5041:
3240:
3018:
Beyond Death: The Mystical Teachings of ʻAyn Al-Quḍāt Al-Hamadhānī
1487:
1376:
1054:
945:
913:
853:
713:
684:
640:
589:
180:
135:
69:
An imaginary rendition of Al Biruni on a 1973 Soviet postage stamp
7736:
7711:
3601:. Vol. 2: The Muhammadan Period. London: Trübner & Co.
3292:
Strohmaier, Gotthard (2006). "Biruni". In Meri, Josef W. (ed.).
1415:
1100:
Taḥqīq mā li-l-Hind min maqūlah maqbūlah fī al-ʿaql aw mardhūlah
574:
7241:
6756:
6330:
6083:
The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing
5451:
4837:
4091:
4053:
4040:
3385:
by Arabic and Persian writers". In Ray, Himanshu Prabha (ed.).
2645:
The Geography of Uzbekistan: At the Crossroads of the Silk Road
2379:
Ahmed, Akbar S. (1984). "Al-Beruni: The First Anthropologist".
6145:
4910:
3642:
Glick, Thomas F.; Livesey, Steven John; Wallis, Faith (2005).
3628:(Includes facsimile edition of the Arabic text of al-Biruni's
3163:
Saliba, George (1982). "Al-Biruni". In Strayer, Joseph (ed.).
2809:"The Hindu Calendar as Described in Al-Biruni's Masudic Canon"
2782:
The Contemporary Islamic Governed State: A Reconceptualization
2279:
1907:
1905:
1903:
1430:, it features the statues of four prominent Iranian scholars:
1355:
is one of the most important of the early works of science in
1228:. The work is a compendium of India's religion and philosophy.
1024:
Book of nightly conversation concerning the affairs of Ḵᵛārazm
746:
740:
723:
1794:
1792:
1790:
1788:
362:
2385:
Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland
1510:(India) was a cultural zone coinciding with the present-day
852:, al-Biruni is famous for vehemently defending the majority
3646:
Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia
1238:
Book of Instruction in the Elements of the Art of Astrology
368:
3966:
3411:
Muslim Perceptions of Other Religions: A Historical Survey
3523:. The Cambridge History of Iran. Vol. 5. Cambridge:
1726:
1724:
1722:
1720:
1718:
1716:
1714:
1712:
530:("outskirts"), as he was born in an outlying district of
353:
344:
4021:
Kitāb istī‘āb al-wujūh al-mumkinah fī ṣan‘at al-asṭurlāb
1532:
1530:
596:
of the region – at least some of the culture of ancient
6784:
Geography and cartography in the medieval Islamic world
2126:
2124:
934:
of 3847.80 miles. His estimate was given as 12,803,337
864:
in a multiple letter correspondence. Al-Biruni stated:
6118:
Book on the Measurement of Plane and Spherical Figures
3833:
Reason, Spirit and the Sacral in the New Enlightenment
3000:. Tempe, Arizona: American Federation of Astrologers.
2215:
2213:
1591:
1589:
1576:
1574:
7855:
3711:. Vol. 2. New York: Scribner. pp. 147–157.
2807:
Kennedy, E.S.; Engle, Susan; Wamstad, Jeanne (1965).
525:
519:
365:
4019:
4002:
3985:
3897:"Bīrūnī: Abū al-Rayḥān Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad al-Bīrūnī"
3734:
Kiple, Kenneth F.; Ornelas, Kriemhild Coneè (2001).
3629:
1561:
1559:
1557:
1451:
1350:
1325:
1317:
1231:
1209:
1192:
1172:
1124:
1098:
1017:
984:
788:
782:
690:
school, al-Biruni nevertheless also associated with
651:
501:
487:
359:
350:
347:
27:
11th-century Persian scholar and polymath (973-1050)
7750:
7659:
7443:
7392:
7276:
7216:
7142:
7122:
7091:
7050:
7009:
6968:
6942:
6906:
6830:
6799:
6790:
6734:
6718:
6695:
6676:
6651:
6644:
6482:
6371:
6362:
6279:
6253:
6227:
6176:
6155:
6070:
6026:
5970:
5934:
5853:
5807:
5726:
5590:
5494:
5485:
5406:
5375:
5316:
5105:
4972:
4908:
4848:
4794:
4758:
4697:
4636:
4535:
4464:
4383:
4252:
4156:
4115:
3972:Digitized facsimiles of works by al-Biruni at the
3618:. Tehran: Iranian National Heritage Society Press.
3598:
The History of India, as told by Its own Historians
3354:
Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada
3188:"Bīrūnī, Abū Rayḥān:iii. Mathematics and Astronomy"
2466:"Bīrūnī, Abū Rayḥān v. Pharmacology and Mineralogy"
2192:
1935:
1763:
1761:
1759:
1757:
1755:
1753:
1751:
1219:
356:
269:
239:
196:
186:
176:
151:
141:
131:
102:
79:
74:
48:
3900:
3805:
3735:
3704:
3670:
3669:Karamati, Younes; Melvin-Koushki, Matthew (2021).
3643:
3554:
3451:
3266:
3171:. Vol. 2. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.
3164:
3041:
2968:
2869:
2716:
2668:
2538:
1319:Kitab al-Āthār al-Bāqīyah ‘an al-Qurūn al-Khālīyah
1126:Tarjamat ketāb Bātanjalī fi’l-ḵalāṣ men al-ertebāk
694:theologians. He was however, very critical of the
3433:Watt, William Montgomery; Said, Hakim M. (1979).
1205:تحقيق ما للهند من مقولة معقولة في العقل أو مرذولة
884:Al-Biruni contributed to the introduction of the
706:for his views on the eternality of the universe.
442:, and also distinguished himself as a historian,
3435:Al-Bīrūnī and the Study of Non-Islamic Religions
3129:"Bīrūnī, Abū Rayḥān: vi. History and Chronology"
2566:. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co.
486:and wrote a treatise on Indian culture entitled
2204:
2180:
2168:
1911:
1846:
1131:
866:
542:. The city, now called Beruniy, is part of the
6742:Institute for Research in Fundamental Sciences
2871:"Al-Biruni and the Political History of India"
2590:"Bīrūnī, Abū Rayḥān: vii. History of Religion"
2446:A Concise History of Afghanistan in 25 Volumes
2007:
1798:
604:, who were overthrown by the rival dynasty of
7253:
6768:
6342:
5463:
4065:
3783:Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science
3145:Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science
1422:—placed in the central Memorial Plaza of the
1359:, and is a rich source for Persian prose and
1265:
392:; 973 – after 1050), known as
8:
8039:Scientists who worked on qibla determination
2067:
1331:
1311:A history of Mahmud of Ghazni and his father
1303:
1285:
1253:
1203:
653:al-Athar al-Baqqiya 'an al-Qorun al-Khaliyya
650:). There he wrote his first important work,
4004:Kitāb al-tafhīm li-awā’īl ṣinā‘at al-tanjīm
2765:"Al-Biruni: Father of Comparative Religion"
1742:
1691:
1233:Kitab al-tafhim li-awa’il sina‘at al-tanjim
7260:
7246:
7238:
6796:
6775:
6761:
6753:
6648:
6368:
6349:
6335:
6327:
5491:
5470:
5456:
5448:
4852:
4845:
4834:
4101:
4088:
4072:
4058:
4050:
4037:
3389:. Archaeology and Religion in South Asia.
2551:(1): 91 – via Gale Academic OneFile.
1870:
1730:
1667:
1349:, the scientific language of his age, but
1016:Biruni's main essay on political history,
411:. He has been called variously "Father of
63:
45:
8064:Astronomers of the medieval Islamic world
8014:Geographers of the medieval Islamic world
6204:Constantinople observatory of Taqi ad-Din
5479:Mathematics in the medieval Islamic world
3899:. In Hockey, Thomas; et al. (eds.).
3295:Medieval Islamic Civilization: A-K, index
3239:
2954:"Chorasmia: iii. The Chorasmian Language"
2425:
2305:United Nations Information Service Vienna
1995:
1858:
1679:
1643:
8094:Psychology in the medieval Islamic world
8019:Alchemists of the medieval Islamic world
4042:Articles and topics related to Al-Biruni
3903:Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers
3269:Historical Eclipses and Earth's Rotation
2231:
2130:
2055:
2043:
1959:
1923:
1779:
1595:
1580:
860:, specifically refuting the philosopher
8074:Inventors of the medieval Islamic world
7862:
4081:Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world
3780:Rashed, Roshdi; Morelon, Régis (2019).
3498:Ali, Wahshat Khan Bahadur Reza (1951).
2537:Berjak, Rafik; Muzaffar, Iqbal (2003).
2031:
1703:
1536:
1526:
1499:
910:History of geodesy § Islamic world
337:Abu Rayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni
311:
281:
6125:Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity
4878:Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity
4224:Khalid ibn Abd al‐Malik al‐Marwarrudhi
3148:. Psychology Press. pp. 274–298.
3099:"Bīrūnī, Abū Rayḥān: ii. Bibliography"
2903:(in French). Paris: J.P. Maisonneuve.
2243:
2115:
2091:
2079:
1971:
1947:
1894:
1834:
1822:
1810:
1631:
1565:
1548:
1167:Most of the works of Al-Biruni are in
722:, with respect to the position of the
7959:11th-century Persian-language writers
6408:Khayyam's Solution of Cubic Equations
4899:The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries
3561:. Vol. 2 (1st ed.). Brill.
2255:
2103:
2019:
1655:
1607:
1249:The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries
991:Book on the Pharmacopoeia of Medicine
804:Miftah-ilm-alhai'a (Key to Astronomy)
514:Al-Biruni's name is derived from the
245:The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries
7:
7964:11th-century Arabic-language writers
2939:"Bīrūnī, Abū Rayḥān: viii. Indology"
2540:"Ibn Sina--Al-Biruni correspondence"
2485:Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations
2449:. Vol. 1. Trafford Publishing.
2219:
1983:
1882:
1767:
1619:
1450:A film about the life of Al-Biruni,
814:, Biruni observed that, contrary to
810:In his major astronomical work, the
777:He wrote an extensive commentary on
631:In 998, he went to the court of the
7994:10th-century Iranian mathematicians
3967:The works of Abu Rayhan (al-)Biruni
3765:. Astan Quds Razavi Publishing Co.
3738:The Cambridge World History of Food
3114:"Bīrūnī, Abū Rayḥān: iv. Geography"
1369:in a detailed and skilled fashion.
1304:
1286:
1266:
1254:
1204:
389:
381:
8069:Scholars from the Ghaznavid Empire
3707:Dictionary of Scientific Biography
3408:Waardenburg, Jacques, ed. (1999).
2977:State University of New York Press
2975:(2nd ed.). Albany, New York:
2763:Kamaruzzaman, Kamar Oniah (2003).
2556:al-Biruni; Sachau, Eduard (1910).
1345:Biruni wrote most of his works in
1019:Kitāb al-musāmara fī aḵbār Ḵᵛārazm
577:, theology, grammar, mathematics,
25:
7984:11th-century Iranian philosophers
3228:International Journal of Sciences
2193:Kennedy, Engle & Wamstad 1965
1480:in the Turkish television series
608:in 995. He left his homeland for
8059:11th-century Iranian astronomers
8009:11th-century Iranian geographers
7989:Medieval Iranian pharmacologists
7925:
7913:
7901:
7889:
7877:
7865:
6858:Abu Muhammad al-Hasan al-Hamdani
6635:
6464:Najm al-Din al-Qazwini al-Katibi
6061:
3460:; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John;
3265:Stephenson, F. Richard (2008) .
2690:Hodgson, Marshall G. S. (1974).
1466:portrayed Al-Biruni in the 1988
1296:, a work on drugs and medicines.
1255:الآثار الباقية عن القرون الخالية
1171:although he seemingly wrote the
340:
8004:11th-century Iranian historians
7999:11th-century Iranian scientists
4603:Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr al‐Farisi
3058:The University of Chicago Press
2813:Journal of Near Eastern Studies
2719:The Lost Art of Finding Our Way
1936:Rozhanskaya & Levinova 1996
1420:United Nations Office in Vienna
1383:United Nations Office in Vienna
1218:); English translations called
702:and Zurqan. He also repudiated
645:
474:. He spent much of his life in
8099:Astronomical instrument makers
6873:Khashkhash Ibn Saeed Ibn Aswad
6404:Khayyam-Saccheri quadrilateral
5092:Schema for horizontal sundials
4608:Abu Ali al-Hasan al-Marrakushi
4133:Muḥammad ibn Ibrāhīm al-Fazārī
3917:10.1007/978-0-387-30400-7_1433
3763:Calendar-Making in the History
3614:Ghorbani, Abolghassem (1974).
3567:10.1163/2214-871X_ei1_SIM_1392
3501:Al-Biruni Commemoration Volume
3468:(3rd ed.). Brill Online.
3015:Papan-Matin, Firoozeh (2010).
2997:Classical Scientific Astrology
2620:"Rediscovering Arabic Science"
2443:Alikuzai, Hamid Wahed (2013).
834:Refutation of Eternal Universe
57:ابوریحان محمد بن احمد البیرونی
1:
8079:Transoxanian Islamic scholars
6097:Principles of Hindu Reckoning
3685:Encyclopaedia Islamica Online
3593:"1. Táríkhu-l Hind of Bírúní"
3520:The Saljuq and Mongol Periods
3167:Dictionary of the Middle Ages
2967:Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (1993).
2846:The Cambridge History of Iran
1029:Chronology of Ancient Nations
648: 977–981, 997–1012
624:. There he corresponded with
430:Al-Biruni was well versed in
106:
7979:Medieval Iranian astrologers
6726:Iranian Mathematical Society
5350:Constantinople (Taqi al-Din)
3481:Starr, S. Frederick (2023).
2884:10.1163/18778372-02502601007
2780:Kaminski, Joseph J. (2017).
2723:. Cambridge, Massachusetts:
2603:Bosworth, C. Edmund (2000).
2464:Anawati, Georges C. (2000).
1873:, pp. 45, 457, 491–493.
844:Like later adherents of the
752:astrological prognostication
7109:Mir Ahmed Nasrallah Thattvi
6287:Hindu–Arabic numeral system
6219:University of al-Qarawiyyin
5339:University of al-Qarawiyyin
4543:Ibn al-Banna' al-Marrakushi
4020:
4003:
3986:
3841:10.1007/978-90-481-9612-8_9
3630:
3222:Sparavigna, Amelia (2013).
2937:Lawrence, Bruce B. (2000).
2790:10.1007/978-3-319-57012-9_2
2698:University of Chicago Press
2618:Covington, Richard (2007).
2588:de Blois, François (2000).
2205:al-Biruni & Sachau 1910
2181:al-Biruni & Sachau 1910
2169:al-Biruni & Sachau 1910
1912:al-Biruni & Sachau 1910
1847:al-Biruni & Sachau 1910
1476:. He has been portrayed by
1452:
1424:Vienna International Center
1381:The statue of Al-Biruni in
1351:
1326:
1318:
1232:
1220:
1210:
1193:
1173:
1125:
1099:
1018:
986:Kitab al-saydala fi al-tibb
985:
975:Pharmacology and mineralogy
789:
783:
698:, particularly criticising
652:
557:His name was most commonly
526:
520:
502:
488:
8130:
7974:People from Karakalpakstan
7161:Book of Roads and Kingdoms
7153:Book of Roads and Kingdoms
6189:Al-Mustansiriya University
6168:Islamic geometric patterns
5916:Shams al-Din al-Samarqandi
4583:Shams al-Din al-Samarqandi
3761:Naba’i, Abulfadl (2019) .
3744:Cambridge University Press
3525:Cambridge University Press
3504:. Calcutta: Iran Society.
3485:. Oxford University Press.
3275:Cambridge University Press
3224:"The Science of Al-Biruni"
2994:Noonan, George C. (2005).
2851:Cambridge University Press
2849:. Vol. 4. Cambridge:
2715:Huth, John Edward (2013).
2628:. Vol. 58, no. 3
2008:Kujundzić & Masić 1999
1799:Berjak & Muzaffar 2003
1418:donated a pavilion to the
1089:
907:
837:
36:
32:Al-Biruni (disambiguation)
29:
8109:Muslim critics of atheism
6633:
6400:Khayyam-Pascal's triangle
6059:
5424:Medieval European science
4855:
4844:
4833:
4684:Sadr al-Shari'a al-Asghar
4441:Ibrahim ibn Said al-Sahli
4104:
4100:
4087:
4047:
3814:New York University Press
3316:Anthropological Quarterly
2952:MacKenzie, D. N. (2000).
2899:Kraus, Paul, ed. (1936).
2501:10.1080/09596410500059623
1483:Alparslan: Büyük Selçuklu
1403:are named in his honour.
1186:Selection of extant works
1104:(variously translated as
304:
274:
224:, mathematics, medicine,
62:
55:
7058:Abd-al-Razzāq Samarqandī
6582:The Bridges Organization
6534:Langlands–Shahidi method
6509:Firoozbakht's conjecture
6424:Nizam al-Din al-Nisapuri
5942:Nizam al-Din al-Nisapuri
5901:Muhyi al-Din al-Maghribi
4674:Nizam al-Din al-Nisapuri
4568:Muhyi al-Din al-Maghribi
4209:Ali ibn Isa al-Asturlabi
3939:Yasin, Mohammed (1975).
3298:. Taylor & Francis.
3201:Scheppler, Bill (2006).
3127:Pingree, David (2000c).
3112:Pingree, David (2000b).
3097:Pingree, David (2000a).
2725:Harvard University Press
2642:Gulyamova, Lola (2022).
2149:Encyclopaedia Britannica
1305:الجماهر في معرفة الجواهر
828:acceleration of the Moon
496:"), after exploring the
37:Not to be confused with
8049:Iranian anthropologists
7840:Ahmad ibn Nizam al-Mulk
7820:Minhaj al-Siraj Juzjani
6573:Ebadollah S. Mahmoodian
6311:History of trigonometry
6306:Trigonometric functions
6300:Western Arabic numerals
6296:Eastern Arabic numerals
5861:Ibn al‐Ha'im al‐Ishbili
4776:Baha' al-din al-'Amili
4750:'Abd al-'Aziz al-Wafa'i
4628:Fakhr al-Din al-Akhlati
4548:Ibn al‐Ha'im al‐Ishbili
3416:Oxford University Press
3186:Saliba, George (2000).
2841:Kennedy, Edward Stewart
1282:Understanding Astrology
872:He further stated that
264:Understanding Astrology
7770:Abu'l-Ma'ali Nasrallah
7765:Abu'l-Hasan Isfarayini
7451:Abu Dawud al-Sijistani
7176:Kitab al-Rawd al-Mitar
7063:Ghiyāth al-dīn Naqqāsh
6519:Havel–Hakimi algorithm
6235:Babylonian mathematics
5926:Kamāl al-Dīn al-Fārisī
5911:Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi
5906:al-Hasan al-Marrakushi
5830:Al-Samawal al-Maghribi
5759:Abu Mansur al-Baghdadi
5502:'Abd al-Hamīd ibn Turk
5057:Navigational astrolabe
4812:Al Achsasi al Mouakket
4578:Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi
4497:Al-Samawal al-Maghribi
4446:Ibn Mu'adh al-Jayyani
4375:Abu al-Hasan al-Ahwazi
3951:: 207–213 – via
3557:Encyclopaedia of Islam
3466:Encyclopaedia of Islam
2769:Intellectual Discourse
2742:Levey, Martin (1973).
2667:Hannam, James (2009).
2516:Ataman, Kemal (2008).
2479:Ataman, Kemal (2005).
2427:10.15742/ilrev.v1n2.84
1456:, was released in the
1385:
1363:. The book covers the
1332:
1314:A history of Khawarezm
1287:التفهيم لصناعة التنجيم
1136:
1012:History and chronology
951:
940:atmospheric refraction
919:
904:Geography and geodesy
870:
808:
727:
534:, the capital of the
478:, then capital of the
155:Khwarezm, Central Asia
7667:Abu Sa'id Abu'l-Khayr
7551:Ibn Tayfour Sajawandi
7379:Sharaf al-Din al-Tusi
7289:Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi
6960:Abu'l Abbas al-Hijazi
6608:Mohammad Mehdi Zahedi
6593:Gholamhossein Mosaheb
6439:Ayn al-Quzat Hamadani
6261:Byzantine mathematics
6049:Ibn Hamza al-Maghribi
5876:Alam al-Din al-Hanafi
5840:Sharaf al-Din al-Tusi
5393:Hellenistic astronomy
5364:Samarkand (Ulugh Beg)
5158:Deferent and epicycle
4558:Alam al-Din al-Hanafi
4527:Sharaf al-Din al-Tusi
4169:Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi
4028:14 March 2023 at the
4011:14 March 2023 at the
3994:26 March 2023 at the
3895:Yano, Michio (2007).
3631:Maqālīd 'ilm al-hay'a
3450:Yano, Michio (2013).
1434:, Abu Rayhan Biruni,
1380:
960:Earth's circumference
949:
917:
840:Eternity of the world
838:Further information:
799:
717:
575:Islamic jurisprudence
415:", "Father of modern
210:comparative sociology
8104:People from Khwarazm
8034:Islamic philosophers
7775:Abu Muslim Khorasani
7481:Abu Qasim Samarqandi
7471:Abu Layth Samarqandi
7369:Nasir al-Din al-Tusi
7344:Abu Ja'far al-Khazin
6991:Ibn Said al-Maghribi
6550:Ramin Takloo-Bighash
6540:Hamid Naderi Yeganeh
6469:Nasir al-Din al-Tusi
6419:Muhammad Baqir Yazdi
6381:Abu al-Wafa' Buzjani
6266:European mathematics
6214:Maragheh observatory
6039:Muhammad Baqir Yazdi
6018:Ibn Ghazi al-Miknasi
5891:Nasir al-Din al-Tusi
5799:Muhammad al-Baghdadi
5383:Babylonian astronomy
5198:Gravitational energy
4573:Nasir al-Din al-Tusi
4563:Najm al‐Din al‐Misri
4244:Yahya ibn Abi Mansur
4143:Mashallah ibn Athari
4128:Al-Fadl ibn Naubakht
3941:"Al-Biruni in India"
3911:. pp. 131–133.
3193:Encyclopædia Iranica
3134:Encyclopædia Iranica
3119:Encyclopædia Iranica
3104:Encyclopædia Iranica
2959:Encyclopædia Iranica
2944:Encyclopædia Iranica
2610:Encyclopædia Iranica
2605:"Bīrūnī, Abū Rayḥān"
2595:Encyclopædia Iranica
2471:Encyclopædia Iranica
2414:Indonesia Law Review
2408:Akhtar, Zia (2011).
2354:"Abu Raykhan Beruni"
2333:on 14 September 2019
1780:Watt & Said 1979
1506:Al-Biruni's idea of
1327:Risālah li-al-Bīrūnī
1208:), popularly called
1036:History of religions
586:Khwarezmian language
494:The History of India
413:Comparative Religion
390:أبو الريحان البيروني
50:Abu Rayhan al-Biruni
30:For other uses, see
8054:Historians of India
7195:The Meadows of Gold
6812:Abu Hanifa Dinawari
6588:Siavash Shahshahani
6505:Farideh Firoozbakht
6357:Mathematics in Iran
6184:Al-Azhar University
6111:The Book of Healing
5517:Al-Ḥajjāj ibn Yūsuf
5324:Al-Azhar University
5143:Celestial mechanics
4933:Book of Fixed Stars
4892:The Book of Healing
4871:Aja'ib al-Makhluqat
4613:Ibn Ishaq al-Tunisi
4588:Zakariya al-Qazwini
4199:Al-Ḥajjāj ibn Yūsuf
4194:Abu Hanifa Dinawari
3987:al-Qanūn al-Masʿūdī
3909:Springer Publishers
3585:Elliot, Henry Miers
3366:1973JRASC..67..209D
2868:Khan, M.S. (1976).
2545:Islam & Science
1986:, pp. 216–217.
1825:, pp. 248–251.
1782:, pp. 414–419.
1194:Taḥqīq mā li-l-Hind
998:hydrostatic balance
894:hydrostatic balance
784:Taḥqīq mā li-l-Hind
738:Astrology [
544:autonomous republic
484:Indian subcontinent
326:Zakariya al-Qazwini
284:Abū Ḥanīfa Dīnawarī
8029:Explorers of India
7760:Abu'l-Fadl Bayhaqi
7641:Tha'labi Nishapuri
7456:Abu Barakat Nasafi
7284:Abu Hatam Isfizari
7032:Hamdallah Mustawfi
6955:Muhammad al-Idrisi
6929:Mahmud al-Kashgari
6853:Abu Zayd al-Balkhi
6390:al-Kashi's theorem
6316:History of algebra
6271:Indian mathematics
6245:Indian mathematics
6194:House of Knowledge
5648:Brethren of Purity
5542:Banū Mūsā brothers
5388:Egyptian astronomy
5329:House of Knowledge
5007:Astronomical clock
4817:Muhammad al-Rudani
4214:Banū Mūsā brothers
4164:Abu Ali al-Khayyat
3456:. In Fleet, Kate;
3250:10.18483/ijSci.364
3092:– via JSTOR.
3040:Pines, S. (1964).
1453:Abu Raykhan Beruni
1446:In popular culture
1392:, were revisited.
1386:
1060:Al-Biruni divides
952:
920:
790:Miftah-ilm-alhai'a
728:
720:phases of the Moon
409:Islamic Golden Age
278:Influenced by
146:Islamic Golden Age
8024:Explorers of Asia
7941:
7940:
7853:
7852:
7815:Khalid ibn Barmak
7790:Ata-Malik Juvayni
7753:political figures
7660:Poets and artists
7516:Fatima Samarqandi
7420:Haji Bektash Veli
7299:Abu Ubayd Juzjani
7235:
7234:
7138:
7137:
7099:Sulaiman Al Mahri
6919:Abu Saʿīd Gardēzī
6898:Qudama ibn Ja'far
6822:Sulaiman al-Tajir
6750:
6749:
6714:
6713:
6705:Maryam Mirzakhani
6661:Maryam Mirzakhani
6631:
6630:
6613:Mohsen Hashtroodi
6559:Fuzzy mathematics
6490:Maryam Mirzakhani
6324:
6323:
6240:Greek mathematics
6163:Alhazen's problem
6057:
6056:
5678:Ibrahim ibn Sinan
5628:Sinān ibn al-Fatḥ
5445:
5444:
5441:
5440:
5437:
5436:
5419:Chinese astronomy
5414:Byzantine science
5288:Temporal finitism
5218:Islamic cosmology
5148:Celestial spheres
4968:
4967:
4860:Arabic star names
4829:
4828:
4825:
4824:
4689:Fathullah Shirazi
4623:Al-Ashraf Umar II
4335:Ibrahim ibn Sinan
4138:Ibrāhīm al-Fazārī
3926:978-1-4419-9918-4
3850:978-90-481-9612-8
3823:978-0-8147-8023-7
3793:978-0-415-12410-2
3772:978-600-02-0665-9
3753:978-0-521-40216-3
3677:Madelung, Wilferd
3661:978-0-415-96930-7
3636:Keys of Astronomy
3576:978-90-04-08265-6
3425:978-0-19-535576-5
3400:978-1-317-34130-7
3305:978-0-415-96691-7
3284:978-0-521-05633-5
3214:978-1-4042-0512-3
3178:978-06841-9-073-0
3155:978-0-415-12411-9
3032:978-90-04-17413-9
3007:978-0-86690-049-2
2986:978-07914-1-515-3
2878:. 25/26: 86–115.
2860:978-0-521-20093-6
2799:978-33195-7-011-2
2755:978-90-04-03796-0
2748:. Brill Archive.
2734:978-0-674-07282-4
2707:978-0-226-34677-9
2682:978-1-84831-150-3
2659:978-30310-7-873-6
2529:978-1-56518-252-3
2456:978-1-4907-1446-2
2272:(Radio broadcast)
2068:Kamaruzzaman 2003
1470:historical drama
1428:Scholars Pavilion
1399:and the asteroid
1395:The lunar crater
1216:The Book on India
1073:concepts of God.
886:scientific method
858:creatio ex nihilo
758:being based upon
683:Belonging to the
612:, then under the
334:
333:
260:The Mas'udi Canon
166:Ghaznavid dynasty
16:(Redirected from
8121:
8114:Critics of deism
8084:Iranian chemists
7930:
7929:
7918:
7917:
7916:
7906:
7905:
7894:
7893:
7892:
7882:
7881:
7880:
7870:
7869:
7868:
7861:
7845:Shihab al-Nasawi
7830:Tahir ibn Husayn
7702:Farrukhi Sistani
7677:Aruzi Samarqandi
7476:Abu Mu'in Nasafi
7444:Islamic scholars
7262:
7255:
7248:
7239:
7183:Mu'jam Al-Buldan
7169:Tabula Rogeriana
7163:(ibn Khordadbeh)
6848:Ahmad ibn Fadlan
6843:Ahmad ibn Rustah
6797:
6777:
6770:
6763:
6754:
6649:
6645:Prize Recipients
6639:
6598:Amin Shokrollahi
6530:Freydoon Shahidi
6386:Jamshid al-Kashi
6369:
6351:
6344:
6337:
6328:
6139:Tabula Rogeriana
6065:
6013:Sibt al-Maridini
5673:Sinan ibn Thabit
5582:Abu Said Gorgani
5572:Thābit ibn Qurra
5562:Ishaq ibn Hunayn
5547:Hunayn ibn Ishaq
5492:
5472:
5465:
5458:
5449:
5429:Indian astronomy
5398:Indian astronomy
5366:
5359:
5352:
5273:Sublunary sphere
5263:Specific gravity
5163:Earth's rotation
5052:Mural instrument
4997:Armillary sphere
4920:Alfonsine tables
4885:Tabula Rogeriana
4865:Islamic calendar
4853:
4846:
4835:
4730:Sibt al-Maridini
4715:Jamshid al-Kashi
4436:Said al-Andalusi
4239:Thābit ibn Qurra
4174:Abu Said Gorgani
4148:Yaʿqūb ibn Ṭāriq
4102:
4089:
4074:
4067:
4060:
4051:
4038:
4023:
4006:
3989:
3956:
3953:Internet Archive
3930:
3906:
3891:
3854:
3827:
3811:
3797:
3776:
3757:
3741:
3730:
3710:
3696:
3687:. Brill Online.
3674:
3665:
3649:
3633:
3627:
3610:
3580:
3560:
3546:
3513:
3486:
3477:
3455:
3446:
3429:
3404:
3377:
3348:
3309:
3288:
3272:
3261:
3243:
3218:
3197:
3182:
3170:
3159:
3138:
3123:
3108:
3093:
3045:
3036:
3023:Brill Publishers
3011:
2990:
2974:
2963:
2948:
2933:
2918:Medical Archives
2912:
2895:
2873:
2864:
2836:
2803:
2776:
2759:
2738:
2722:
2711:
2686:
2675:. London: Icon.
2674:
2663:
2637:
2635:
2633:
2614:
2599:
2575:
2552:
2542:
2533:
2512:
2475:
2460:
2439:
2429:
2404:
2366:
2365:
2363:
2361:
2349:
2343:
2342:
2340:
2338:
2323:
2317:
2316:
2314:
2312:
2297:
2291:
2290:
2288:
2286:
2273:
2265:
2259:
2253:
2247:
2241:
2235:
2229:
2223:
2217:
2208:
2202:
2196:
2190:
2184:
2178:
2172:
2166:
2160:
2159:
2157:
2155:
2140:
2134:
2128:
2119:
2113:
2107:
2101:
2095:
2089:
2083:
2077:
2071:
2065:
2059:
2053:
2047:
2041:
2035:
2029:
2023:
2017:
2011:
2005:
1999:
1993:
1987:
1981:
1975:
1969:
1963:
1957:
1951:
1945:
1939:
1933:
1927:
1921:
1915:
1909:
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1892:
1886:
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1874:
1868:
1862:
1856:
1850:
1844:
1838:
1832:
1826:
1820:
1814:
1808:
1802:
1796:
1783:
1777:
1771:
1765:
1746:
1743:Waardenburg 1999
1740:
1734:
1728:
1707:
1701:
1695:
1692:Papan-Matin 2010
1689:
1683:
1677:
1671:
1665:
1659:
1653:
1647:
1641:
1635:
1629:
1623:
1617:
1611:
1610:, pp. 9–10.
1605:
1599:
1593:
1584:
1578:
1569:
1563:
1552:
1546:
1540:
1534:
1515:
1504:
1455:
1354:
1335:
1333:Epître de Berūnī
1329:
1321:
1307:
1306:
1289:
1288:
1276:Mahmud of Ghazni
1269:
1268:
1257:
1256:
1235:
1226:Alberuni's India
1223:
1213:
1207:
1206:
1196:
1176:
1128:
1123:with the title
1102:
1092:Alberuni's India
1049:, Christianity,
1021:
1002:specific gravity
988:
848:school, such as
795:Key to Astronomy
792:
786:
779:Indian astronomy
673:Mahmud of Ghazni
655:
649:
647:
529:
523:
505:
491:
462:, and also knew
440:natural sciences
391:
383:
375:
374:
371:
370:
367:
364:
361:
358:
355:
352:
349:
346:
197:Main interest(s)
120:Ghaznavid Empire
111:
108:
67:
46:
21:
8129:
8128:
8124:
8123:
8122:
8120:
8119:
8118:
7944:
7943:
7942:
7937:
7936:
7924:
7914:
7912:
7900:
7890:
7888:
7878:
7876:
7866:
7864:
7856:
7854:
7849:
7800:Abu Ali Bal'ami
7785:Ali-Shir Nava'i
7752:
7746:
7687:Attar Nishapuri
7655:
7536:Hakim Nishapuri
7466:Abu Hafs Nasafi
7439:
7388:
7304:Abu Zayd Balkhi
7272:
7266:
7236:
7231:
7212:
7207:Kitab al-Kharaj
7134:
7118:
7087:
7068:Ahmad ibn Mājid
7046:
7005:
6986:Yaqut al-Hamawi
6964:
6938:
6902:
6826:
6786:
6781:
6751:
6746:
6730:
6710:
6691:
6672:
6640:
6627:
6623:Amir Ali Ahmadi
6545:Esmail Babolian
6478:
6373:
6358:
6355:
6325:
6320:
6292:Arabic numerals
6275:
6249:
6223:
6199:House of Wisdom
6172:
6151:
6073:
6066:
6053:
6022:
5966:
5952:Ibn al-Durayhim
5930:
5849:
5815:Jabir ibn Aflah
5803:
5734:Abu Nasr Mansur
5722:
5618:Ahmad ibn Yusuf
5586:
5481:
5476:
5446:
5433:
5402:
5371:
5362:
5355:
5348:
5334:House of Wisdom
5312:
5268:Spherical Earth
5101:
5032:Equatorial ring
5012:Celestial globe
4987:Analog computer
4964:
4959:Sullam al-sama'
4904:
4840:
4821:
4790:
4754:
4693:
4632:
4531:
4517:Jabir ibn Aflah
4460:
4391:Abu Nasr Mansur
4379:
4360:Abolfadl Harawi
4295:Ahmad ibn Yusuf
4248:
4152:
4123:Ahmad Nahavandi
4111:
4096:
4083:
4078:
4043:
4030:Wayback Machine
4013:Wayback Machine
3996:Wayback Machine
3974:British Library
3963:
3945:Islamic Culture
3938:
3927:
3894:
3857:
3851:
3830:
3824:
3800:
3794:
3779:
3773:
3760:
3754:
3733:
3719:
3699:
3681:Daftary, Farhad
3668:
3662:
3641:
3613:
3583:
3577:
3549:
3535:
3516:
3497:
3494:
3492:Further reading
3489:
3480:
3462:Rowson, Everett
3449:
3432:
3426:
3407:
3401:
3380:
3351:
3329:10.2307/3318074
3312:
3306:
3291:
3285:
3264:
3221:
3215:
3200:
3185:
3179:
3162:
3156:
3141:
3126:
3111:
3096:
3039:
3033:
3014:
3008:
2993:
2987:
2966:
2951:
2936:
2920:(in Croatian).
2915:
2898:
2867:
2861:
2839:
2806:
2800:
2779:
2762:
2756:
2741:
2735:
2714:
2708:
2689:
2683:
2666:
2660:
2650:Springer Nature
2641:
2631:
2629:
2617:
2602:
2587:
2555:
2536:
2530:
2515:
2478:
2463:
2457:
2442:
2407:
2393:10.2307/3033407
2378:
2374:
2369:
2359:
2357:
2351:
2350:
2346:
2336:
2334:
2325:
2324:
2320:
2310:
2308:
2299:
2298:
2294:
2284:
2282:
2271:
2267:
2266:
2262:
2254:
2250:
2242:
2238:
2230:
2226:
2218:
2211:
2203:
2199:
2191:
2187:
2179:
2175:
2167:
2163:
2153:
2151:
2143:George Saliba.
2142:
2141:
2137:
2129:
2122:
2114:
2110:
2102:
2098:
2090:
2086:
2078:
2074:
2066:
2062:
2054:
2050:
2042:
2038:
2030:
2026:
2018:
2014:
2006:
2002:
1994:
1990:
1982:
1978:
1970:
1966:
1958:
1954:
1946:
1942:
1934:
1930:
1922:
1918:
1910:
1901:
1893:
1889:
1881:
1877:
1871:Stephenson 2008
1869:
1865:
1857:
1853:
1845:
1841:
1833:
1829:
1821:
1817:
1809:
1805:
1797:
1786:
1778:
1774:
1766:
1749:
1741:
1737:
1731:Sparavigna 2013
1729:
1710:
1702:
1698:
1690:
1686:
1678:
1674:
1668:Strohmaier 2006
1666:
1662:
1654:
1650:
1642:
1638:
1630:
1626:
1618:
1614:
1606:
1602:
1594:
1587:
1579:
1572:
1564:
1555:
1547:
1543:
1535:
1528:
1524:
1519:
1518:
1505:
1501:
1496:
1448:
1375:
1343:
1262:The Mas'udi Law
1188:
1174:Kitab al-Tafhim
1165:
1094:
1088:
1079:
1071:anthropomorphic
1069:) have adopted
1038:
1014:
979:Biruni wrote a
977:
956:Codex Masudicus
928:Pind Dadan Khan
912:
906:
882:
842:
836:
712:
644:
571:
512:
434:, mathematics,
382:ابوریحان بیرونی
343:
339:
330:
310:
309:
300:
292:Abu Nasr Mansur
280:
279:
240:Notable work(s)
158:Ziyarid dynasty
156:
127:
113:
109:
98:
84:
70:
58:
51:
42:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
8127:
8125:
8117:
8116:
8111:
8106:
8101:
8096:
8091:
8086:
8081:
8076:
8071:
8066:
8061:
8056:
8051:
8046:
8041:
8036:
8031:
8026:
8021:
8016:
8011:
8006:
8001:
7996:
7991:
7986:
7981:
7976:
7971:
7966:
7961:
7956:
7946:
7945:
7939:
7938:
7935:
7934:
7922:
7910:
7898:
7886:
7874:
7851:
7850:
7848:
7847:
7842:
7837:
7832:
7827:
7822:
7817:
7812:
7810:Ibn Khordadbeh
7807:
7802:
7797:
7792:
7787:
7782:
7777:
7772:
7767:
7762:
7756:
7754:
7751:Historians and
7748:
7747:
7745:
7744:
7739:
7734:
7729:
7724:
7719:
7714:
7709:
7704:
7699:
7694:
7689:
7684:
7679:
7674:
7669:
7663:
7661:
7657:
7656:
7654:
7653:
7648:
7643:
7638:
7633:
7628:
7623:
7618:
7613:
7608:
7603:
7598:
7593:
7588:
7583:
7578:
7573:
7568:
7563:
7558:
7553:
7548:
7543:
7538:
7533:
7531:Hakim Tirmidhi
7528:
7523:
7518:
7513:
7508:
7503:
7498:
7493:
7488:
7483:
7478:
7473:
7468:
7463:
7458:
7453:
7447:
7445:
7441:
7440:
7438:
7437:
7432:
7427:
7422:
7417:
7412:
7407:
7402:
7396:
7394:
7390:
7389:
7387:
7386:
7381:
7376:
7371:
7366:
7361:
7356:
7351:
7346:
7341:
7336:
7331:
7326:
7321:
7316:
7311:
7306:
7301:
7296:
7291:
7286:
7280:
7278:
7274:
7273:
7267:
7265:
7264:
7257:
7250:
7242:
7233:
7232:
7230:
7229:
7220:
7218:
7214:
7213:
7211:
7210:
7203:
7198:
7191:
7186:
7179:
7172:
7165:
7157:
7148:
7146:
7140:
7139:
7136:
7135:
7133:
7132:
7126:
7124:
7120:
7119:
7117:
7116:
7111:
7106:
7101:
7095:
7093:
7089:
7088:
7086:
7085:
7080:
7075:
7070:
7065:
7060:
7054:
7052:
7048:
7047:
7045:
7044:
7039:
7034:
7029:
7024:
7019:
7013:
7011:
7007:
7006:
7004:
7003:
7001:Ibn al-Mujawir
6998:
6993:
6988:
6983:
6978:
6972:
6970:
6966:
6965:
6963:
6962:
6957:
6952:
6946:
6944:
6940:
6939:
6937:
6936:
6931:
6926:
6921:
6916:
6910:
6908:
6904:
6903:
6901:
6900:
6895:
6890:
6885:
6880:
6875:
6870:
6865:
6860:
6855:
6850:
6845:
6840:
6838:Ibn Khordadbeh
6834:
6832:
6828:
6827:
6825:
6824:
6819:
6814:
6809:
6803:
6801:
6794:
6788:
6787:
6782:
6780:
6779:
6772:
6765:
6757:
6748:
6747:
6745:
6744:
6738:
6736:
6732:
6731:
6729:
6728:
6722:
6720:
6716:
6715:
6712:
6711:
6709:
6708:
6701:
6699:
6693:
6692:
6690:
6689:
6682:
6680:
6674:
6673:
6671:
6670:
6667:Caucher Birkar
6664:
6657:
6655:
6646:
6642:
6641:
6634:
6632:
6629:
6628:
6626:
6625:
6620:
6618:Hossein Zakeri
6615:
6610:
6605:
6600:
6595:
6590:
6585:
6575:
6570:
6555:Lotfi A. Zadeh
6552:
6547:
6542:
6537:
6527:
6525:Siamak Yassemi
6522:
6512:
6502:
6497:
6495:Caucher Birkar
6492:
6486:
6484:
6480:
6479:
6477:
6476:
6471:
6466:
6461:
6451:
6446:
6441:
6436:
6434:Kushyar Gilani
6431:
6426:
6421:
6416:
6411:
6393:
6383:
6377:
6375:
6366:
6364:Mathematicians
6360:
6359:
6356:
6354:
6353:
6346:
6339:
6331:
6322:
6321:
6319:
6318:
6313:
6308:
6303:
6289:
6283:
6281:
6277:
6276:
6274:
6273:
6268:
6263:
6257:
6255:
6251:
6250:
6248:
6247:
6242:
6237:
6231:
6229:
6225:
6224:
6222:
6221:
6216:
6211:
6206:
6201:
6196:
6191:
6186:
6180:
6178:
6174:
6173:
6171:
6170:
6165:
6159:
6157:
6153:
6152:
6150:
6149:
6142:
6135:
6132:Toledan Tables
6128:
6121:
6114:
6107:
6104:Book of Optics
6100:
6093:
6086:
6078:
6076:
6068:
6067:
6060:
6058:
6055:
6054:
6052:
6051:
6046:
6041:
6036:
6030:
6028:
6024:
6023:
6021:
6020:
6015:
6010:
6005:
6000:
5995:
5990:
5985:
5980:
5974:
5972:
5968:
5967:
5965:
5964:
5959:
5954:
5949:
5944:
5938:
5936:
5932:
5931:
5929:
5928:
5923:
5918:
5913:
5908:
5903:
5898:
5893:
5888:
5883:
5878:
5873:
5868:
5863:
5857:
5855:
5851:
5850:
5848:
5847:
5845:Ibn al-Yasamin
5842:
5837:
5832:
5827:
5822:
5817:
5811:
5809:
5805:
5804:
5802:
5801:
5796:
5791:
5786:
5781:
5776:
5771:
5766:
5761:
5756:
5751:
5746:
5744:Kushyar Gilani
5741:
5736:
5730:
5728:
5724:
5723:
5721:
5720:
5715:
5710:
5705:
5700:
5695:
5690:
5688:Nazif ibn Yumn
5685:
5680:
5675:
5670:
5665:
5660:
5655:
5650:
5645:
5640:
5635:
5630:
5625:
5620:
5615:
5610:
5605:
5600:
5594:
5592:
5588:
5587:
5585:
5584:
5579:
5574:
5569:
5567:Na'im ibn Musa
5564:
5559:
5557:Yusuf al-Khuri
5554:
5549:
5544:
5539:
5534:
5529:
5527:Qusta ibn Luqa
5524:
5519:
5514:
5509:
5504:
5498:
5496:
5489:
5487:Mathematicians
5483:
5482:
5477:
5475:
5474:
5467:
5460:
5452:
5443:
5442:
5439:
5438:
5435:
5434:
5432:
5431:
5426:
5421:
5416:
5410:
5408:
5404:
5403:
5401:
5400:
5395:
5390:
5385:
5379:
5377:
5373:
5372:
5370:
5369:
5368:
5367:
5360:
5353:
5341:
5336:
5331:
5326:
5320:
5318:
5314:
5313:
5311:
5310:
5305:
5300:
5295:
5290:
5285:
5280:
5275:
5270:
5265:
5260:
5255:
5250:
5245:
5240:
5235:
5230:
5225:
5220:
5215:
5210:
5205:
5200:
5195:
5190:
5185:
5180:
5178:Elliptic orbit
5175:
5170:
5165:
5160:
5155:
5153:Circular orbit
5150:
5145:
5140:
5135:
5130:
5125:
5120:
5115:
5109:
5107:
5103:
5102:
5100:
5099:
5094:
5089:
5084:
5079:
5074:
5069:
5064:
5059:
5054:
5049:
5044:
5039:
5034:
5029:
5024:
5019:
5014:
5009:
5004:
4999:
4994:
4989:
4984:
4978:
4976:
4970:
4969:
4966:
4965:
4963:
4962:
4955:
4948:
4941:
4939:Toledan Tables
4936:
4929:
4922:
4916:
4914:
4906:
4905:
4903:
4902:
4895:
4888:
4881:
4874:
4867:
4862:
4856:
4850:
4842:
4841:
4838:
4831:
4830:
4827:
4826:
4823:
4822:
4820:
4819:
4814:
4809:
4804:
4802:Yang Guangxian
4798:
4796:
4792:
4791:
4789:
4788:
4783:
4778:
4773:
4768:
4762:
4760:
4756:
4755:
4753:
4752:
4747:
4742:
4737:
4732:
4727:
4722:
4717:
4712:
4707:
4701:
4699:
4695:
4694:
4692:
4691:
4686:
4681:
4676:
4671:
4666:
4661:
4656:
4651:
4646:
4640:
4638:
4634:
4633:
4631:
4630:
4625:
4620:
4615:
4610:
4605:
4600:
4595:
4590:
4585:
4580:
4575:
4570:
4565:
4560:
4555:
4550:
4545:
4539:
4537:
4533:
4532:
4530:
4529:
4524:
4519:
4514:
4509:
4504:
4499:
4494:
4489:
4484:
4479:
4474:
4468:
4466:
4462:
4461:
4459:
4458:
4456:Ali ibn Khalaf
4453:
4448:
4443:
4438:
4433:
4431:Kushyar Gilani
4428:
4423:
4418:
4413:
4408:
4403:
4401:Ali ibn Ridwan
4398:
4393:
4387:
4385:
4381:
4380:
4378:
4377:
4372:
4367:
4365:Haseb-i Tabari
4362:
4357:
4352:
4347:
4342:
4337:
4332:
4327:
4322:
4317:
4312:
4307:
4302:
4297:
4292:
4287:
4282:
4277:
4272:
4267:
4262:
4256:
4254:
4250:
4249:
4247:
4246:
4241:
4236:
4234:Sahl ibn Bishr
4231:
4226:
4221:
4216:
4211:
4206:
4201:
4196:
4191:
4186:
4181:
4176:
4171:
4166:
4160:
4158:
4154:
4153:
4151:
4150:
4145:
4140:
4135:
4130:
4125:
4119:
4117:
4113:
4112:
4110:
4109:
4105:
4098:
4097:
4092:
4085:
4084:
4079:
4077:
4076:
4069:
4062:
4054:
4048:
4045:
4044:
4041:
4035:
4034:
4033:
4032:
4015:
3998:
3978:
3977:
3970:
3962:
3961:External links
3959:
3958:
3957:
3936:
3925:
3892:
3872:10.1086/348801
3866:(4): 459–466.
3855:
3849:
3828:
3822:
3802:Saliba, George
3798:
3792:
3777:
3771:
3758:
3752:
3731:
3717:
3697:
3666:
3660:
3639:
3611:
3581:
3575:
3551:Brockelmann, C
3547:
3533:
3514:
3493:
3490:
3488:
3487:
3478:
3458:Krämer, Gudrun
3447:
3430:
3424:
3405:
3399:
3378:
3349:
3323:(3): 185–193.
3310:
3304:
3289:
3283:
3262:
3219:
3213:
3198:
3183:
3177:
3160:
3154:
3139:
3124:
3109:
3094:
3066:10.1086/349868
3056:(3). Chicago:
3037:
3031:
3012:
3006:
2991:
2985:
2964:
2949:
2934:
2924:(2): 117–120.
2913:
2896:
2865:
2859:
2837:
2825:10.1086/371821
2819:(3): 274–284.
2804:
2798:
2777:
2760:
2754:
2739:
2733:
2712:
2706:
2687:
2681:
2664:
2658:
2639:
2615:
2600:
2585:
2558:Sachau, Eduard
2553:
2534:
2528:
2513:
2476:
2461:
2455:
2440:
2420:(1): 107–127.
2405:
2375:
2373:
2370:
2368:
2367:
2344:
2318:
2292:
2260:
2248:
2236:
2224:
2222:, p. 111.
2209:
2197:
2185:
2173:
2161:
2135:
2120:
2108:
2096:
2084:
2072:
2060:
2048:
2036:
2024:
2022:, p. 145.
2012:
2000:
1996:Scheppler 2006
1988:
1976:
1974:, p. 211.
1964:
1952:
1940:
1928:
1926:, p. 154.
1916:
1899:
1887:
1875:
1863:
1859:Covington 2007
1851:
1849:, p. 277.
1839:
1827:
1815:
1803:
1784:
1772:
1747:
1735:
1708:
1696:
1694:, p. 111.
1684:
1680:MacKenzie 2000
1672:
1670:, p. 112.
1660:
1648:
1644:Gulyamova 2022
1636:
1624:
1612:
1600:
1585:
1570:
1553:
1541:
1539:, p. 394.
1525:
1523:
1520:
1517:
1516:
1498:
1497:
1495:
1492:
1478:Cüneyt Uzunlar
1473:Bharat Ek Khoj
1447:
1444:
1414:In June 2009,
1401:9936 Al-Biruni
1374:
1371:
1342:
1339:
1338:
1337:
1323:
1315:
1312:
1309:
1297:
1291:
1279:
1259:
1245:
1229:
1187:
1184:
1164:
1161:
1144:Hindu calendar
1090:Main article:
1087:
1084:
1078:
1075:
1043:Zoroastrianism
1037:
1034:
1013:
1010:
976:
973:
905:
902:
881:
878:
835:
832:
711:
708:
570:
567:
548:Karakalpakstan
511:
508:
489:Tārīkh al-Hind
458:, Arabic, and
425:anthropologist
423:and the first
419:", Founder of
332:
331:
329:
328:
307:
306:
305:
302:
301:
299:
298:
277:
276:
275:
272:
271:
267:
266:
241:
237:
236:
198:
194:
193:
188:
184:
183:
178:
174:
173:
153:
149:
148:
143:
139:
138:
133:
129:
128:
114:
104:
100:
99:
85:
81:
77:
76:
72:
71:
68:
60:
59:
56:
53:
52:
49:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
8126:
8115:
8112:
8110:
8107:
8105:
8102:
8100:
8097:
8095:
8092:
8090:
8087:
8085:
8082:
8080:
8077:
8075:
8072:
8070:
8067:
8065:
8062:
8060:
8057:
8055:
8052:
8050:
8047:
8045:
8042:
8040:
8037:
8035:
8032:
8030:
8027:
8025:
8022:
8020:
8017:
8015:
8012:
8010:
8007:
8005:
8002:
8000:
7997:
7995:
7992:
7990:
7987:
7985:
7982:
7980:
7977:
7975:
7972:
7970:
7967:
7965:
7962:
7960:
7957:
7955:
7952:
7951:
7949:
7933:
7928:
7923:
7921:
7911:
7909:
7904:
7899:
7897:
7887:
7885:
7875:
7873:
7863:
7859:
7846:
7843:
7841:
7838:
7836:
7835:Yahya Barmaki
7833:
7831:
7828:
7826:
7825:Nizam al-Mulk
7823:
7821:
7818:
7816:
7813:
7811:
7808:
7806:
7803:
7801:
7798:
7796:
7793:
7791:
7788:
7786:
7783:
7781:
7778:
7776:
7773:
7771:
7768:
7766:
7763:
7761:
7758:
7757:
7755:
7749:
7743:
7740:
7738:
7735:
7733:
7730:
7728:
7725:
7723:
7722:Nasir Khusraw
7720:
7718:
7715:
7713:
7710:
7708:
7705:
7703:
7700:
7698:
7695:
7693:
7690:
7688:
7685:
7683:
7680:
7678:
7675:
7673:
7670:
7668:
7665:
7664:
7662:
7658:
7652:
7649:
7647:
7644:
7642:
7639:
7637:
7634:
7632:
7629:
7627:
7624:
7622:
7619:
7617:
7614:
7612:
7609:
7607:
7604:
7602:
7599:
7597:
7594:
7592:
7589:
7587:
7586:Mulla al-Qari
7584:
7582:
7579:
7577:
7574:
7572:
7569:
7567:
7564:
7562:
7559:
7557:
7554:
7552:
7549:
7547:
7544:
7542:
7539:
7537:
7534:
7532:
7529:
7527:
7524:
7522:
7519:
7517:
7514:
7512:
7509:
7507:
7504:
7502:
7499:
7497:
7494:
7492:
7489:
7487:
7484:
7482:
7479:
7477:
7474:
7472:
7469:
7467:
7464:
7462:
7459:
7457:
7454:
7452:
7449:
7448:
7446:
7442:
7436:
7433:
7431:
7428:
7426:
7425:Nasir Khusraw
7423:
7421:
7418:
7416:
7413:
7411:
7408:
7406:
7403:
7401:
7398:
7397:
7395:
7391:
7385:
7382:
7380:
7377:
7375:
7372:
7370:
7367:
7365:
7362:
7360:
7357:
7355:
7352:
7350:
7347:
7345:
7342:
7340:
7337:
7335:
7334:Hasib Marwazi
7332:
7330:
7327:
7325:
7322:
7320:
7317:
7315:
7312:
7310:
7307:
7305:
7302:
7300:
7297:
7295:
7292:
7290:
7287:
7285:
7282:
7281:
7279:
7275:
7271:
7263:
7258:
7256:
7251:
7249:
7244:
7243:
7240:
7228:
7226:
7222:
7221:
7219:
7215:
7209:
7208:
7204:
7202:
7201:Piri Reis map
7199:
7197:
7196:
7192:
7190:
7187:
7185:
7184:
7180:
7178:
7177:
7173:
7171:
7170:
7166:
7164:
7162:
7158:
7156:
7154:
7150:
7149:
7147:
7145:
7141:
7131:
7130:Evliya Çelebi
7128:
7127:
7125:
7121:
7115:
7112:
7110:
7107:
7105:
7102:
7100:
7097:
7096:
7094:
7090:
7084:
7081:
7079:
7076:
7074:
7071:
7069:
7066:
7064:
7061:
7059:
7056:
7055:
7053:
7049:
7043:
7040:
7038:
7035:
7033:
7030:
7028:
7025:
7023:
7020:
7018:
7015:
7014:
7012:
7008:
7002:
6999:
6997:
6994:
6992:
6989:
6987:
6984:
6982:
6981:Saadi Shirazi
6979:
6977:
6974:
6973:
6971:
6967:
6961:
6958:
6956:
6953:
6951:
6948:
6947:
6945:
6941:
6935:
6932:
6930:
6927:
6925:
6922:
6920:
6917:
6915:
6912:
6911:
6909:
6905:
6899:
6896:
6894:
6893:Al-Ramhormuzi
6891:
6889:
6886:
6884:
6881:
6879:
6876:
6874:
6871:
6869:
6866:
6864:
6861:
6859:
6856:
6854:
6851:
6849:
6846:
6844:
6841:
6839:
6836:
6835:
6833:
6829:
6823:
6820:
6818:
6815:
6813:
6810:
6808:
6805:
6804:
6802:
6798:
6795:
6793:
6789:
6785:
6778:
6773:
6771:
6766:
6764:
6759:
6758:
6755:
6743:
6740:
6739:
6737:
6733:
6727:
6724:
6723:
6721:
6719:Organizations
6717:
6706:
6703:
6702:
6700:
6698:
6694:
6687:
6684:
6683:
6681:
6679:
6675:
6668:
6665:
6662:
6659:
6658:
6656:
6654:
6650:
6647:
6643:
6638:
6624:
6621:
6619:
6616:
6614:
6611:
6609:
6606:
6604:
6601:
6599:
6596:
6594:
6591:
6589:
6586:
6583:
6579:
6578:Reza Sarhangi
6576:
6574:
6571:
6568:
6564:
6560:
6556:
6553:
6551:
6548:
6546:
6543:
6541:
6538:
6535:
6531:
6528:
6526:
6523:
6520:
6516:
6513:
6510:
6506:
6503:
6501:
6498:
6496:
6493:
6491:
6488:
6487:
6485:
6481:
6475:
6472:
6470:
6467:
6465:
6462:
6459:
6455:
6452:
6450:
6447:
6445:
6442:
6440:
6437:
6435:
6432:
6430:
6427:
6425:
6422:
6420:
6417:
6415:
6412:
6409:
6405:
6401:
6397:
6394:
6391:
6387:
6384:
6382:
6379:
6378:
6376:
6370:
6367:
6365:
6361:
6352:
6347:
6345:
6340:
6338:
6333:
6332:
6329:
6317:
6314:
6312:
6309:
6307:
6304:
6301:
6297:
6293:
6290:
6288:
6285:
6284:
6282:
6278:
6272:
6269:
6267:
6264:
6262:
6259:
6258:
6256:
6252:
6246:
6243:
6241:
6238:
6236:
6233:
6232:
6230:
6226:
6220:
6217:
6215:
6212:
6210:
6207:
6205:
6202:
6200:
6197:
6195:
6192:
6190:
6187:
6185:
6182:
6181:
6179:
6175:
6169:
6166:
6164:
6161:
6160:
6158:
6154:
6148:
6147:
6143:
6141:
6140:
6136:
6134:
6133:
6129:
6127:
6126:
6122:
6120:
6119:
6115:
6113:
6112:
6108:
6106:
6105:
6101:
6099:
6098:
6094:
6092:
6091:
6087:
6085:
6084:
6080:
6079:
6077:
6075:
6069:
6064:
6050:
6047:
6045:
6042:
6040:
6037:
6035:
6032:
6031:
6029:
6025:
6019:
6016:
6014:
6011:
6009:
6006:
6004:
6001:
5999:
5996:
5994:
5991:
5989:
5986:
5984:
5981:
5979:
5976:
5975:
5973:
5969:
5963:
5960:
5958:
5955:
5953:
5950:
5948:
5947:Ibn al-Shatir
5945:
5943:
5940:
5939:
5937:
5933:
5927:
5924:
5922:
5921:Ibn al-Banna'
5919:
5917:
5914:
5912:
5909:
5907:
5904:
5902:
5899:
5897:
5894:
5892:
5889:
5887:
5884:
5882:
5879:
5877:
5874:
5872:
5869:
5867:
5866:Ahmad al-Buni
5864:
5862:
5859:
5858:
5856:
5852:
5846:
5843:
5841:
5838:
5836:
5833:
5831:
5828:
5826:
5823:
5821:
5818:
5816:
5813:
5812:
5810:
5806:
5800:
5797:
5795:
5792:
5790:
5787:
5785:
5782:
5780:
5777:
5775:
5772:
5770:
5767:
5765:
5762:
5760:
5757:
5755:
5752:
5750:
5747:
5745:
5742:
5740:
5737:
5735:
5732:
5731:
5729:
5725:
5719:
5716:
5714:
5711:
5709:
5706:
5704:
5701:
5699:
5696:
5694:
5691:
5689:
5686:
5684:
5681:
5679:
5676:
5674:
5671:
5669:
5666:
5664:
5661:
5659:
5656:
5654:
5651:
5649:
5646:
5644:
5641:
5639:
5636:
5634:
5631:
5629:
5626:
5624:
5621:
5619:
5616:
5614:
5611:
5609:
5606:
5604:
5601:
5599:
5596:
5595:
5593:
5589:
5583:
5580:
5578:
5575:
5573:
5570:
5568:
5565:
5563:
5560:
5558:
5555:
5553:
5550:
5548:
5545:
5543:
5540:
5538:
5535:
5533:
5530:
5528:
5525:
5523:
5520:
5518:
5515:
5513:
5510:
5508:
5507:Sanad ibn Ali
5505:
5503:
5500:
5499:
5497:
5493:
5490:
5488:
5484:
5480:
5473:
5468:
5466:
5461:
5459:
5454:
5453:
5450:
5430:
5427:
5425:
5422:
5420:
5417:
5415:
5412:
5411:
5409:
5405:
5399:
5396:
5394:
5391:
5389:
5386:
5384:
5381:
5380:
5378:
5374:
5365:
5361:
5358:
5354:
5351:
5347:
5346:
5345:
5344:Observatories
5342:
5340:
5337:
5335:
5332:
5330:
5327:
5325:
5322:
5321:
5319:
5315:
5309:
5306:
5304:
5301:
5299:
5298:Triangulation
5296:
5294:
5291:
5289:
5286:
5284:
5281:
5279:
5276:
5274:
5271:
5269:
5266:
5264:
5261:
5259:
5256:
5254:
5251:
5249:
5246:
5244:
5241:
5239:
5236:
5234:
5231:
5229:
5226:
5224:
5221:
5219:
5216:
5214:
5211:
5209:
5208:Heliocentrism
5206:
5204:
5201:
5199:
5196:
5194:
5191:
5189:
5186:
5184:
5181:
5179:
5176:
5174:
5171:
5169:
5166:
5164:
5161:
5159:
5156:
5154:
5151:
5149:
5146:
5144:
5141:
5139:
5136:
5134:
5131:
5129:
5126:
5124:
5121:
5119:
5116:
5114:
5111:
5110:
5108:
5104:
5098:
5095:
5093:
5090:
5088:
5085:
5083:
5082:Shadow square
5080:
5078:
5075:
5073:
5070:
5068:
5065:
5063:
5060:
5058:
5055:
5053:
5050:
5048:
5045:
5043:
5040:
5038:
5035:
5033:
5030:
5028:
5025:
5023:
5020:
5018:
5015:
5013:
5010:
5008:
5005:
5003:
5000:
4998:
4995:
4993:
4990:
4988:
4985:
4983:
4980:
4979:
4977:
4975:
4971:
4961:
4960:
4956:
4954:
4953:
4952:Zij-i Sultani
4949:
4947:
4946:
4945:Zij-i Ilkhani
4942:
4940:
4937:
4935:
4934:
4930:
4928:
4927:
4923:
4921:
4918:
4917:
4915:
4913:
4912:
4907:
4901:
4900:
4896:
4894:
4893:
4889:
4887:
4886:
4882:
4880:
4879:
4875:
4873:
4872:
4868:
4866:
4863:
4861:
4858:
4857:
4854:
4851:
4847:
4843:
4836:
4832:
4818:
4815:
4813:
4810:
4808:
4805:
4803:
4800:
4799:
4797:
4793:
4787:
4784:
4782:
4779:
4777:
4774:
4772:
4769:
4767:
4764:
4763:
4761:
4757:
4751:
4748:
4746:
4743:
4741:
4738:
4736:
4733:
4731:
4728:
4726:
4723:
4721:
4720:Kadızade Rumi
4718:
4716:
4713:
4711:
4708:
4706:
4703:
4702:
4700:
4696:
4690:
4687:
4685:
4682:
4680:
4677:
4675:
4672:
4670:
4667:
4665:
4662:
4660:
4657:
4655:
4652:
4650:
4647:
4645:
4644:Ibn al-Shatir
4642:
4641:
4639:
4635:
4629:
4626:
4624:
4621:
4619:
4618:Ibn al‐Raqqam
4616:
4614:
4611:
4609:
4606:
4604:
4601:
4599:
4596:
4594:
4591:
4589:
4586:
4584:
4581:
4579:
4576:
4574:
4571:
4569:
4566:
4564:
4561:
4559:
4556:
4554:
4551:
4549:
4546:
4544:
4541:
4540:
4538:
4534:
4528:
4525:
4523:
4520:
4518:
4515:
4513:
4512:Ibn al-Kammad
4510:
4508:
4505:
4503:
4500:
4498:
4495:
4493:
4490:
4488:
4485:
4483:
4480:
4478:
4475:
4473:
4470:
4469:
4467:
4463:
4457:
4454:
4452:
4449:
4447:
4444:
4442:
4439:
4437:
4434:
4432:
4429:
4427:
4426:Ibn al-Saffar
4424:
4422:
4419:
4417:
4414:
4412:
4409:
4407:
4404:
4402:
4399:
4397:
4394:
4392:
4389:
4388:
4386:
4382:
4376:
4373:
4371:
4368:
4366:
4363:
4361:
4358:
4356:
4353:
4351:
4348:
4346:
4343:
4341:
4338:
4336:
4333:
4331:
4328:
4326:
4323:
4321:
4318:
4316:
4313:
4311:
4308:
4306:
4303:
4301:
4298:
4296:
4293:
4291:
4288:
4286:
4283:
4281:
4278:
4276:
4273:
4271:
4268:
4266:
4263:
4261:
4258:
4257:
4255:
4251:
4245:
4242:
4240:
4237:
4235:
4232:
4230:
4227:
4225:
4222:
4220:
4217:
4215:
4212:
4210:
4207:
4205:
4202:
4200:
4197:
4195:
4192:
4190:
4187:
4185:
4182:
4180:
4177:
4175:
4172:
4170:
4167:
4165:
4162:
4161:
4159:
4155:
4149:
4146:
4144:
4141:
4139:
4136:
4134:
4131:
4129:
4126:
4124:
4121:
4120:
4118:
4114:
4107:
4106:
4103:
4099:
4095:
4090:
4086:
4082:
4075:
4070:
4068:
4063:
4061:
4056:
4055:
4052:
4046:
4039:
4031:
4027:
4024:
4022:
4016:
4014:
4010:
4007:
4005:
3999:
3997:
3993:
3990:
3988:
3982:
3981:
3980:
3979:
3975:
3971:
3968:
3965:
3964:
3960:
3954:
3950:
3946:
3942:
3937:
3934:
3928:
3922:
3918:
3914:
3910:
3905:
3904:
3898:
3893:
3889:
3885:
3881:
3877:
3873:
3869:
3865:
3861:
3856:
3852:
3846:
3842:
3838:
3834:
3829:
3825:
3819:
3815:
3810:
3809:
3803:
3799:
3795:
3789:
3786:. Routledge.
3785:
3784:
3778:
3774:
3768:
3764:
3759:
3755:
3749:
3745:
3742:. Cambridge:
3740:
3739:
3732:
3728:
3724:
3720:
3718:9780684101149
3714:
3709:
3708:
3702:
3701:Kennedy, E.S.
3698:
3694:
3690:
3686:
3682:
3678:
3673:
3667:
3663:
3657:
3653:
3648:
3647:
3640:
3637:
3632:
3625:
3621:
3617:
3616:Bīrūnī nāmeh
3612:
3608:
3604:
3600:
3599:
3594:
3590:
3586:
3582:
3578:
3572:
3568:
3564:
3559:
3558:
3552:
3548:
3544:
3540:
3536:
3534:9780521069366
3530:
3526:
3522:
3521:
3515:
3511:
3507:
3503:
3502:
3496:
3495:
3491:
3484:
3479:
3475:
3471:
3467:
3463:
3459:
3454:
3448:
3444:
3440:
3436:
3431:
3427:
3421:
3417:
3413:
3412:
3406:
3402:
3396:
3392:
3388:
3384:
3379:
3375:
3371:
3367:
3363:
3359:
3355:
3350:
3346:
3342:
3338:
3334:
3330:
3326:
3322:
3318:
3317:
3311:
3307:
3301:
3297:
3296:
3290:
3286:
3280:
3276:
3273:. Cambridge:
3271:
3270:
3263:
3259:
3255:
3251:
3247:
3242:
3237:
3234:(12): 52–60.
3233:
3229:
3225:
3220:
3216:
3210:
3206:
3205:
3199:
3195:
3194:
3189:
3184:
3180:
3174:
3169:
3168:
3161:
3157:
3151:
3147:
3146:
3140:
3136:
3135:
3130:
3125:
3121:
3120:
3115:
3110:
3106:
3105:
3100:
3095:
3091:
3087:
3083:
3079:
3075:
3071:
3067:
3063:
3059:
3055:
3051:
3050:
3044:
3038:
3034:
3028:
3024:
3020:
3019:
3013:
3009:
3003:
2999:
2998:
2992:
2988:
2982:
2978:
2973:
2972:
2965:
2961:
2960:
2955:
2950:
2946:
2945:
2940:
2935:
2931:
2927:
2923:
2919:
2914:
2910:
2906:
2902:
2897:
2893:
2889:
2885:
2881:
2877:
2872:
2866:
2862:
2856:
2852:
2848:
2847:
2842:
2838:
2834:
2830:
2826:
2822:
2818:
2814:
2810:
2805:
2801:
2795:
2791:
2787:
2783:
2778:
2774:
2770:
2766:
2761:
2757:
2751:
2747:
2746:
2740:
2736:
2730:
2726:
2721:
2720:
2713:
2709:
2703:
2699:
2695:
2694:
2688:
2684:
2678:
2673:
2672:
2665:
2661:
2655:
2651:
2647:
2646:
2640:
2627:
2626:
2621:
2616:
2612:
2611:
2606:
2601:
2597:
2596:
2591:
2586:
2583:
2579:
2573:
2569:
2565:
2564:
2559:
2554:
2550:
2546:
2541:
2535:
2531:
2525:
2521:
2520:
2514:
2510:
2506:
2502:
2498:
2494:
2490:
2486:
2482:
2477:
2473:
2472:
2467:
2462:
2458:
2452:
2448:
2447:
2441:
2437:
2433:
2428:
2423:
2419:
2415:
2411:
2406:
2402:
2398:
2394:
2390:
2386:
2382:
2377:
2376:
2371:
2355:
2348:
2345:
2332:
2328:
2322:
2319:
2307:. 5 June 2009
2306:
2302:
2296:
2293:
2281:
2277:
2270:
2264:
2261:
2257:
2252:
2249:
2246:, p. 37.
2245:
2240:
2237:
2233:
2232:Pingree 2000a
2228:
2225:
2221:
2216:
2214:
2210:
2207:, p. 26.
2206:
2201:
2198:
2194:
2189:
2186:
2183:, p. 17.
2182:
2177:
2174:
2170:
2165:
2162:
2150:
2146:
2139:
2136:
2132:
2131:Lawrence 2000
2127:
2125:
2121:
2117:
2112:
2109:
2105:
2100:
2097:
2093:
2088:
2085:
2082:, p. 60.
2081:
2076:
2073:
2069:
2064:
2061:
2057:
2056:de Blois 2000
2052:
2049:
2045:
2044:Pingree 2000c
2040:
2037:
2033:
2028:
2025:
2021:
2016:
2013:
2009:
2004:
2001:
1997:
1992:
1989:
1985:
1980:
1977:
1973:
1968:
1965:
1961:
1960:Pingree 2000b
1956:
1953:
1949:
1944:
1941:
1937:
1932:
1929:
1925:
1924:Alikuzai 2013
1920:
1917:
1913:
1908:
1906:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1891:
1888:
1884:
1879:
1876:
1872:
1867:
1864:
1860:
1855:
1852:
1848:
1843:
1840:
1837:, p. 32.
1836:
1831:
1828:
1824:
1819:
1816:
1812:
1807:
1804:
1800:
1795:
1793:
1791:
1789:
1785:
1781:
1776:
1773:
1769:
1764:
1762:
1760:
1758:
1756:
1754:
1752:
1748:
1745:, p. 27.
1744:
1739:
1736:
1732:
1727:
1725:
1723:
1721:
1719:
1717:
1715:
1713:
1709:
1706:, p. 68.
1705:
1700:
1697:
1693:
1688:
1685:
1681:
1676:
1673:
1669:
1664:
1661:
1658:, pp. 1.
1657:
1652:
1649:
1646:, p. 42.
1645:
1640:
1637:
1634:, p. 52.
1633:
1628:
1625:
1621:
1616:
1613:
1609:
1604:
1601:
1597:
1596:Bosworth 2000
1592:
1590:
1586:
1582:
1581:Kaminski 2017
1577:
1575:
1571:
1567:
1562:
1560:
1558:
1554:
1551:, p. 58.
1550:
1545:
1542:
1538:
1533:
1531:
1527:
1521:
1513:
1509:
1503:
1500:
1493:
1491:
1489:
1485:
1484:
1479:
1475:
1474:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1459:
1454:
1445:
1443:
1441:
1438:(Rhazes) and
1437:
1436:Zakariya Razi
1433:
1429:
1425:
1421:
1417:
1412:
1410:
1406:
1405:Biruni Island
1402:
1398:
1393:
1391:
1384:
1379:
1372:
1370:
1368:
1367:
1362:
1358:
1353:
1348:
1340:
1334:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1313:
1310:
1301:
1298:
1295:
1292:
1283:
1280:
1277:
1273:
1263:
1260:
1251:
1250:
1246:
1243:
1239:
1234:
1230:
1227:
1222:
1217:
1212:
1211:Kitāb al-Hind
1201:
1197:
1195:
1190:
1189:
1185:
1183:
1180:
1175:
1170:
1162:
1160:
1157:
1156:Eduard Sachau
1151:
1147:
1145:
1140:
1135:
1130:
1127:
1122:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1101:
1093:
1085:
1083:
1076:
1074:
1072:
1068:
1063:
1058:
1056:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1035:
1033:
1031:
1030:
1025:
1020:
1011:
1009:
1007:
1003:
999:
994:
992:
987:
982:
981:pharmacopoeia
974:
972:
969:
965:
961:
957:
948:
944:
941:
937:
933:
929:
925:
916:
911:
903:
901:
897:
895:
891:
887:
879:
877:
875:
869:
865:
863:
859:
855:
851:
847:
841:
833:
831:
829:
825:
821:
817:
813:
807:
805:
798:
796:
791:
785:
780:
775:
773:
769:
765:
761:
760:pseudoscience
757:
753:
749:
748:
743:
742:
735:
732:
725:
721:
716:
709:
707:
705:
701:
697:
693:
689:
686:
681:
679:
674:
669:
667:
663:
659:
654:
642:
638:
634:
629:
627:
623:
619:
615:
611:
607:
603:
599:
595:
594:Turkification
591:
587:
584:
580:
576:
568:
566:
564:
560:
555:
553:
550:in northwest
549:
545:
541:
537:
533:
528:
522:
517:
509:
507:
504:
499:
495:
490:
485:
481:
477:
473:
469:
465:
461:
457:
453:
449:
445:
441:
437:
433:
428:
426:
422:
418:
414:
410:
406:
402:
399:
395:
387:
379:
373:
338:
327:
323:
319:
315:
312:
303:
297:
293:
289:
285:
282:
273:
270:Muslim leader
268:
265:
261:
257:
256:
251:
247:
246:
242:
238:
235:
231:
227:
223:
219:
215:
211:
207:
203:
199:
195:
192:
189:
185:
182:
179:
175:
171:
167:
163:
159:
154:
150:
147:
144:
140:
137:
134:
130:
125:
121:
117:
105:
101:
96:
92:
88:
82:
78:
73:
66:
61:
54:
47:
44:
40:
33:
19:
7727:Rabia Balkhi
7393:Philosophers
7374:Omar Khayyam
7328:
7224:
7205:
7193:
7181:
7174:
7167:
7160:
7152:
7123:17th century
7092:16th century
7051:15th century
7027:Ibn al-Wardi
7010:14th century
6996:Ibn al-Nafis
6969:13th century
6943:12th century
6913:
6907:11th century
6888:Al-Muqaddasi
6883:Ibn al-Faqih
6831:10th century
6807:Al-Khwarizmi
6735:Institutions
6697:Satter Prize
6653:Fields Medal
6603:Reza Sadeghi
6515:S. L. Hakimi
6473:
6454:Al-Khwarizmi
6396:Omar Khayyam
6374:20th Century
6144:
6137:
6130:
6123:
6116:
6109:
6102:
6095:
6088:
6081:
6072:Mathematical
6027:16th century
5978:Ibn al-Majdi
5971:15th century
5935:14th century
5854:13th century
5808:12th century
5794:Omar Khayyam
5748:
5727:11th century
5623:Aṣ-Ṣaidanānī
5591:10th century
5552:Al-Khwarizmi
5317:Institutions
5168:Eccentricity
5128:Astrophysics
5022:Compass rose
4957:
4950:
4943:
4931:
4924:
4909:
4897:
4890:
4883:
4876:
4869:
4735:Ibn al-Majdi
4710:Abd al‐Wajid
4669:Al-Wabkanawi
4664:Abū al‐ʿUqūl
4553:Jamal ad-Din
4522:Omar Khayyam
4395:
4350:Al-ʻIjliyyah
4325:Aṣ-Ṣaidanānī
4310:Ibn al-A'lam
4229:Al-Khwarizmi
3948:
3944:
3902:
3863:
3859:
3832:
3812:. New York:
3807:
3782:
3762:
3737:
3706:
3684:
3645:
3635:
3615:
3597:
3589:Dowson, John
3556:
3519:
3500:
3482:
3465:
3434:
3410:
3386:
3382:
3357:
3353:
3320:
3314:
3294:
3268:
3231:
3227:
3203:
3191:
3166:
3144:
3132:
3117:
3102:
3053:
3047:
3017:
2996:
2970:
2957:
2942:
2921:
2917:
2900:
2875:
2845:
2816:
2812:
2781:
2772:
2768:
2744:
2718:
2692:
2670:
2644:
2630:. Retrieved
2625:Aramco World
2623:
2608:
2593:
2562:
2548:
2544:
2518:
2488:
2484:
2469:
2445:
2417:
2413:
2380:
2358:. Retrieved
2347:
2335:. Retrieved
2331:the original
2321:
2311:11 September
2309:. Retrieved
2295:
2283:. Retrieved
2275:
2263:
2251:
2239:
2227:
2200:
2188:
2176:
2171:, p. 5.
2164:
2152:. Retrieved
2148:
2138:
2111:
2099:
2087:
2075:
2063:
2051:
2039:
2032:Anawati 2000
2027:
2015:
2003:
1991:
1979:
1967:
1955:
1943:
1931:
1919:
1890:
1878:
1866:
1854:
1842:
1830:
1818:
1806:
1775:
1738:
1704:Hodgson 1974
1699:
1687:
1675:
1663:
1651:
1639:
1627:
1615:
1603:
1544:
1537:Kennedy 1975
1507:
1502:
1481:
1471:
1462:
1458:Soviet Union
1449:
1440:Omar Khayyam
1426:. Named the
1413:
1394:
1387:
1364:
1361:lexicography
1344:
1341:Persian work
1299:
1293:
1281:
1267:قانون مسعودي
1261:
1247:
1237:
1225:
1215:
1199:
1166:
1152:
1148:
1141:
1137:
1132:
1109:
1105:
1095:
1080:
1077:Anthropology
1059:
1039:
1027:
1023:
1015:
995:
990:
978:
964:Afro-Eurasia
955:
953:
921:
898:
888:to medieval
883:
871:
867:
843:
818:, the Sun's
812:Mas'ud Canon
811:
809:
803:
800:
794:
776:
762:rather than
745:
739:
736:
733:
729:
682:
670:
630:
572:
562:
556:
513:
493:
444:chronologist
429:
403:scholar and
393:
336:
335:
318:Omar Khayyam
263:
259:
253:
249:
243:
206:anthropology
177:Denomination
122:(modern-day
93:(modern-day
43:
8044:Indologists
7920:Outer space
7805:Gawhar Shad
7651:Zamakhshari
7631:Shaykh Tusi
7546:Ibn Mubarak
7435:Shahrastani
7037:Ibn Battuta
7017:Al-Dimashqi
6800:9th century
6792:Geographers
6686:Sara Zahedi
6567:Fuzzy logic
6500:Sara Zahedi
6449:Al-Isfizari
6444:Al-Isfahani
6090:De Gradibus
6044:Taqi ad-Din
6034:Al-Birjandi
6008:al-Qalaṣādī
5789:Al-Isfizari
5754:Ibn al-Samh
5683:Al-Isfahani
5663:al-Uqlidisi
5633:al-Khojandi
5598:Abu al-Wafa
5537:al-Dinawari
5495:9th century
5303:Tusi couple
5293:Trepidation
5258:Salah times
5193:Geocentrism
5067:Planisphere
5047:Graph paper
4974:Instruments
4926:Huihui Lifa
4807:Ehmedê Xanî
4766:Al-Birjandi
4745:al-Kubunani
4502:Abu al-Salt
4451:Al-Isfizari
4411:Ibn al-Samh
4290:Abu al-Wafa
4275:al-Khojandi
4179:Al-Farghani
4094:Astronomers
3933:PDF version
3672:"al-Bīrūnī"
3453:"al-Bīrūnī"
3360:: 209–211.
3060:: 343–349.
2495:: 141–154.
2276:In Our Time
2269:"Al-Biruni"
2244:Verdon 2015
2145:"Al-Bīrūnī"
2116:Tapper 1995
2092:Ataman 2005
2080:Ataman 2008
1972:Vibert 1973
1948:Hannam 2009
1895:Vibert 1973
1835:Noonan 2005
1823:Saliba 1982
1811:Saliba 2000
1632:Verdon 2015
1566:Akhtar 2011
1549:Ataman 2008
1468:Doordarshan
1464:Irrfan Khan
1390:British Raj
1114:yoga sutras
1045:, Judaism,
932:mean radius
772:Sunni Islam
768:theologians
756:astrologers
662:Al-Marzuban
620:the son of
538:kingdom of
452:Khwarezmian
407:during the
398:Khwarazmian
220:, history,
124:Afghanistan
110: 1050
7969:973 births
7948:Categories
7682:Asadi Tusi
7576:Marghinani
7541:Ibn Hibban
7461:Abu Hanifa
7339:Ibn Hayyan
7314:Ali Qushji
7309:Alfraganus
7277:Scientists
7268:People of
7217:Influences
7155:(al-Bakrī)
7022:Abu'l-Fida
6976:Ibn Jubayr
6878:Ibn Hawqal
6429:Al-Nayrizi
6254:Influenced
6228:Influences
5998:Ali Qushji
5957:Al-Khalili
5825:Al-Khazini
5820:Al-Kharaqī
5779:al-Zarqālī
5769:al-Jayyānī
5713:al-Majriti
5698:Abu al-Jud
5668:Al-Battani
5643:Al-Saghani
5638:Al-Nayrizi
5577:al-Marwazi
5512:al-Jawharī
5407:Influenced
5376:Influences
5248:Precession
5228:Multiverse
5133:Axial tilt
5113:Almucantar
5097:Triquetrum
5037:Equatorium
4786:Takiyüddin
4659:al-Battiwi
4654:Ibn Shuayb
4649:Al-Khalili
4492:Al-Khazini
4487:Al-Kharaqī
4482:Ibn Tufail
4472:Al-Bitruji
4406:Al-Zarqālī
4370:al-Majriti
4320:Al-Saghani
4315:Al-Nayrizi
4300:al-Battani
4219:Iranshahri
4204:Al-Marwazi
4108:by century
3624:1356523019
3543:1015426101
3414:. Oxford:
2909:1340409059
2572:1039522051
2256:Kraus 1936
2104:Ahmed 1984
2020:Levey 1973
1656:Starr 2023
1608:Ahmed 1984
1522:References
1514:and India.
1409:Antarctica
1366:Quadrivium
1116:of Indian
996:He used a
908:See also:
900:research.
850:al-Ghazali
764:empiricism
637:Tabaristan
592:until the
563:Alberonius
552:Uzbekistan
480:Ghaznavids
322:Al-Khazini
308:Influenced
296:Al-Battani
230:philosophy
226:psychology
95:Uzbekistan
7954:Al-Biruni
7896:Astronomy
7872:Biography
7636:Taftazani
7621:Sajawandi
7430:Sijistani
7359:Khwarizmi
7227:(Ptolemy)
7225:Geography
7114:Amīn Rāzī
7104:Piri Reis
6914:Al-Biruni
6863:Al-Masudi
6678:EMS Prize
6563:Fuzzy set
6474:Al-Biruni
6414:Al-Mahani
6003:al-Wafa'i
5993:Ulugh Beg
5896:al-Abhari
5881:Ibn Adlan
5871:Ibn Munim
5835:al-Hassar
5774:al-Nasawī
5749:Al-Biruni
5718:al-Jabali
5708:Al-Karaji
5658:Ibn Yunus
5613:Abu Kamil
5608:Al-Qabisi
5603:al-Khazin
5532:Al-Mahani
5283:Supernova
5238:Obliquity
5223:Moonlight
5123:Astrology
5002:Astrolabe
4781:Piri Reis
4771:al-Khafri
4740:al-Wafa'i
4725:Ulugh Beg
4705:Ali Kuşçu
4679:al-Jadiri
4598:al-Abhari
4396:al-Biruni
4330:Ibn Yunus
4305:Al-Qabisi
4280:al-Khazin
4189:Al-Mahani
3888:143086988
3727:755137603
3693:1875-9831
3652:Routledge
3474:1873-9830
3443:278693104
3391:Routledge
3374:0035-872X
3337:0003-5491
3258:119230163
3241:1312.7288
3090:143941055
3074:1545-6994
2892:0078-6527
2833:161208100
2509:143545645
2493:Routledge
2436:153637958
2337:6 January
2220:Nasr 1993
2154:12 August
1984:Huth 2013
1883:Nasr 1993
1768:Khan 1976
1620:Yano 2013
1460:in 1974.
1397:Al-Biruni
1352:al-Tafhim
1272:Ghaznavid
1121:Patanjali
890:mechanics
874:Aristotle
824:astrolabe
710:Astronomy
696:Mu'tazila
671:In 1017,
618:Mansur II
606:Ma'munids
602:Afrighids
579:astronomy
559:latinized
503:al-Ustadh
436:astronomy
394:al-Biruni
222:geography
218:chemistry
214:astronomy
200:Geology,
112:(aged 77)
39:Al-Burini
18:Al-Bīrūnī
7707:Ferdowsi
7646:Tirmidhi
7626:Sarakhsi
7606:Qushayri
7581:Maturidi
7526:Ghaznawi
7410:Avicenna
7354:Khojandi
7324:Birjandi
7319:Avicenna
7294:Abu Wafa
7270:Khorasan
7073:Zheng He
6950:al-Zuhri
6924:Al-Bakri
6868:Istakhri
6156:Concepts
5988:al-Kāshī
5962:al-Umawi
5764:Avicenna
5703:Al-Sijzi
5653:Ibn Sahl
5522:Al-Kindi
5357:Maragheh
5308:Universe
5278:Sunlight
5243:Parallax
5233:Muwaqqit
5173:Ecliptic
5106:Concepts
5072:Quadrant
4992:Aperture
4507:Averroes
4477:Avempace
4421:Avicenna
4355:Nastulus
4345:al-Sijzi
4270:Al-Adami
4184:Al-Kindi
4026:Archived
4009:Archived
3992:Archived
3804:(1994).
3683:(eds.).
3607:76070790
3591:(1871).
3510:55570787
3464:(eds.).
2930:10386051
2582:volume 2
2578:volume 1
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1512:Pakistan
1432:Avicenna
1294:Pharmacy
1177:in both
1086:Indology
1067:Jabriyah
1051:Buddhism
1047:Hinduism
1006:hardness
862:Ibn Sina
704:Avicenna
700:al-Jahiz
692:Maturidi
678:quadrant
666:Khwarezm
658:Bavandid
635:amir of
626:Avicenna
598:Khwarezm
540:Khwarazm
536:Afrighid
460:Sanskrit
448:linguist
421:Indology
405:polymath
396:, was a
314:Al-Sijzi
288:Al-Sijzi
234:theology
132:Religion
91:Khwarezm
75:Personal
8089:Asharis
7932:Science
7858:Portals
7780:Gardizi
7717:Kashifi
7591:Muqatil
7571:Lamishi
7566:Kashifi
7556:Juwayni
7521:Ghazali
7506:Bukhari
7501:Bazdawi
7496:Bayhaqi
7491:Baghavi
7400:Algazel
7349:Khazini
7083:Fei Xin
7078:Ma Huan
6934:Domiyat
6817:Ya'qubi
6458:Al-jabr
6372:Before
6280:Related
6209:Madrasa
6177:Centers
5983:al-Rūmī
5886:al-Urdi
5784:ibn Hud
5739:Alhazen
5693:al-Qūhī
5213:Inertia
5203:Gravity
5138:Azimuth
5087:Sundial
5077:Sextant
5027:Dioptra
5017:Compass
4982:Alidade
4593:al-Urdi
4416:Alhazen
4340:Ma Yize
4285:al-Qūhī
4260:al-Sufi
3383:al-Hind
3362:Bibcode
3345:3318074
2632:6 March
2560:(ed.).
2401:3033407
2372:Sources
2285:5 March
1508:al-Hind
1357:Persian
1274:sultan
1242:Persian
1179:Persian
968:Eurasia
954:In his
924:Nandana
880:Physics
846:Ash'ari
816:Ptolemy
781:in the
688:Ash'ari
633:Ziyarid
614:Samanid
610:Bukhara
583:Iranian
516:Persian
456:Persian
432:physics
417:geodesy
401:Iranian
378:Persian
202:physics
7742:Sanā'ī
7732:Rudaki
7697:Daqiqi
7692:Behzad
7672:Anvari
7616:Sabuni
7601:Nasa'i
7596:Muslim
7561:Kasani
7511:Dabusi
7486:Ansari
7415:Farabi
7364:Nasawi
7329:Biruni
7042:Lin Nu
6707:(2013)
6688:(2016)
6669:(2018)
6663:(2014)
6483:Modern
5188:Galaxy
5183:Equant
5118:Apogee
5062:Octant
4839:Topics
3923:
3886:
3880:226430
3878:
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2360:4 July
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1373:Legacy
1347:Arabic
1240:); in
1221:Indica
1169:Arabic
1062:Hindus
983:, the
936:cubits
820:apogee
660:ruler
622:Nuh II
616:ruler
476:Ghazni
472:Syriac
470:, and
468:Hebrew
446:, and
438:, and
386:Arabic
255:Indica
191:Ashari
170:Ghazni
152:Region
116:Ghazni
7908:Stars
7405:Amiri
7384:Sijzi
7189:Rihla
7144:Works
6074:works
5253:Qibla
5042:Globe
4849:Works
3884:S2CID
3876:JSTOR
3675:. In
3341:JSTOR
3254:S2CID
3236:arXiv
3086:S2CID
3078:JSTOR
2829:S2CID
2505:S2CID
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2432:S2CID
2397:JSTOR
1494:Notes
1488:TRT 1
1163:Works
1108:, or
1055:Islam
854:Sunni
685:Sunni
641:Qabus
590:Islam
527:bīrūn
521:bērūn
518:word
498:Hindu
464:Greek
187:Creed
181:Sunni
136:Islam
7884:Iran
7795:Aufi
7737:Rumi
7712:Jami
7611:Razi
4795:17th
4759:16th
4698:15th
4637:14th
4536:13th
4465:12th
4384:11th
4253:10th
4017:the
4000:the
3983:the
3921:ISBN
3860:Isis
3845:ISBN
3818:ISBN
3788:ISBN
3767:ISBN
3748:ISBN
3723:OCLC
3713:ISBN
3689:ISSN
3656:ISBN
3620:OCLC
3603:OCLC
3571:ISBN
3539:OCLC
3529:ISBN
3506:OCLC
3470:ISSN
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3333:ISSN
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2888:ISSN
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