Albedo - Knowledge (XXG)

873: 701: 1278: 7291: 1029:. For example, the effects of a spectrally responsive albedo are illustrated by the differences between the spectrally weighted albedo of solar photovoltaic technology based on hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) and crystalline silicon (c-Si)-based compared to traditional spectral-integrated albedo predictions. Research showed impacts of over 10% for vertically (90°) mounted systems, but such effects were substantially lower for systems with lower surface tilts. Spectral albedo strongly affects the performance of 2354: 7303: 1048: 47: 2100: 7339: 7239: 7227: 7263: 7251: 1171: 778: 1124:. The water vapor causes cooling on the land surface, causes heating where it condenses, acts as strong greenhouse gas, and can increase albedo when it condenses into clouds. Scientists generally treat evapotranspiration as a net cooling impact, and the net climate impact of albedo and evapotranspiration changes from deforestation depends greatly on local climate. 7315: 2349:{\displaystyle \rho ={\begin{cases}3.20{\text{ g cm}}^{-3}\ln \left({\frac {1+{\sqrt {0.83{\hat {\sigma }}_{\text{OC}}}}}{1-{\sqrt {0.83{\hat {\sigma }}_{\text{OC}}}}}}\right)&{\text{for }}{\hat {\sigma }}_{\text{OC}}\leq 0.07\\(6.944{\hat {\sigma }}_{\text{OC}}+1.083){\text{ g cm}}^{-3}&{\text{for }}{\hat {\sigma }}_{\text{OC}}>0.07\end{cases}}} 7327: 1209:(early morning, late afternoon, and near the poles). However, as mentioned above, waviness causes an appreciable reduction. Because light specularly reflected from water does not usually reach the viewer, water is usually considered to have a very low albedo in spite of its high reflectivity at high angles of incident light. 150:(flux per unit area) received by a surface. The proportion reflected is not only determined by properties of the surface itself, but also by the spectral and angular distribution of solar radiation reaching the Earth's surface. These factors vary with atmospheric composition, geographic location, and time (see 1784:

Those components of the received echo that return from first-surface reflections (as from a smooth or mirror-like surface) are dominated by the OC component as there is a reversal in polarization upon reflection. If the surface is rough at the wavelength scale or there is significant penetration into

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have a value of about 0.09 to 0.15. Variation in summer albedo across both forest types is associated with maximum rates of photosynthesis because plants with high growth capacity display a greater fraction of their foliage for direct interception of incoming radiation in the upper canopy. The result

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Mid-to-high-latitude forests have a much lower albedo during snow seasons than flat ground, thus contributing to warming. Modeling that compares the effects of albedo differences between forests and grasslands suggests that expanding the land area of forests in temperate zones offers only a temporary

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has substantial influence over atmospheric temperatures. Different types of clouds exhibit different reflectivity, theoretically ranging in albedo from a minimum of near 0 to a maximum approaching 0.8. "On any given day, about half of Earth is covered by clouds, which reflect more sunlight than land

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where rear surface performance gains of over 20% have been observed for c-Si cells installed above healthy vegetation. An analysis on the bias due to the specular reflectivity of 22 commonly occurring surface materials (both human-made and natural) provided effective albedo values for simulating the

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than would the same surface covered with reflective snow. When sea ice melts, either due to a rise in sea temperature or in response to increased solar radiation from above, the snow-covered surface is reduced, and more surface of sea water is exposed, so the rate of energy absorption increases. The

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Albedo is not directly dependent on the illumination because changing the amount of incoming light proportionally changes the amount of reflected light, except in circumstances where a change in illumination induces a change in the Earth's surface at that location (e.g. through melting of reflective

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is currently about 15 °C (59 °F). If Earth were frozen entirely (and hence be more reflective), the average temperature of the planet would drop below −40 °C (−40 °F). If only the continental land masses became covered by glaciers, the mean temperature of the planet would drop to

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Factor is calculated for a single angle of incidence (i.e., for a given position of the Sun), albedo is the directional integration of reflectance over all solar angles in a given period. The temporal resolution may range from seconds (as obtained from flux measurements) to daily, monthly, or annual

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Arias, P.A., N. Bellouin, E. Coppola, R.G. Jones, G. Krinner, J. Marotzke, V. Naik, M.D. Palmer, G.-K. Plattner, J. Rogelj, M. Rojas, J. Sillmann, T. Storelvmo, P.W. Thorne, B. Trewin, K. Achuta Rao, B. Adhikary, R.P. Allan, K. Armour, G. Bala, R. Barimalala, S. Berger, J.G. Canadell, C. Cassou, A.

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Accordingly, designing and fabricating efficient PDRC with sufficiently high solar reflectance (𝜌¯solar) (λ ~ 0.3–2.5 μm) to minimize solar heat gain and simultaneously strong LWIR thermal emittance (ε¯LWIR) to maximize radiative heat loss is highly desirable. When the incoming radiative heat from

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In Switzerland, the citizens have been protecting their glaciers with large white tarpaulins to slow down the ice melt. These large white sheets are helping to reject the rays from the sun and defecting the heat. Although that this method is very expensive it has shown to work by reducing snow and

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or so), the OC radar albedo is a first-order approximation of the Fresnel reflection coefficient (aka reflectivity) and can be used to estimate the bulk density of a planetary surface to a depth of a meter or so (a few wavelengths of the radar wavelength which is typically at the decimeter scale)

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extra absorbed energy heats the sea water, which in turn increases the rate at which sea ice melts. As with the preceding example of snowmelt, the process of melting of sea ice is thus another example of a positive feedback. Both positive feedback loops have long been recognized as important for

953:) cause melting. When the melted area reveals surfaces with lower albedo, such as grass, soil, or ocean, the effect is reversed: the darkening surface lowers albedo, increasing local temperatures, which induces more melting and thus reducing the albedo further, resulting in still more heating. 1212:

Note that white caps on waves look white (and have high albedo) because the water is foamed up, so there are many superimposed bubble surfaces which reflect, adding up their reflectivities. Fresh 'black' ice exhibits Fresnel reflection. Snow on top of this sea ice increases the albedo to 0.9.

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form a large expanse of whitened plastic roofs. A 2008 study found that this anthropogenic change lowered the local surface area temperature of the high-albedo area, although changes were localized. A follow-up study found that "CO2-eq. emissions associated to changes in surface albedo are a

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The dynamical nature of albedo in response to positive feedback, together with the effects of small errors in the measurement of albedo, can lead to large errors in energy estimates. Because of this, in order to reduce the error of energy estimates, it is important to measure the albedo of

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Graf, Alexander; Wohlfahrt, Georg; Aranda-Barranco, Sergio; Arriga, Nicola; Brümmer, Christian; Ceschia, Eric; Ciais, Philippe; Desai, Ankur R.; Di Lonardo, Sara; Gharun, Mana; Grünwald, Thomas; Hörtnagl, Lukas; Kasak, Kuno; Klosterhalfen, Anne; Knohl, Alexander (25 August 2023).

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Cherchi, W. Collins, W.D. Collins, S.L. Connors, S. Corti, F. Cruz, F.J. Dentener, C. Dereczynski, A. Di Luca, A. Diongue Niang, F.J. Doblas-Reyes, A. Dosio, H. Douville, F. Engelbrecht, V. Eyring, E. Fischer, P. Forster, B. Fox-Kemper, J.S. Fuglestvedt, J.C. Fyfe, et al., 2021:

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Unless given for a specific wavelength (spectral albedo), albedo refers to the entire spectrum of solar radiation. Due to measurement constraints, it is often given for the spectrum in which most solar energy reaches the surface (between 0.3 and 3 μm). This spectrum includes

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of heavy commercial airliner traffic. A study following the burning of the Kuwaiti oil fields during Iraqi occupation showed that temperatures under the burning oil fires were as much as 10 °C (18 °F) colder than temperatures several miles away under clear skies.

4840:, 112 J. GEOPHYS. RES. D11202 (2007) ("The forcing is maximum coincidentally with snowmelt onset, triggering strong snow-albedo feedback in local springtime. Consequently, the "efficacy" of black carbon/snow forcing is more than three times greater than forcing by CO 841:

counterparts, which have lower insolation. Because insolation plays such a big role in the heating and cooling effects of albedo, high insolation areas like the tropics will tend to show a more pronounced fluctuation in local temperature when local albedo changes.

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Ollinger, S. V.; Richardson, A. D.; Martin, M. E.; Hollinger, D. Y.; Frolking, S.; Reich, P.B.; Plourde, L.C.; Katul, G.G.; Munger, J.W.; Oren, R.; Smith, M-L.; Paw U, K. T.; Bolstad, P.V.; Cook, B.D.; Day, M.C.; Martin, T.A.; Monson, R.K.; Schmid, H.P. (2008).

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Passive daytime radiative cooling (PDRC) dissipates terrestrial heat to the extremely cold outer space without using any energy input or producing pollution. It has the potential to simultaneously alleviate the two major problems of energy crisis and global

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Albedo works on a smaller scale, too. In sunlight, dark clothes absorb more heat and light-coloured clothes reflect it better, thus allowing some control over body temperature by exploiting the albedo effect of the colour of external clothing.

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snow albedo averages a little more than 0.8. If a marginally snow-covered area warms, snow tends to melt, lowering the albedo, and hence leading to more snowmelt because more radiation is being absorbed by the snowpack (the ice–albedo

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Thus, as manufactures consider development of PDRC materials for building applications, their efforts should disproportionately focus on increasing surface solar reflectance (albedo) values, while retaining the conventional thermal

336:. When seen from a distance, the ocean surface has a low albedo, as do most forests, whereas desert areas have some of the highest albedos among landforms. Most land areas are in an albedo range of 0.1 to 0.4. The average albedo of 1856: 687: 371:. As the amount of reflected radiation is only measured for a single direction by satellite, not all directions, a mathematical model is used to translate a sample set of satellite reflectance measurements into estimates of 1268:

for black carbon aerosols from fossil fuels is +0.2 W m, with a range +0.1 to +0.4 W m. Black carbon is a bigger cause of the melting of the polar ice cap in the Arctic than carbon dioxide due to its effect on the albedo.

1244:(very fine particles/droplets in the atmosphere) have both direct and indirect effects on Earth's radiative balance. The direct (albedo) effect is generally to cool the planet; the indirect effect (the particles act as 331:

Any albedo in visible light falls within a range of about 0.9 for fresh snow to about 0.04 for charcoal, one of the darkest substances. Deeply shadowed cavities can achieve an effective albedo approaching the zero of a

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In the case of evergreen forests with seasonal snow cover, albedo reduction may be significant enough for deforestation to cause a net cooling effect. Trees also impact climate in extremely complicated ways through

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Although the reflectivity of water is very low at low and medium angles of incident light, it becomes very high at high angles of incident light such as those that occur on the illuminated side of Earth near the

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can be used to infer much about their properties. The study of albedos, their dependence on wavelength, lighting angle ("phase angle"), and variation in time composes a major part of the astronomical field of

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has been melting at higher rates due to higher temperatures, creating regions in the arctic that are notably darker (being water or ground which is darker color) and reflects less heat back into space. This

1330:. For small and far objects that cannot be resolved by telescopes, much of what we know comes from the study of their albedos. For example, the absolute albedo can indicate the surface ice content of outer 3364:

Ouyang, Zutao; Sciusco, Pietro; Jiao, Tong; Feron, Sarah; Li, Cheyenne; Li, Fei; John, Ranjeet; Peilei, Fan; Li, Xia; Williams, Christopher A.; Chen, Guangzhao; Wang, Chenghao; Chen, Jiquan (July 2022).

379:(BRDF), which describes how the reflectance of a given surface depends on the view angle of the observer and the solar angle. BDRF can facilitate translations of observations of reflectance into albedo. 7394: 757:(PDRC). Efforts toward widespread implementation of PDRCs may focus on maximizing the albedo of surfaces from very low to high values, so long as a thermal emittance of at least 90% can be achieved. 6963: 170:(0.4–0.7 μm), which explains why surfaces with a low albedo appear dark (e.g., trees absorb most radiation), whereas surfaces with a high albedo appear bright (e.g., snow reflects most radiation). 5683: 2091: 1034:

performance of seven photovoltaic materials mounted on three common photovoltaic system topologies: industrial (solar farms), commercial flat rooftops and residential pitched-roof applications.

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note 18, at 426. ("The efficacy for changes of Arctic sea ice albedo is >3. In additional runs not shown here, we found that the efficacy of albedo changes in Antarctica is also >3.");

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Matthews, G. (2008). "Celestial body irradiance determination from an underfilled satellite radiometer: application to albedo and thermal emission measurements of the Moon using CERES".

1680:, a microwave (or radar) pulse is transmitted toward a planetary target (e.g. Moon, asteroid, etc.) and the echo from the target is measured. In most instances, the transmitted pulse is 398:

as well as a substantial increase in global warming. However, the link to climate change has not been explored to date and it is unclear whether or not this represents an ongoing trend.

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For most objects in the solar system, the OC echo dominates and the most commonly reported radar albedo parameter is the (normalized) OC radar albedo (often shortened to radar albedo):

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In 2021, scientists reported that Earth dimmed by ~0.5% over two decades (1998–2017) as measured by earthshine using modern photometric techniques. This may have both been co-caused by

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results. A layer of snowfall increases local albedo, reflecting away sunlight, leading to local cooling. In principle, if no outside temperature change affects this area (e.g., a warm

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is very reflective, therefore it reflects far more solar energy back to space than the other types of land area or open water. Ice–albedo feedback plays an important role in global

1781:(total power, SC + OC) and is equal to the cross-sectional area of a metallic sphere (perfect reflector) at the same distance as the target that would return the same echo power. 6980: 1151:

on planting forests. They found that new forests in tropical and midlatitude areas tended to cool; new forests in high latitudes (e.g., Siberia) were neutral or perhaps warming.

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to "the physical properties of the land surface can perturb the climate by altering the Earth’s radiative energy balance" even on a small scale or when undetected by satellites.

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Mallama, Anthony; Krobusek, Bruce; Pavlov, Hristo (2017). "Comprehensive wide-band magnitudes and albedos for the planets, with applications to exo-planets and Planet Nine".

2541: 1791: 1750: 1718: 1162:. Initially, this reduction may lead to moderate global warming over a span of approximately 20 years, but it is expected to transition into significant cooling thereafter. 730:. An estimate in 2022 found that on a global scale, "an albedo increase of 0.1 in worldwide urban areas would result in a cooling effect that is equivalent to absorbing ~44 1779: 6411: 692:

This formula is important because it allows the albedo to be calculated for any given illumination conditions from a knowledge of the intrinsic properties of the surface.

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is that wavelengths of light not used in photosynthesis are more likely to be reflected back to space rather than being absorbed by other surfaces lower in the canopy.

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and the received pulse is measured in the same sense of polarization as the transmitted pulse (SC) and the opposite sense (OC). The echo power is measured in terms of

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In seasonally snow-covered zones, winter albedos of treeless areas are 10% to 50% higher than nearby forested areas because snow does not cover the trees as readily.

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reflected in the summer of 2011 versus the average percent it reflected between 2000 and 2006. Some areas reflect close to 20 percent less light than a decade ago.

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ice). However, albedo and illumination both vary by latitude. Albedo is highest near the poles and lowest in the subtropics, with a local maximum in the tropics.

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Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

3734: 1878: 1666: 1646: 1626: 1348:, a moon of Saturn, has one of the highest known optical albedos of any body in the Solar System, with an albedo of 0.99. Another notable high-albedo body is 6158: 977:

Just as fresh snow has a higher albedo than does dirty snow, the albedo of snow-covered sea ice is far higher than that of sea water. Sea water absorbs more

4816:, 101 Proc. of the Nat'l. Acad. of Sci. 423 (13 January 2004) ("The efficacy of this forcing is »2 (i.e., for a given forcing it is twice as effective as CO 6042: 2504: 2040:

The values reported for the Moon, Mercury, Mars, Venus, and Comet P/2005 JQ5 are derived from the total (OC+SC) radar albedo reported in those references.

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Snow albedo is highly variable, ranging from as high as 0.9 for freshly fallen snow, to about 0.4 for melting snow, and as low as 0.2 for dirty snow. Over

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Shepard, M. K.; et al. (2015). "A radar survey of M- and X-class asteroids: III. Insights into their composition, hydration state, and structure".

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results in reduced reflectivity because of the steepness of the reflectivity-vs.-incident-angle curve and a locally increased average incident angle.

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Riedel-Lyngskær, Nicholas; Ribaconka, Ribaconka; Po, Mario; Thorseth, Anders; Thorsteinsson, Sune; Dam-Hansen, Carsten; Jakobsen, Michael L. (2022).

3789: 3622:"Including CO2-emission equivalence of changes in land surface albedo in life cycle assessment. Methodology and case study on greenhouse agriculture" 7359: 6511: 6232: 5950: 5727: 3099: 6867: 6656: 5824: 2425: 4650: 3932: 3832:. Vitals Signs of the Planet. Earth Science Communications Team at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory / California Institute of Technology. 2013. 1398:(measuring total proportion of electromagnetic energy reflected). Their values can differ significantly, which is a common source of confusion. 6516: 6479: 6333: 6318: 6237: 5886: 5830: 3216:"Assessing the Coupling between Surface Albedo derived from MODIS and the Fraction of Diffuse Skylight over Spatially-Characterized Landscapes" 7175: 6313: 5459: 5411: 3879: 3813: 2818: 423: 372: 7197: 6153: 6148: 5340:

Pearl, J.C.; et al. (1990). "The albedo, effective temperature, and energy balance of Uranus, as determined from Voyager IRIS data".

5174: 3325:"Surface temperature cooling trends and negative radiative forcing due to land use change toward greenhouse farming in southeastern Spain" 3034: 4576: 6678: 6456: 6274: 6206: 6196: 6179: 6086: 5893: 700: 4462:"Canopy nitrogen, carbon assimilation and albedo in temperate and boreal forests: Functional relations and potential climate feedbacks" 7384: 7379: 7107: 6968: 6925: 6421: 5375:

Pearl, J.C.; et al. (1991). "The albedo, effective temperature, and energy balance of Neptune, as determined from Voyager data".

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Water reflects light very differently from typical terrestrial materials. The reflectivity of a water surface is calculated using the

5688: 5027: 3571:"The relative role of solar reflectance and thermal emittance for passive daytime radiative cooling technologies applied to rooftops" 7364: 7034: 6910: 6727: 5930: 5662: 5489: 754: 97: 2717: 2530: 1301:

can be defined in several different ways, depending upon the application and the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation involved.

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Sicardy, B.; Ortiz, J. L.; Assafin, M.; Jehin, E.; Maury, A.; Lellouch, E.; Gil-Hutton, R.; Braga-Ribas, F.; et al. (2011).

2991: 197: 4896: 3074: 7024: 6975: 6401: 6363: 6308: 5778: 2851:"The effects of surface albedo and initial lignin concentration on photodegradation of two varieties of Sorghum bicolor litter" 2774: 709: 5654: 4787: 4761: 2665: 7092: 6376: 6133: 3945: 3214:

Roman, M. O.; C.B. Schaaf; P. Lewis; F. Gao; G.P. Anderson; J.L. Privette; A.H. Strahler; C.E. Woodcock; M. Barnsley (2010).

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Magri, C; et al. (2007). "A radar survey of main-belt asteroids: Arecibo observations of 55 objects during 1999-2004".

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In detailed studies, the directional reflectance properties of astronomical bodies are often expressed in terms of the five

4522:"Joint optimization of land carbon uptake and albedo can help achieve moderate instantaneous and long-term cooling effects" 7202: 6737: 6269: 3857:. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 33−144. doi: 10.1017/9781009157896.002. 7281: 2054: 1520:. It is used to define scattering of electromagnetic waves on small particles. It depends on properties of the material ( 7185: 6857: 6386: 6381: 6286: 6163: 5720: 5696: 4165:

Betts, Richard A. (2000). "Offset of the potential carbon sink from boreal forestation by decreases in surface albedo".

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Human activities (e.g., deforestation, farming, and urbanization) change the albedo of various areas around the globe.

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Research in 2023, drawing from 176 flux stations globally, revealed a climate trade-off: increased carbon uptake from

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the Sun is balanced by the outgoing radiative heat emission, the temperature of the Earth can reach its steady state.

1383:. Although such reflectance properties are different from those of any terrestrial terrains, they are typical of the 429: 1883: 896:

a planet absorbs. The uneven heating of Earth from albedo variations between land, ice, or ocean surfaces can drive

7255: 7019: 6822: 6779: 6552: 6474: 6328: 4601: 2445: 746: 3983:"The effect of spectral albedo on amorphous silicon and crystalline silicon solar photovoltaic device performance" 2466: 1938: 1289:

even though they receive the same amount of sunlight. This is due to a difference in albedo (0.22 versus 0.499 in

1059:. The reason given is: the references used are quite old; there must be more updated information available in the 7404: 7124: 6799: 6774: 6747: 6709: 6626: 6444: 6291: 6254: 6004: 5773: 5768: 5763: 3920:"All About Sea Ice." National Snow and Ice Data Center. Accessed 16 November 2017. /cryosphere/seaice/index.html. 2493: 1245: 1105: 769:

consequence of land transformation" and can reduce surface temperature increases associated with climate change.

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At the scale of the wavelength of light even wavy water is always smooth so the light is reflected in a locally

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and water. Clouds keep Earth cool by reflecting sunlight, but they can also serve as blankets to trap warmth."

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Sagan, Carl; Toon, Owen B.; Pollack, James B. (1979). "Anthropogenic Albedo Changes and the Earth's Climate".

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Shepard, M. K.; et al. (2010). "A radar survey of M- and X-class asteroids II. Summary and synthesis".

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Henderson-Sellers, A.; Wilson, M. F. (1983). "The Study of the Ocean and the Land Surface from Satellites".

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that absorbs all incident radiation) to 1 (corresponding to a body that reflects all incident radiation).

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Arctic regions notably release more heat back into space than what they absorb, effectively cooling the

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is about 0.3. This is far higher than for the ocean primarily because of the contribution of clouds.

2115: 1723: 1691: 1096:. For this reason, the greater heat absorption by trees could offset some of the carbon benefits of 7389: 7302: 7087: 6862: 6096: 6091: 1860:

where the denominator is the effective cross-sectional area of the target object with mean radius,

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have investigated the relative (generally warming) effect of albedo change and (cooling) effect of

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The intensity of albedo temperature effects depends on the amount of albedo and the level of local

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Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences

3100:"Global climate and ocean circulation on an aquaplanet ocean-atmosphere general circulation model" 1785:

the regolith, there will be a significant SC component in the echo caused by multiple scattering.

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has an albedo of 0.04. Such a dark surface is thought to be indicative of a primitive and heavily

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about 0 °C (32 °F). In contrast, if the entire Earth was covered by water – a so-called

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Goode, P. R.; Pallé, E.; Shoumko, A.; Shoumko, S.; Montañes-Rodriguez, P.; Koonin, S. E. (2021).

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Albedo and climate in some areas are affected by artificial clouds, such as those created by the

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Ostro, S. J.; et al. (2002). Bottke, W.; Cellino, A.; Paolicchi, P.; Binzel, R. P. (eds.).

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The response of the climate system to an initial forcing is modified by feedbacks: increased by

5211: 5144:"Radiative energy balance of Venus based on improved models of the middle and lower atmosphere" 4569: 573: 7149: 6812: 6557: 6323: 6116: 6079: 5866: 5820: 5485: 5455: 5287: 5005: 4681: 4551: 4501: 4433: 4292: 4190: 4114:"Biophysical forcings of land-use changes from potential forestry activities in North America" 3875: 3809: 3453: 3404: 3294: 3278: 3188: 2888: 2814: 2643: 1380: 1314: 1265: 1179: 1022: 967: 908: 904: 881: 877: 765: 742: 727: 383: 356: 344: 177: 5305:

Hanel, R.A.; et al. (1983). "Albedo, internal heat flux, and energy balance of Saturn".

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Malhi, Yadvinder; Meir, Patrick; Brown, Sandra (2002). "Forests, carbon and global climate".

3803: 7319: 7192: 6759: 6742: 6683: 6574: 6338: 6062: 5935: 5871: 5630: 5595: 5560: 5525: 5414:. Department of Physics & Astronomy (Stephen F. Austin State University). Archived from 5392: 5357: 5322: 5277: 5269: 5166: 5095: 4997: 4856:"Size, density, albedo and atmosphere limit of dwarf planet Eris from a stellar occultation" 4743: 4673: 4541: 4533: 4491: 4481: 4425: 4388: 4284: 4237: 4182: 4136: 4094: 4041: 4002: 3688: 3669:"The Annual Course of Zonal Mean Albedo as Derived From ESSA 3 and 5 Digitized Picture Data" 3641: 3590: 3541: 3488: 3443: 3435: 3394: 3386: 3344: 3270: 3235: 3178: 2965: 2878: 2870: 2737: 2691: 2633: 2575: 2430: 1521: 1505: 1391: 1365: 1361: 1290: 1136: 1089: 838: 811: 360: 262: 167: 68: 4368: 523: 7144: 7065: 7029: 6958: 6932: 6920: 6837: 6769: 6644: 6501: 6123: 6074: 6052: 5700: 5658: 5031: 4342:"Models show growing more forests in temperate regions could contribute to global warming" 3936: 2943: 2838:. Cologne University Satellite Measurement of Radiation Budget Parameters. pp. 60–63. 2440: 1677: 1132: 978: 201: 1394:(measuring brightness when illumination comes from directly behind the observer) and the 551: 5626: 5591: 5578:

Harmon, J. K.; et al. (2006). "Radar observations of Comet P/2005 JQ5 (Catalina)".

5556: 5521: 5388: 5353: 5318: 5265: 5162: 5091: 4993: 4874: 4739: 4669: 4477: 4421: 4384: 4280: 4233: 4178: 4132: 4090: 4037: 3998: 3684: 3637: 3586: 3537: 3382: 3340: 3266: 3231: 3174: 2961: 2866: 2747: 2733: 2629: 2571: 1065:

Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.

46: 7343: 7307: 7097: 6953: 6895: 6890: 6732: 6621: 6353: 6348: 6343: 6201: 6138: 5876: 5856: 5815: 5736: 5282: 5249: 4927: 4765: 4496: 4461: 3448: 3423: 3399: 3366: 2883: 2850: 2410: 1863: 1851:{\displaystyle {\hat {\sigma }}_{\text{OC}}={\frac {{\sigma }_{\text{OC}}}{\pi r^{2}}}} 1651: 1631: 1611: 1338:

properties, whereas unusually high radar albedo is indicative of high metal content in

1093: 1083: 1001: 983: 723: 395: 107: 4265:"Forests and Climate Change: Forcings, Feedbacks, and the Climate Benefits of Forests" 3059: 2998: 2920: 391:– the average temperature on the planet would rise to almost 27 °C (81 °F). 7353: 7170: 7102: 6827: 6649: 6634: 6569: 6464: 5361: 5326: 5107: 4900: 4570:"Spectral Approach To Calculate Specular reflection of Light From Wavy Water Surface" 4521: 4249: 4055: 3653: 3621: 3602: 3555: 3502: 3477:"Passive daytime radiative cooling: Fundamentals, material designs, and applications" 3200: 2595: 2435: 1357: 1353: 1155: 1144: 1113: 1101: 1097: 823: 750: 4723: 4304: 4148: 3306: 2977: 2778: 682:{\displaystyle \alpha =(1-D){\bar {\alpha }}(\theta _{i})+D{\bar {\bar {\alpha }}}.} 7338: 7331: 7055: 6852: 6496: 6486: 6143: 6027: 5940: 5651: 4791: 4693: 4445: 4202: 4070: 2669: 2045: 1331: 1318: 1282: 1257: 1221: 831: 826:, which also have a relatively high albedo, will be hotter due to high insolation. 715: 388: 4319: 4046: 4021: 4006: 3274: 1170: 741:

Intentionally enhancing the albedo of the Earth's surface, along with its daytime

5634: 5599: 5564: 5529: 5170: 5099: 4098: 3829: 3760: 7082: 6599: 6591: 5851: 3546: 3521: 3475:

Chen, Meijie; Pang, Dan; Chen, Xingyu; Yan, Hongjie; Yang, Yuan (October 2021).

3323:

Campra, Pablo; Garcia, Monica; Canton, Yolanda; Palacios-Orueta, Alicia (2008).

2638: 2613: 2371: 1516:

surfaces. One of these five parameters is yet another type of albedo called the

1395: 1174:

Reflectivity of smooth water at 20 °C (68 °F) (refractive index=1.333)

1088:

Forests generally have a low albedo because the majority of the ultraviolet and

158: 5273: 5121:

Mallama, Anthony (2017). "The spherical bolometric albedo for planet Mercury".

4537: 3959: 3439: 3390: 2874: 1527:

An important relationship between an object's astronomical (geometric) albedo,

7114: 6491: 6128: 4367:

S. Gibbard; K. Caldeira; G. Bala; T. J. Phillips; M. Wickett (December 2005).

4241: 4218:"Direct human influence of irrigation on atmospheric water vapour and climate" 3645: 3594: 3239: 2992:"MODIS BRDF/Albedo Product: Algorithm Theoretical Basis Document, Version 5.0" 2420: 2400: 2395: 1004:

techniques rather than applying a single value for albedo over broad regions.

989: 962: 950: 834: 807: 375:

and bi-hemispherical reflectance (e.g.,). These calculations are based on the

333: 141: 123: 17: 5693: 4555: 3424:"A structural polymer for highly efficient all-day passive radiative cooling" 3282: 3192: 2907:"Physical models used > Irradiation models > Albedo usual coefficients" 2692:"Thermodynamics | Thermodynamics: Albedo | National Snow and Ice Data Center" 2647: 6069: 4486: 4288: 2390: 1345: 893: 819: 719: 364: 320: 55: 51: 5450:

Ostro, S. J. (2007). McFadden, L.; Weissman, P. R.; Johnson, T. V. (eds.).

5291: 5009: 4685: 4505: 4437: 4429: 4296: 4194: 3457: 3408: 3367:"Albedo changes caused by future urbanization contribute to global warming" 3298: 2892: 2579: 1524:), the size of the particle, and the wavelength of the incoming radiation. 1352:, with an albedo of 0.96. Many small objects in the outer Solar System and 3802:

Schneider, Stephen Henry; Mastrandrea, Michael D.; Root, Terry L. (2011).

1334:

objects, the variation of albedo with phase angle gives information about

1193:). The glint of light off water is a commonplace effect of this. At small 5001: 4393: 4344:. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. 5 December 2005. Archived from 3349: 3324: 3183: 3158: 2969: 2906: 2405: 1513: 1384: 1339: 1335: 1322: 1241: 1229: 1198: 949:, eventually warm air masses and a more direct angle of sunlight (higher 938: 934: 827: 785: 731: 718:

generally decreases albedo (commonly being 0.01–0.02 lower than adjacent

185: 181: 115: 5668: 3708: 777: 6047: 4546: 3493: 3476: 3422:

Wang, Tong; Wu, Yi; Shi, Lan; Hu, Xinhua; Chen, Min; Wu, Limin (2021).

3290: 1390:

Two common optical albedos that are used in astronomy are the (V-band)

942: 897: 889: 761: 548:

being the proportion of direct radiation from a given solar angle, and

189: 5396: 4747: 4140: 3853: 2742: 2614:"The effect of solar radiation variations on the climate of the Earth" 2051:

In the event that most of the echo is from first surface reflections (

1375:

is measured to be around 0.14, but it is strongly directional and non-

996:

containing soot, sometimes reduces albedo on glaciers and ice sheets.

4186: 2587: 1601:{\displaystyle A=\left({\frac {1329\times 10^{-H/5}}{D}}\right)^{2},} 1310: 1286: 946: 815: 406:

For land surfaces, it has been shown that the albedo at a particular

38: 4677: 4264: 4217: 4022:"The effect of spectral albedo in bifacial photovoltaic performance" 3569:

Anand, Jyothis; Sailor, David J.; Baniassadi, Amir (February 2021).

7326: 5127: 5082: 4602:"Arctic Reflection: Clouds Replace Snow and Ice as Solar Reflector" 4074: 3982: 3897:"Glacier tarpaulins an effective but expensive shield against heat" 3788:

Sixth Assessment Report (AR6), Working Group I, IPCC, 2021, p. 96.

6057: 4838:

Present-day climate forcing and response from black carbon in snow

4649:

Travis, D. J.; Carleton, A. M.; Lauritsen, R. G. (8 August 2002).

3215: 2811:

Practical Handbook of Photovoltaics: Fundamentals and Applications

1276: 1169: 933:

When an area's albedo changes due to snowfall, a snow–temperature

871: 846: 822:

regions are cold due to low insolation, whereas areas such as the

776: 699: 352: 337: 45: 5705: 1260:

particles. The size of this effect is difficult to quantify: the

5412:"Conversion of Absolute Magnitude to Diameter for Minor Planets" 1372: 993: 850: 570:

being the proportion of diffuse illumination, the actual albedo

348: 122:

by a body. It is measured on a scale from 0 (corresponding to a

7001: 6706: 6442: 6002: 5914: 5795: 5747: 5709: 5250:"Less absorbed solar energy and more internal heat for Jupiter" 2600:

Albedo observations of the Earth's surface for climate research

2849:

Ruhland, Christopher T.; Niere, Joshua A. (10 December 2019).

1041: 382:

Earth's average surface temperature due to its albedo and the

193: 83: 54:: the map shows the difference between the amount of sunlight 6964:

Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement

1508:

which semi-empirically describe the variation of albedo with

726:. Deliberately increasing albedo in urban areas can mitigate 4836:

Flanner, M.G., C.S. Zender, J.T. Randerson, and P.J. Rasch,

3064:, orography, and oceanic heat transport on extreme climates" 4951:"Comet Borrelly Puzzle: Darkest Object in the Solar System" 4828:

note 7, at 4 (figure 3); See J. Hansen & L. Nazarenko,

3735:"The thawing Arctic threatens an environmental catastrophe" 3694:

10.1175/1520-0493(1971)099<0818:TACOZM>2.3.CO;2

2560:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London A

2342: 1512:, including a characterization of the opposition effect of 418:

can be approximated by the proportionate sum of two terms:

89: 4075:"Effects of spectral albedo on solar photovoltaic devices" 7140:

Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change

71: 5445: 5443: 5441: 5439: 5437: 5435: 5433: 5475: 5473: 5471: 1248:

and thereby change cloud properties) is less certain.

192:

alters the albedo and surface temperature of a planet.

7395:

Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics)

3159:"Earth's Albedo 1998–2017 as Measured From Earthshine" 837:

areas have low albedo, and are much hotter than their

7279: 6981:

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

4628:"Baffled Scientists Say Less Sunlight Reaching Earth" 3024:"Snowball Earth: Ice thickness on the tropical ocean" 2494:"Fundamentals of Rendering - Radiometry / Photometry" 2103: 2057: 1941: 1886: 1866: 1794: 1758: 1726: 1694: 1654: 1634: 1614: 1537: 1256:

Another albedo-related effect on the climate is from

601: 576: 554: 526: 486: 432: 98: 27:

Ratio of how much light is reflected back from a body

2944:"Earthshine Observations of the Earth's Reflectance" 2777:. Manchester Metropolitan University. Archived from 592:(also called blue-sky albedo) can then be given as: 86: 80: 74: 7158: 7043: 7012: 6941: 6876: 6798: 6720: 6671: 6588: 6545: 6455: 6362: 6225: 6172: 6015: 5839: 5808: 5452:

Planetary Radar in Encyclopedia of the Solar System

3522:"Tackling Climate Change through Radiative Cooling" 2086:{\displaystyle {\hat {\sigma }}_{\text{OC}}<0.1} 1135:have an albedo value of about 0.15 to 0.18 whereas 876:

Some effects of global warming can either enhance (

77: 5454:(2nd ed.). Academic Press. pp. 735–764. 2348: 2085: 1963: 1914: 1872: 1850: 1773: 1744: 1712: 1660: 1640: 1620: 1600: 1116:can decrease the reflection of sunlight (albedo). 681: 584: 562: 540: 508: 465: 343:Earth's surface albedo is regularly estimated via 5684:Surface albedo derived from Meteosat observations 5484:. University of Arizona Press. pp. 151–168. 2921:"Albedo – from Eric Weisstein's World of Physics" 7181:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 5063: 5061: 5059: 5057: 5055: 5053: 5051: 5049: 1112:by forests is partially counterbalanced in that 473:, sometimes referred to as black-sky albedo, and 4820:in altering global surface air temperature)"); 4466:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 1356:have low albedos down to about 0.05. A typical 849:. This has been a concern since arctic ice and 466:{\displaystyle {{\bar {\alpha }}(\theta _{i})}} 377:bidirectional reflectance distribution function 4069:Brennan, M.P.; Abramase, A.L.; Andrews, R.W.; 2365:The term albedo was introduced into optics by 1915:{\displaystyle {\hat {\sigma }}_{\text{OC}}=1} 180:climate process where a change in the area of 5926:History of climate change policy and politics 5721: 4863:European Planetary Science Congress Abstracts 4814:Soot Climate Forcing Via Snow and Ice Albedos 4369:"Climate effects of global land cover change" 2659: 2657: 2094:using the following empirical relationships: 880:such as the ice-albedo feedback) or inhibit ( 8: 5503: 5501: 4728:Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 3830:"The study of Earth as an integrated system" 3805:Encyclopedia of Climate and Weather: Abs-Ero 3761:"The Study of Earth as an Integrated System" 1964:{\displaystyle {\hat {\sigma }}_{\text{OC}}} 516:, sometimes referred to as white-sky albedo. 363:satellites, and the CERES instrument on the 6043:Atlantic meridional overturning circulation 4788:"Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis" 4762:"Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis" 3981:Andrews, Rob W.; Pearce, Joshua M. (2013). 3960:"Health and Safety: Be Cool! (August 1997)" 3943:. page 3, of 4, article by Mark Jenkins in 2804: 2802: 2800: 2798: 2796: 1100:(or offset the negative climate impacts of 7262: 7250: 7009: 6998: 6717: 6703: 6452: 6439: 6012: 5999: 5911: 5805: 5792: 5744: 5728: 5714: 5706: 4651:"Contrails reduce daily temperature range" 4112:Zhao, Kaiguang; Jackson, Robert B (2014). 3133:"The Earth isn't as bright as it once was" 2769: 2767: 2765: 1084:Climate change § Land surface changes 905:"self-reinforcing" or "positive" feedbacks 211: 6808:Adaptation strategies on the German coast 5951:United Nations Climate Change conferences 5482:Asteroid Radar Astronomy in Asteroids III 5281: 5126: 5081: 4895:Wm. Robert Johnston (17 September 2008). 4724:"The Kuwait oil fires as seen by Landsat" 4545: 4495: 4485: 4392: 4045: 3692: 3545: 3492: 3447: 3398: 3348: 3182: 2882: 2741: 2637: 2327: 2316: 2315: 2309: 2298: 2293: 2277: 2266: 2265: 2242: 2231: 2230: 2224: 2207: 2196: 2195: 2189: 2173: 2162: 2161: 2155: 2146: 2127: 2122: 2110: 2102: 2071: 2060: 2059: 2056: 1955: 1944: 1943: 1940: 1900: 1889: 1888: 1885: 1865: 1839: 1825: 1820: 1817: 1808: 1797: 1796: 1793: 1765: 1760: 1757: 1733: 1728: 1725: 1701: 1696: 1693: 1653: 1633: 1613: 1589: 1569: 1562: 1549: 1536: 1387:surfaces of airless Solar System bodies. 1262:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 911:. The main reinforcing feedbacks are the 696:Changes to albedo due to human activities 660: 658: 657: 642: 624: 623: 600: 577: 575: 555: 553: 527: 525: 490: 488: 487: 485: 453: 435: 434: 433: 431: 402:White-sky, black-sky, and blue-sky albedo 6512:Co-benefits of climate change mitigation 4160: 4158: 1929: 1400: 7286: 6868:National Adaptation Programme of Action 6657:Land use, land-use change, and forestry 5210:Williams, David R. (25 November 2020). 3808:. Oxford University Press. p. 53. 2536:. In J. R. Holton; J. A. Curry (eds.). 2458: 509:{\displaystyle {\bar {\bar {\alpha }}}} 6517:Economics of climate change mitigation 6480:Gold Standard (carbon offset standard) 5831:Scientific consensus on climate change 5229:Williams, David R. (11 January 2024). 5191:Williams, David R. (11 January 2024). 4812:James Hansen & Larissa Nazarenko, 4526:Communications Earth & Environment 4079:Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 3836:from the original on 26 February 2019. 2540:. Academic Press. pp. 1914–1923. 1880:. A smooth metallic sphere would have 788:relative to various surface conditions 773:Examples of terrestrial albedo effects 114: 'whiteness') is the fraction of 7176:Coupled Model Intercomparison Project 4949:Robert Roy Britt (29 November 2001). 3771:from the original on 2 November 2016. 3605:– via Elsevier Science Direct. 3318: 3316: 2809:Tom Markvart; Luis CastaŁżer (2003). 1926:Radar albedos of Solar System objects 424:directional-hemispherical reflectance 373:directional-hemispherical reflectance 7: 7198:Representative Concentration Pathway 6149:Tipping points in the climate system 5825:Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere 5180:from the original on 9 October 2022. 4926:. Johnston's Archive. Archived from 4922:Wm. Robert Johnston (28 June 2003). 4899:. Johnston's Archive. Archived from 2716:Alan K. Betts; John H. Ball (1997). 2547:from the original on 9 October 2022. 2426:Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation 858:results in a reduced albedo effect. 200:. Albedo is an important concept in 6969:Nationally determined contributions 6679:Individual action on climate change 5894:World energy supply and consumption 5674:NASA MODIS BRDF/albedo product site 5142:Haus, R.; et al. (July 2016). 4897:"TNO/Centaur diameters and albedos" 4582:from the original on 9 October 2022 3874:. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. 3620:Muñoz, Ivan; Campra, Pablo (2010). 3080:from the original on 9 October 2022 3040:from the original on 9 October 2022 2668:. Heat Island Group. Archived from 2510:from the original on 9 October 2022 2467:"Greenland's Ice Is Growing Darker" 1648:is the diameter in kilometers, and 1465:0.343±0.032 and also 0.503±0.012 909:"balancing" or "negative" feedbacks 7108:Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis 5679:Ocean surface albedo look-up-table 4924:"Asteroid albedos: graphs of data" 4722:Cahalan, Robert F. (30 May 1991). 4318:Jonathan Amos (15 December 2006). 3792:from the original on 21 July 2022. 2942:Goode, P. R.; et al. (2001). 25: 7035:Satellite temperature measurement 6640:forestry for carbon sequestration 5931:History of climate change science 4320:"Care needed with carbon offsets" 2531:"Reflectance and albedo, surface" 755:passive daytime radiative cooling 7337: 7325: 7313: 7301: 7289: 7261: 7249: 7238: 7237: 7225: 6886:Climate Change Performance Index 5248:Li, Liming; et al. (2018). 3930:"Changing Greenland – Melt Zone" 3895:swissinfo.ch/gw (2 April 2021). 2612:Budyko, M. I. (1 January 1969). 1046: 945:is dynamic due to the change of 919:, and the net effect of clouds. 67: 7360:Land surface effects on climate 7025:Instrumental temperature record 6976:Sustainable Development Goal 13 3949:June 2010, accessed 8 July 2010 3329:Journal of Geophysical Research 2722:Journal of Geophysical Research 2718:"Albedo over the boreal forest" 1264:estimates that the global mean 7093:Climate variability and change 6134:Retreat of glaciers since 1850 5694:reflectivity of metals (chart) 5669:Albedo – Encyclopedia of Earth 4630:. LiveScience. 24 January 2006 3872:Remote Sensing of Ice and Snow 3575:Sustainable Cities and Society 2538:Encyclopedia of the Atmosphere 2321: 2289: 2271: 2258: 2236: 2201: 2167: 2065: 1949: 1894: 1802: 1745:{\displaystyle {\sigma }_{SC}} 1713:{\displaystyle {\sigma }_{OC}} 670: 665: 648: 635: 629: 620: 608: 500: 495: 459: 446: 440: 1: 7203:Shared Socioeconomic Pathways 6738:Climate emergency declaration 5689:A discussion of Lunar albedos 4216:Boucher; et al. (2004). 4047:10.1016/j.solener.2021.12.023 4007:10.1016/j.solener.2013.01.030 3275:10.1126/science.206.4425.1363 3220:Remote Sensing of Environment 1774:{\displaystyle {\sigma }_{T}} 704:Greenhouses of Almería, Spain 7186:IPCC Sixth Assessment Report 6412:Middle East and North Africa 5635:10.1016/j.icarus.2010.01.017 5600:10.1016/j.icarus.2006.05.014 5565:10.1016/j.icarus.2014.09.016 5530:10.1016/j.icarus.2006.08.018 5362:10.1016/0019-1035(90)90155-3 5327:10.1016/0019-1035(83)90147-1 5171:10.1016/j.icarus.2016.02.048 5100:10.1016/j.icarus.2016.09.023 4373:Geophysical Research Letters 4099:10.1016/j.solmat.2014.01.046 3163:Geophysical Research Letters 2949:Geophysical Research Letters 1628:is the astronomical albedo, 1061:IPCC Sixth Assessment Report 814:); high albedo areas in the 753:and global warming known as 478:bi-hemispherical reflectance 426:at that solar zenith angle, 157:While Hemispherical–Conical 3715:. Norwegian Polar Institute 3547:10.1016/j.joule.2019.07.010 2664:Pon, Brian (30 June 1999). 2639:10.3402/tellusa.v21i5.10109 1668:is the absolute magnitude. 1379:, displaying also a strong 1000:snow-covered areas through 923:Albedo–temperature feedback 130:is defined as the ratio of 7421: 7020:Global surface temperature 6911:Popular culture depictions 6823:Ecosystem-based adaptation 6553:Carbon capture and storage 6475:Carbon offsets and credits 5274:10.1038/s41467-018-06107-2 4790:. Grida.no. Archived from 4764:. Grida.no. Archived from 4538:10.1038/s43247-023-00958-4 3656:– via Research Gate. 3440:10.1038/s41467-020-20646-7 3391:10.1038/s41467-022-31558-z 3060:"Effect of land albedo, CO 2923:. Scienceworld.wolfram.com 2875:10.1038/s41598-019-55272-x 2446:Solar radiation management 1531:and diameter is given by: 1371:The overall albedo of the 1081: 1017:Solar photovoltaic effects 926: 865: 747:solar radiation management 347:satellite sensors such as 36: 29: 7385:Meteorological quantities 7380:Electromagnetic radiation 7232:Climate change portal 7219: 7125:Extreme event attribution 7008: 6997: 6748:School Strike for Climate 6716: 6702: 6627:Climate-smart agriculture 6451: 6438: 6011: 5998: 5921: 5910: 5804: 5791: 5774:Climate change adaptation 5769:Climate change mitigation 5764:Effects of climate change 5754: 5743: 4606:earthobservatory.nasa.gov 4242:10.1007/s00382-004-0402-4 3646:10.1007/s11367-010-0202-5 3595:10.1016/j.scs.2020.102612 3240:10.1016/j.rse.2009.11.014 1246:cloud condensation nuclei 1106:climate change mitigation 1055:This section needs to be 760:The tens of thousands of 745:, has been proposed as a 585:{\displaystyle {\alpha }} 355:instruments on board the 7365:Climate change feedbacks 7135:Global warming potential 6942:International agreements 6589:Preserving and enhancing 6033:Arctic methane emissions 5955:Years in climate change 5862:Greenhouse gas emissions 5759:Causes of climate change 2728:(D24): 28, 901–28, 910. 2044:Relationship to surface 1518:single-scattering albedo 1364:surface containing some 1305:Optical or visual albedo 892:by determining how much 722:), which contributes to 37:Not to be confused with 7166:Climate change scenario 6818:Disaster risk reduction 6470:Carbon emission trading 6280:U.S. insurance industry 6260:Civilizational collapse 6107:sea surface temperature 5661:. Additional archives: 4487:10.1073/pnas.0810021105 4289:10.1126/science.1155121 3939:. Additional archives: 3626:Int J Life Cycle Assess 3520:Munday, Jeremy (2019). 2529:Coakley, J. A. (2003). 2367:Johann Heinrich Lambert 1297:In astronomy, the term 1104:). In other words: The 868:Climate change feedback 32:Albedo (disambiguation) 7159:Research and modelling 6843:Nature-based solutions 6663:Nature-based solutions 6605:Carbon dioxide removal 6522:Fossil fuel divestment 6507:Climate risk insurance 6417:Small island countries 6038:Arctic sea ice decline 4430:10.1098/rsta.2002.1020 3673:Monthly Weather Review 2580:10.1098/rsta.1983.0042 2501:Web.cse.ohio-state.edu 2350: 2087: 1965: 1916: 1874: 1852: 1775: 1746: 1714: 1662: 1642: 1622: 1602: 1294: 1175: 1021:Albedo can affect the 885: 789: 705: 683: 586: 564: 542: 510: 467: 59: 7120:Earth's energy budget 7003:Background and theory 6891:Climate crisis (term) 6563:Fossil fuel phase-out 6457:Economics and finance 6422:by individual country 6364:By country and region 6339:Security and conflict 6334:Psychological impacts 6023:Abrupt climate change 5946:Charles David Keeling 5779:By country and region 5254:Nature Communications 4575:. Vih.freeshell.org. 4121:Ecological Monographs 3667:Winston, Jay (1971). 3428:Nature Communications 3371:Nature Communications 3169:(17): e2021GL094888. 2834:Tetzlaff, G. (1983). 2351: 2088: 2023:Avg. M-type asteroid 2015:Avg. C-type asteroid 2007:Avg. S-type asteroid 1966: 1917: 1875: 1853: 1776: 1747: 1715: 1663: 1643: 1623: 1603: 1280: 1173: 927:Further information: 913:water-vapour feedback 875: 780: 749:strategy to mitigate 703: 684: 587: 565: 543: 541:{\displaystyle {1-D}} 511: 468: 49: 6949:Glasgow Climate Pact 6610:Carbon sequestration 6185:Mass mortality event 5699:4 March 2016 at the 5657:3 April 2019 at the 5231:"Jupiter Fact Sheet" 5002:10.1364/AO.47.004981 4394:10.1029/2005GL024550 3935:3 March 2016 at the 3713:Norsk PolarInstitutt 3350:10.1029/2008JD009912 3184:10.1029/2021GL094888 3112:on 20 September 2009 3031:atmos.washington.edu 2970:10.1029/2000GL012580 2836:Albedo of the Sahara 2775:"The Climate System" 2750:on 30 September 2007 2101: 2055: 1939: 1884: 1864: 1792: 1756: 1724: 1692: 1682:circularly polarized 1652: 1632: 1612: 1535: 1149:carbon sequestration 1128:mitigation benefit. 1110:carbon sequestration 1092:is absorbed through 1031:bifacial solar cells 1027:photovoltaic devices 992:, powdery windblown 599: 574: 552: 524: 484: 430: 30:For other uses, see 7088:Climate sensitivity 6863:The Adaptation Fund 6319:Infectious diseases 6226:Social and economic 5627:2010Icar..208..221S 5592:2006Icar..184..285H 5557:2015Icar..245...38S 5522:2007Icar..186..126M 5418:on 10 December 2008 5389:1991JGR....9618921P 5383:: 18, 921–18, 930. 5354:1990Icar...84...12P 5319:1983Icar...53..262H 5266:2018NatCo...9.3709L 5163:2016Icar..272..178H 5092:2017Icar..282...19M 4994:2008ApOpt..47.4981M 4875:2011epsc.conf..137S 4740:1992JGR....9714565C 4670:2002Natur.418..601T 4478:2008PNAS..10519336O 4422:2002RSPTA.360.1567M 4385:2005GeoRL..3223705G 4281:2008Sci...320.1444B 4275:(5882): 1444–1449. 4234:2004ClDy...22..597B 4179:2000Natur.408..187B 4133:2014EcoM...84..329Z 4091:2014SEMSC.124..111B 4038:2022SoEn..231..921R 3999:2013SoEn...91..233A 3946:National Geographic 3685:1971MWRv...99..818W 3638:2010IJLCA..15..672M 3587:2021SusCS..6502612A 3538:2019Joule...3.2057M 3383:2022NatCo..13.3800O 3341:2008JGRD..11318109C 3267:1979Sci...206.1363S 3261:(4425): 1363–1368. 3232:2010RSEnv.114..738R 3175:2021GeoRL..4894888G 2962:2001GeoRL..28.1671G 2867:2019NatSR...918748R 2734:1997JGR...10228901B 2630:1969Tell...21..611B 2572:1983RSPTA.309..285H 2416:Ice–albedo feedback 1686:radar cross-section 1273:Astronomical albedo 1158:results in reduced 1008:Small-scale effects 974:ice melt by 60%. 929:Ice–albedo feedback 917:ice–albedo feedback 862:Climate and weather 783:diffusely reflected 563:{\displaystyle {D}} 257:0.08, 0.09 to 0.15 214: 174:Ice–albedo feedback 152:position of the Sun 120:diffusely reflected 6659:(LULUCF and AFOLU) 6631:Forest management 6615:Direct air capture 6580:Sustainable energy 6537:Net zero emissions 6532:Low-carbon economy 6527:Green Climate Fund 6314:Indigenous peoples 6217:Plant biodiversity 6005:Effects and issues 5193:"Earth Fact Sheet" 4961:on 22 January 2009 4903:on 22 October 2008 4824:Zender Testimony, 4263:Bonan, GB (2008). 3962:. Ranknfile-ue.org 3494:10.1002/eom2.12153 2855:Scientific Reports 2492:Pharr; Humphreys. 2386:Bio-geoengineering 2346: 2341: 2083: 1961: 1912: 1870: 1848: 1771: 1742: 1710: 1658: 1638: 1618: 1598: 1529:absolute magnitude 1295: 1195:angles of incident 1176: 1122:evapotranspiration 886: 882:negative feedbacks 878:positive feedbacks 802:Insolation effects 790: 781:The percentage of 764:of greenhouses in 706: 679: 582: 560: 538: 506: 463: 408:solar zenith angle 212: 208:Terrestrial albedo 60: 7277: 7276: 7215: 7214: 7211: 7210: 7150:Radiative forcing 6993: 6992: 6989: 6988: 6813:Adaptive capacity 6698: 6697: 6694: 6693: 6558:Energy transition 6434: 6433: 6430: 6429: 6154:Tropical cyclones 6080:Urban heat island 5994: 5993: 5906: 5905: 5902: 5901: 5867:Carbon accounting 5821:Greenhouse effect 5787: 5786: 5461:978-0-12-088589-3 5397:10.1029/91JA01087 5212:"Mars Fact Sheet" 4988:(27): 4981–4993. 4748:10.1029/92JD00799 4608:. 31 January 2007 4416:(1797): 1567–91. 4173:(6809): 187–190. 4141:10.1890/12-1705.1 3881:978-94-009-4842-6 3849:Technical Summary 3815:978-0-19-976532-4 3784:Technical Summary 2820:978-1-85617-390-2 2743:10.1029/96JD03876 2672:on 29 August 2007 2666:"Pavement Albedo" 2566:(1508): 285–294. 2369:in his 1760 work 2330: 2324: 2312: 2296: 2280: 2274: 2245: 2239: 2227: 2216: 2213: 2210: 2204: 2179: 2176: 2170: 2125: 2074: 2068: 2038: 2037: 2031:Comet P/2005 JQ5 1958: 1952: 1903: 1897: 1873:{\displaystyle r} 1846: 1828: 1811: 1805: 1661:{\displaystyle H} 1641:{\displaystyle D} 1621:{\displaystyle A} 1583: 1502: 1501: 1381:opposition effect 1366:organic compounds 1266:radiative forcing 1180:Fresnel equations 1080: 1079: 1023:electrical energy 968:positive feedback 743:thermal emittance 728:urban heat island 673: 668: 632: 503: 498: 443: 384:greenhouse effect 345:Earth observation 329: 328: 178:positive feedback 50:Albedo change in 16:(Redirected from 7412: 7405:1760s neologisms 7342: 7341: 7330: 7329: 7318: 7317: 7316: 7306: 7305: 7294: 7293: 7292: 7285: 7265: 7264: 7253: 7252: 7241: 7240: 7230: 7229: 7228: 7193:Paleoclimatology 7010: 6999: 6760:Ecological grief 6743:Climate movement 6718: 6704: 6684:Plant-based diet 6575:Renewable energy 6453: 6440: 6275:Economic impacts 6207:Invasive species 6063:Coastal flooding 6013: 6000: 5936:Svante Arrhenius 5912: 5882:from agriculture 5872:Carbon footprint 5857:Greenhouse gases 5806: 5793: 5745: 5730: 5723: 5716: 5707: 5639: 5638: 5610: 5604: 5603: 5575: 5569: 5568: 5540: 5534: 5533: 5505: 5496: 5495: 5477: 5466: 5465: 5447: 5428: 5427: 5425: 5423: 5407: 5401: 5400: 5372: 5366: 5365: 5337: 5331: 5330: 5302: 5296: 5295: 5285: 5245: 5239: 5238: 5226: 5220: 5219: 5207: 5201: 5200: 5188: 5182: 5181: 5179: 5148: 5139: 5133: 5132: 5130: 5118: 5112: 5111: 5085: 5065: 5044: 5043: 5041: 5039: 5030:. Archived from 5020: 5014: 5013: 4977: 4971: 4970: 4968: 4966: 4957:. Archived from 4946: 4940: 4939: 4937: 4935: 4919: 4913: 4912: 4910: 4908: 4892: 4886: 4885: 4883: 4881: 4860: 4851: 4845: 4810: 4804: 4803: 4801: 4799: 4784: 4778: 4777: 4775: 4773: 4758: 4752: 4751: 4719: 4713: 4712: 4710: 4708: 4702: 4696:. Archived from 4655: 4646: 4640: 4639: 4637: 4635: 4624: 4618: 4617: 4615: 4613: 4598: 4592: 4591: 4589: 4587: 4581: 4574: 4566: 4560: 4559: 4549: 4516: 4510: 4509: 4499: 4489: 4472:(49): 19336–41. 4456: 4450: 4449: 4405: 4399: 4398: 4396: 4364: 4358: 4357: 4355: 4353: 4338: 4332: 4331: 4329: 4327: 4315: 4309: 4308: 4260: 4254: 4253: 4228:(6–7): 597–603. 4222:Climate Dynamics 4213: 4207: 4206: 4187:10.1038/35041545 4162: 4153: 4152: 4118: 4109: 4103: 4102: 4066: 4060: 4059: 4049: 4017: 4011: 4010: 3978: 3972: 3971: 3969: 3967: 3956: 3950: 3927: 3921: 3918: 3912: 3911: 3909: 3907: 3901:SWI swissinfo.ch 3892: 3886: 3885: 3868:Hall, Dorothy K. 3864: 3858: 3844: 3838: 3837: 3826: 3820: 3819: 3799: 3793: 3779: 3773: 3772: 3757: 3751: 3750: 3748: 3746: 3731: 3725: 3724: 3722: 3720: 3705: 3699: 3698: 3696: 3664: 3658: 3657: 3617: 3611: 3610: 3566: 3560: 3559: 3549: 3532:(9): 2057–2060. 3517: 3511: 3510: 3496: 3472: 3466: 3465: 3451: 3419: 3413: 3412: 3402: 3361: 3355: 3354: 3352: 3320: 3311: 3310: 3250: 3244: 3243: 3211: 3205: 3204: 3186: 3154: 3148: 3147: 3145: 3143: 3131:Gray, Jennifer. 3128: 3122: 3121: 3119: 3117: 3111: 3105:. Archived from 3104: 3096: 3090: 3089: 3087: 3085: 3079: 3068: 3056: 3050: 3049: 3047: 3045: 3039: 3028: 3020: 3014: 3013: 3011: 3009: 3003: 2997:. Archived from 2996: 2988: 2982: 2981: 2956:(9): 1671–1674. 2939: 2933: 2932: 2930: 2928: 2917: 2911: 2910: 2903: 2897: 2896: 2886: 2846: 2840: 2839: 2831: 2825: 2824: 2806: 2791: 2790: 2788: 2786: 2771: 2760: 2759: 2757: 2755: 2746:. Archived from 2745: 2713: 2707: 2706: 2704: 2702: 2688: 2682: 2681: 2679: 2677: 2661: 2652: 2651: 2641: 2609: 2603: 2602: 2555: 2549: 2548: 2546: 2535: 2526: 2520: 2519: 2517: 2515: 2509: 2498: 2489: 2483: 2482: 2480: 2478: 2463: 2431:Opposition surge 2355: 2353: 2352: 2347: 2345: 2344: 2332: 2331: 2328: 2326: 2325: 2317: 2313: 2310: 2306: 2305: 2297: 2294: 2282: 2281: 2278: 2276: 2275: 2267: 2247: 2246: 2243: 2241: 2240: 2232: 2228: 2225: 2221: 2217: 2215: 2214: 2212: 2211: 2208: 2206: 2205: 2197: 2190: 2181: 2180: 2178: 2177: 2174: 2172: 2171: 2163: 2156: 2147: 2135: 2134: 2126: 2123: 2092: 2090: 2089: 2084: 2076: 2075: 2072: 2070: 2069: 2061: 1970: 1968: 1967: 1962: 1960: 1959: 1956: 1954: 1953: 1945: 1930: 1921: 1919: 1918: 1913: 1905: 1904: 1901: 1899: 1898: 1890: 1879: 1877: 1876: 1871: 1857: 1855: 1854: 1849: 1847: 1845: 1844: 1843: 1830: 1829: 1826: 1824: 1818: 1813: 1812: 1809: 1807: 1806: 1798: 1780: 1778: 1777: 1772: 1770: 1769: 1764: 1751: 1749: 1748: 1743: 1741: 1740: 1732: 1719: 1717: 1716: 1711: 1709: 1708: 1700: 1667: 1665: 1664: 1659: 1647: 1645: 1644: 1639: 1627: 1625: 1624: 1619: 1607: 1605: 1604: 1599: 1594: 1593: 1588: 1584: 1579: 1578: 1577: 1573: 1550: 1522:refractive index 1506:Hapke parameters 1421:0.088 or 0.068 1401: 1392:geometric albedo 1291:geometric albedo 1137:coniferous trees 1090:visible spectrum 1075: 1072: 1066: 1050: 1049: 1042: 1025:output of solar 839:temperate forest 812:solar irradiance 688: 686: 685: 680: 675: 674: 669: 661: 659: 647: 646: 634: 633: 625: 591: 589: 588: 583: 581: 569: 567: 566: 561: 559: 547: 545: 544: 539: 537: 515: 513: 512: 507: 505: 504: 499: 491: 489: 472: 470: 469: 464: 462: 458: 457: 445: 444: 436: 263:Deciduous forest 252:Conifer forest, 215: 102: 96: 95: 92: 91: 88: 85: 82: 79: 76: 73: 21: 7420: 7419: 7415: 7414: 7413: 7411: 7410: 7409: 7370:Climate forcing 7350: 7349: 7348: 7336: 7324: 7314: 7312: 7300: 7290: 7288: 7280: 7278: 7273: 7226: 7224: 7207: 7154: 7145:Orbital forcing 7039: 7004: 6985: 6959:Paris Agreement 6937: 6933:Warming stripes 6872: 6838:Managed retreat 6833:Loss and damage 6794: 6728:Business action 6712: 6690: 6667: 6590: 6584: 6541: 6502:Climate finance 6447: 6426: 6358: 6221: 6197:Extinction risk 6173:Flora and fauna 6168: 6129:Permafrost thaw 6124:Ozone depletion 6053:Extreme weather 6007: 5990: 5917: 5898: 5835: 5800: 5783: 5750: 5739: 5734: 5701:Wayback Machine 5659:Wayback Machine 5648: 5643: 5642: 5612: 5611: 5607: 5577: 5576: 5572: 5542: 5541: 5537: 5507: 5506: 5499: 5492: 5479: 5478: 5469: 5462: 5449: 5448: 5431: 5421: 5419: 5409: 5408: 5404: 5377:J. Geophys. Res 5374: 5373: 5369: 5339: 5338: 5334: 5304: 5303: 5299: 5247: 5246: 5242: 5228: 5227: 5223: 5209: 5208: 5204: 5190: 5189: 5185: 5177: 5146: 5141: 5140: 5136: 5120: 5119: 5115: 5067: 5066: 5047: 5037: 5035: 5022: 5021: 5017: 4979: 4978: 4974: 4964: 4962: 4948: 4947: 4943: 4933: 4931: 4921: 4920: 4916: 4906: 4904: 4894: 4893: 4889: 4879: 4877: 4858: 4853: 4852: 4848: 4843: 4819: 4811: 4807: 4797: 4795: 4794:on 29 June 2011 4786: 4785: 4781: 4771: 4769: 4768:on 29 June 2011 4760: 4759: 4755: 4721: 4720: 4716: 4706: 4704: 4700: 4678:10.1038/418601a 4653: 4648: 4647: 4643: 4633: 4631: 4626: 4625: 4621: 4611: 4609: 4600: 4599: 4595: 4585: 4583: 4579: 4572: 4568: 4567: 4563: 4518: 4517: 4513: 4458: 4457: 4453: 4407: 4406: 4402: 4366: 4365: 4361: 4351: 4349: 4340: 4339: 4335: 4325: 4323: 4317: 4316: 4312: 4262: 4261: 4257: 4215: 4214: 4210: 4164: 4163: 4156: 4116: 4111: 4110: 4106: 4068: 4067: 4063: 4019: 4018: 4014: 3980: 3979: 3975: 3965: 3963: 3958: 3957: 3953: 3937:Wayback Machine 3928: 3924: 3919: 3915: 3905: 3903: 3894: 3893: 3889: 3882: 3866: 3865: 3861: 3845: 3841: 3828: 3827: 3823: 3816: 3801: 3800: 3796: 3780: 3776: 3759: 3758: 3754: 3744: 3742: 3741:. 29 April 2017 3733: 3732: 3728: 3718: 3716: 3709:"Albedo Effect" 3707: 3706: 3702: 3679:(11): 818–827. 3666: 3665: 3661: 3619: 3618: 3614: 3568: 3567: 3563: 3519: 3518: 3514: 3474: 3473: 3469: 3421: 3420: 3416: 3363: 3362: 3358: 3322: 3321: 3314: 3252: 3251: 3247: 3213: 3212: 3208: 3156: 3155: 3151: 3141: 3139: 3130: 3129: 3125: 3115: 3113: 3109: 3102: 3098: 3097: 3093: 3083: 3081: 3077: 3066: 3063: 3058: 3057: 3053: 3043: 3041: 3037: 3026: 3022: 3021: 3017: 3007: 3005: 3001: 2994: 2990: 2989: 2985: 2941: 2940: 2936: 2926: 2924: 2919: 2918: 2914: 2905: 2904: 2900: 2848: 2847: 2843: 2833: 2832: 2828: 2821: 2808: 2807: 2794: 2784: 2782: 2781:on 1 March 2003 2773: 2772: 2763: 2753: 2751: 2715: 2714: 2710: 2700: 2698: 2690: 2689: 2685: 2675: 2673: 2663: 2662: 2655: 2611: 2610: 2606: 2557: 2556: 2552: 2544: 2533: 2528: 2527: 2523: 2513: 2511: 2507: 2496: 2491: 2490: 2486: 2476: 2474: 2465: 2464: 2460: 2455: 2450: 2441:Radar astronomy 2381: 2363: 2340: 2339: 2314: 2307: 2292: 2264: 2255: 2254: 2229: 2222: 2194: 2182: 2160: 2148: 2142: 2121: 2111: 2099: 2098: 2058: 2053: 2052: 2049: 1942: 1937: 1936: 1928: 1887: 1882: 1881: 1862: 1861: 1835: 1831: 1819: 1795: 1790: 1789: 1759: 1754: 1753: 1727: 1722: 1721: 1695: 1690: 1689: 1678:radar astronomy 1674: 1650: 1649: 1630: 1629: 1610: 1609: 1558: 1551: 1545: 1544: 1533: 1532: 1432:0.76 or 0.77 1362:space weathered 1309:The albedos of 1307: 1285:is darker than 1275: 1254: 1239: 1237:Aerosol effects 1219: 1187:specular manner 1168: 1143:Studies by the 1133:Deciduous trees 1086: 1076: 1070: 1067: 1064: 1051: 1047: 1040: 1019: 1010: 979:solar radiation 959: 931: 925: 907:and reduced by 888:Albedo affects 870: 864: 804: 795: 775: 737: 698: 638: 597: 596: 572: 571: 550: 549: 522: 521: 482: 481: 449: 428: 427: 417: 404: 253: 222: 213:Sample albedos 210: 202:climate science 149: 139: 100: 70: 66: 42: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7418: 7416: 7408: 7407: 7402: 7397: 7392: 7387: 7382: 7377: 7372: 7367: 7362: 7352: 7351: 7347: 7346: 7334: 7322: 7310: 7298: 7275: 7274: 7272: 7271: 7259: 7247: 7235: 7220: 7217: 7216: 7213: 7212: 7209: 7208: 7206: 7205: 7200: 7195: 7190: 7189: 7188: 7178: 7173: 7168: 7162: 7160: 7156: 7155: 7153: 7152: 7147: 7142: 7137: 7132: 7127: 7122: 7117: 7112: 7111: 7110: 7100: 7098:Cloud feedback 7095: 7090: 7085: 7080: 7079: 7078: 7073: 7068: 7063: 7053: 7047: 7045: 7041: 7040: 7038: 7037: 7032: 7027: 7022: 7016: 7014: 7006: 7005: 7002: 6995: 6994: 6991: 6990: 6987: 6986: 6984: 6983: 6978: 6973: 6972: 6971: 6966: 6956: 6954:Kyoto Protocol 6951: 6945: 6943: 6939: 6938: 6936: 6935: 6930: 6929: 6928: 6923: 6918: 6908: 6906:Media coverage 6903: 6898: 6896:Climate spiral 6893: 6888: 6882: 6880: 6874: 6873: 6871: 6870: 6865: 6860: 6855: 6850: 6845: 6840: 6835: 6830: 6825: 6820: 6815: 6810: 6804: 6802: 6796: 6795: 6793: 6792: 6787: 6785:Public opinion 6782: 6777: 6772: 6767: 6762: 6757: 6752: 6751: 6750: 6740: 6735: 6733:Climate action 6730: 6724: 6722: 6714: 6713: 6707: 6700: 6699: 6696: 6695: 6692: 6691: 6689: 6688: 6687: 6686: 6675: 6673: 6669: 6668: 6666: 6665: 6660: 6654: 6653: 6652: 6647: 6645:REDD and REDD+ 6642: 6637: 6629: 6624: 6622:Carbon farming 6619: 6618: 6617: 6612: 6602: 6596: 6594: 6586: 6585: 6583: 6582: 6577: 6572: 6567: 6566: 6565: 6555: 6549: 6547: 6543: 6542: 6540: 6539: 6534: 6529: 6524: 6519: 6514: 6509: 6504: 6499: 6494: 6489: 6484: 6483: 6482: 6472: 6467: 6461: 6459: 6449: 6448: 6443: 6436: 6435: 6432: 6431: 6428: 6427: 6425: 6424: 6419: 6414: 6409: 6404: 6399: 6394: 6389: 6384: 6379: 6374: 6368: 6366: 6360: 6359: 6357: 6356: 6354:Water security 6351: 6349:Water scarcity 6346: 6344:Urban flooding 6341: 6336: 6331: 6326: 6321: 6316: 6311: 6306: 6305: 6304: 6294: 6289: 6284: 6283: 6282: 6272: 6267: 6262: 6257: 6252: 6247: 6246: 6245: 6240: 6229: 6227: 6223: 6222: 6220: 6219: 6214: 6209: 6204: 6202:Forest dieback 6199: 6194: 6189: 6188: 6187: 6176: 6174: 6170: 6169: 6167: 6166: 6161: 6156: 6151: 6146: 6141: 6139:Sea level rise 6136: 6131: 6126: 6121: 6120: 6119: 6114: 6112:stratification 6109: 6104: 6099: 6094: 6084: 6083: 6082: 6077: 6067: 6066: 6065: 6055: 6050: 6045: 6040: 6035: 6030: 6025: 6019: 6017: 6009: 6008: 6003: 5996: 5995: 5992: 5991: 5989: 5988: 5987: 5986: 5981: 5976: 5971: 5966: 5961: 5953: 5948: 5943: 5938: 5933: 5928: 5922: 5919: 5918: 5915: 5908: 5907: 5904: 5903: 5900: 5899: 5897: 5896: 5891: 5890: 5889: 5884: 5879: 5877:Carbon leakage 5874: 5869: 5859: 5854: 5849: 5843: 5841: 5837: 5836: 5834: 5833: 5828: 5818: 5816:Climate system 5812: 5810: 5802: 5801: 5796: 5789: 5788: 5785: 5784: 5782: 5781: 5776: 5771: 5766: 5761: 5755: 5752: 5751: 5748: 5741: 5740: 5737:Climate change 5735: 5733: 5732: 5725: 5718: 5710: 5704: 5703: 5691: 5686: 5681: 5676: 5671: 5666: 5652:Albedo Project 5647: 5646:External links 5644: 5641: 5640: 5621:(1): 221–237. 5605: 5586:(1): 285–288. 5570: 5535: 5516:(1): 126–151. 5497: 5490: 5467: 5460: 5429: 5402: 5367: 5332: 5313:(2): 262–285. 5297: 5240: 5221: 5202: 5183: 5134: 5113: 5045: 5034:on 23 May 2008 5028:"Lunar Albedo" 5015: 4982:Applied Optics 4972: 4941: 4930:on 17 May 2008 4914: 4887: 4846: 4841: 4817: 4805: 4779: 4753: 4734:(D13): 14565. 4714: 4641: 4619: 4593: 4561: 4511: 4451: 4400: 4379:(23): L23705. 4359: 4348:on 27 May 2010 4333: 4310: 4255: 4208: 4154: 4127:(2): 329–353. 4104: 4061: 4012: 3973: 3951: 3922: 3913: 3887: 3880: 3859: 3839: 3821: 3814: 3794: 3774: 3767:. NASA. 2016. 3752: 3726: 3700: 3659: 3632:(7): 679–680. 3612: 3561: 3512: 3467: 3414: 3356: 3312: 3245: 3226:(4): 738–760. 3206: 3149: 3123: 3091: 3061: 3051: 3015: 3004:on 1 June 2009 2983: 2934: 2912: 2898: 2841: 2826: 2819: 2792: 2761: 2708: 2683: 2653: 2624:(5): 611–619. 2604: 2550: 2521: 2484: 2457: 2456: 2454: 2451: 2449: 2448: 2443: 2438: 2433: 2428: 2423: 2418: 2413: 2411:Global dimming 2408: 2403: 2398: 2393: 2388: 2382: 2380: 2377: 2362: 2359: 2358: 2357: 2343: 2338: 2335: 2323: 2320: 2308: 2304: 2301: 2291: 2288: 2285: 2273: 2270: 2263: 2260: 2257: 2256: 2253: 2250: 2238: 2235: 2223: 2220: 2203: 2200: 2193: 2188: 2185: 2169: 2166: 2159: 2154: 2151: 2145: 2141: 2138: 2133: 2130: 2120: 2117: 2116: 2114: 2109: 2106: 2082: 2079: 2067: 2064: 2048: 2042: 2036: 2035: 2032: 2028: 2027: 2024: 2020: 2019: 2016: 2012: 2011: 2008: 2004: 2003: 2000: 1996: 1995: 1992: 1988: 1987: 1984: 1980: 1979: 1976: 1972: 1971: 1951: 1948: 1934: 1927: 1924: 1911: 1908: 1896: 1893: 1869: 1842: 1838: 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297: 293: 292: 289: 285: 284: 281: 277: 276: 273: 269: 268: 265: 259: 258: 255: 249: 248: 245: 241: 240: 237: 233: 232: 229: 225: 224: 219: 209: 206: 198:climate change 147: 137: 128:Surface albedo 26: 24: 18:Albedo effects 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7417: 7406: 7403: 7401: 7398: 7396: 7393: 7391: 7388: 7386: 7383: 7381: 7378: 7376: 7373: 7371: 7368: 7366: 7363: 7361: 7358: 7357: 7355: 7345: 7340: 7335: 7333: 7328: 7323: 7321: 7311: 7309: 7304: 7299: 7297: 7296:Earth science 7287: 7283: 7270: 7269: 7260: 7258: 7257: 7248: 7246: 7245: 7236: 7234: 7233: 7222: 7221: 7218: 7204: 7201: 7199: 7196: 7194: 7191: 7187: 7184: 7183: 7182: 7179: 7177: 7174: 7172: 7171:Climate model 7169: 7167: 7164: 7163: 7161: 7157: 7151: 7148: 7146: 7143: 7141: 7138: 7136: 7133: 7131: 7128: 7126: 7123: 7121: 7118: 7116: 7113: 7109: 7106: 7105: 7104: 7103:Cloud forcing 7101: 7099: 7096: 7094: 7091: 7089: 7086: 7084: 7081: 7077: 7074: 7072: 7069: 7067: 7064: 7062: 7059: 7058: 7057: 7054: 7052: 7049: 7048: 7046: 7042: 7036: 7033: 7031: 7028: 7026: 7023: 7021: 7018: 7017: 7015: 7011: 7007: 7000: 6996: 6982: 6979: 6977: 6974: 6970: 6967: 6965: 6962: 6961: 6960: 6957: 6955: 6952: 6950: 6947: 6946: 6944: 6940: 6934: 6931: 6927: 6924: 6922: 6919: 6917: 6914: 6913: 6912: 6909: 6907: 6904: 6902: 6899: 6897: 6894: 6892: 6889: 6887: 6884: 6883: 6881: 6879: 6878:Communication 6875: 6869: 6866: 6864: 6861: 6859: 6858:Vulnerability 6856: 6854: 6851: 6849: 6846: 6844: 6841: 6839: 6836: 6834: 6831: 6829: 6828:Flood control 6826: 6824: 6821: 6819: 6816: 6814: 6811: 6809: 6806: 6805: 6803: 6801: 6797: 6791: 6788: 6786: 6783: 6781: 6778: 6776: 6773: 6771: 6768: 6766: 6763: 6761: 6758: 6756: 6753: 6749: 6746: 6745: 6744: 6741: 6739: 6736: 6734: 6731: 6729: 6726: 6725: 6723: 6719: 6715: 6711: 6705: 6701: 6685: 6682: 6681: 6680: 6677: 6676: 6674: 6670: 6664: 6661: 6658: 6655: 6651: 6650:reforestation 6648: 6646: 6643: 6641: 6638: 6636: 6635:afforestation 6633: 6632: 6630: 6628: 6625: 6623: 6620: 6616: 6613: 6611: 6608: 6607: 6606: 6603: 6601: 6598: 6597: 6595: 6593: 6587: 6581: 6578: 6576: 6573: 6571: 6570:Nuclear power 6568: 6564: 6561: 6560: 6559: 6556: 6554: 6551: 6550: 6548: 6544: 6538: 6535: 6533: 6530: 6528: 6525: 6523: 6520: 6518: 6515: 6513: 6510: 6508: 6505: 6503: 6500: 6498: 6495: 6493: 6490: 6488: 6485: 6481: 6478: 6477: 6476: 6473: 6471: 6468: 6466: 6465:Carbon budget 6463: 6462: 6460: 6458: 6454: 6450: 6446: 6441: 6437: 6423: 6420: 6418: 6415: 6413: 6410: 6408: 6405: 6403: 6400: 6398: 6395: 6393: 6390: 6388: 6385: 6383: 6380: 6378: 6375: 6373: 6370: 6369: 6367: 6365: 6361: 6355: 6352: 6350: 6347: 6345: 6342: 6340: 6337: 6335: 6332: 6330: 6327: 6325: 6322: 6320: 6317: 6315: 6312: 6310: 6307: 6303: 6302:Mental health 6300: 6299: 6298: 6295: 6293: 6290: 6288: 6285: 6281: 6278: 6277: 6276: 6273: 6271: 6268: 6266: 6263: 6261: 6258: 6256: 6253: 6251: 6248: 6244: 6243:United States 6241: 6239: 6236: 6235: 6234: 6231: 6230: 6228: 6224: 6218: 6215: 6213: 6210: 6208: 6205: 6203: 6200: 6198: 6195: 6193: 6190: 6186: 6183: 6182: 6181: 6178: 6177: 6175: 6171: 6165: 6162: 6160: 6157: 6155: 6152: 6150: 6147: 6145: 6142: 6140: 6137: 6135: 6132: 6130: 6127: 6125: 6122: 6118: 6115: 6113: 6110: 6108: 6105: 6103: 6100: 6098: 6097:deoxygenation 6095: 6093: 6092:acidification 6090: 6089: 6088: 6085: 6081: 6078: 6076: 6073: 6072: 6071: 6068: 6064: 6061: 6060: 6059: 6056: 6054: 6051: 6049: 6046: 6044: 6041: 6039: 6036: 6034: 6031: 6029: 6026: 6024: 6021: 6020: 6018: 6014: 6010: 6006: 6001: 5997: 5985: 5982: 5980: 5977: 5975: 5972: 5970: 5967: 5965: 5962: 5960: 5957: 5956: 5954: 5952: 5949: 5947: 5944: 5942: 5939: 5937: 5934: 5932: 5929: 5927: 5924: 5923: 5920: 5913: 5909: 5895: 5892: 5888: 5887:from wetlands 5885: 5883: 5880: 5878: 5875: 5873: 5870: 5868: 5865: 5864: 5863: 5860: 5858: 5855: 5853: 5850: 5848: 5847:Deforestation 5845: 5844: 5842: 5838: 5832: 5829: 5826: 5822: 5819: 5817: 5814: 5813: 5811: 5807: 5803: 5799: 5794: 5790: 5780: 5777: 5775: 5772: 5770: 5767: 5765: 5762: 5760: 5757: 5756: 5753: 5746: 5742: 5738: 5731: 5726: 5724: 5719: 5717: 5712: 5711: 5708: 5702: 5698: 5695: 5692: 5690: 5687: 5685: 5682: 5680: 5677: 5675: 5672: 5670: 5667: 5664: 5660: 5656: 5653: 5650: 5649: 5645: 5636: 5632: 5628: 5624: 5620: 5616: 5609: 5606: 5601: 5597: 5593: 5589: 5585: 5581: 5574: 5571: 5566: 5562: 5558: 5554: 5550: 5546: 5539: 5536: 5531: 5527: 5523: 5519: 5515: 5511: 5504: 5502: 5498: 5493: 5491:9780816522811 5487: 5483: 5476: 5474: 5472: 5468: 5463: 5457: 5453: 5446: 5444: 5442: 5440: 5438: 5436: 5434: 5430: 5417: 5413: 5406: 5403: 5398: 5394: 5390: 5386: 5382: 5378: 5371: 5368: 5363: 5359: 5355: 5351: 5347: 5343: 5336: 5333: 5328: 5324: 5320: 5316: 5312: 5308: 5301: 5298: 5293: 5289: 5284: 5279: 5275: 5271: 5267: 5263: 5259: 5255: 5251: 5244: 5241: 5236: 5232: 5225: 5222: 5217: 5213: 5206: 5203: 5198: 5194: 5187: 5184: 5176: 5172: 5168: 5164: 5160: 5156: 5152: 5145: 5138: 5135: 5129: 5124: 5117: 5114: 5109: 5105: 5101: 5097: 5093: 5089: 5084: 5079: 5075: 5071: 5064: 5062: 5060: 5058: 5056: 5054: 5052: 5050: 5046: 5033: 5029: 5025: 5024:Medkeff, Jeff 5019: 5016: 5011: 5007: 5003: 4999: 4995: 4991: 4987: 4983: 4976: 4973: 4960: 4956: 4952: 4945: 4942: 4929: 4925: 4918: 4915: 4902: 4898: 4891: 4888: 4876: 4872: 4868: 4864: 4857: 4850: 4847: 4839: 4835: 4831: 4827: 4823: 4815: 4809: 4806: 4793: 4789: 4783: 4780: 4767: 4763: 4757: 4754: 4749: 4745: 4741: 4737: 4733: 4729: 4725: 4718: 4715: 4703:on 3 May 2006 4699: 4695: 4691: 4687: 4683: 4679: 4675: 4671: 4667: 4664:(6898): 601. 4663: 4659: 4652: 4645: 4642: 4629: 4623: 4620: 4607: 4603: 4597: 4594: 4578: 4571: 4565: 4562: 4557: 4553: 4548: 4543: 4539: 4535: 4531: 4527: 4523: 4515: 4512: 4507: 4503: 4498: 4493: 4488: 4483: 4479: 4475: 4471: 4467: 4463: 4455: 4452: 4447: 4443: 4439: 4435: 4431: 4427: 4423: 4419: 4415: 4411: 4404: 4401: 4395: 4390: 4386: 4382: 4378: 4374: 4370: 4363: 4360: 4347: 4343: 4337: 4334: 4321: 4314: 4311: 4306: 4302: 4298: 4294: 4290: 4286: 4282: 4278: 4274: 4270: 4266: 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M. 4065: 4062: 4057: 4053: 4048: 4043: 4039: 4035: 4031: 4027: 4023: 4016: 4013: 4008: 4004: 4000: 3996: 3992: 3988: 3984: 3977: 3974: 3961: 3955: 3952: 3948: 3947: 3942: 3941:6 August 2011 3938: 3934: 3931: 3926: 3923: 3917: 3914: 3902: 3898: 3891: 3888: 3883: 3877: 3873: 3869: 3863: 3860: 3856: 3855: 3850: 3843: 3840: 3835: 3831: 3825: 3822: 3817: 3811: 3807: 3806: 3798: 3795: 3791: 3787: 3785: 3778: 3775: 3770: 3766: 3762: 3756: 3753: 3740: 3739:The Economist 3736: 3730: 3727: 3714: 3710: 3704: 3701: 3695: 3690: 3686: 3682: 3678: 3674: 3670: 3663: 3660: 3655: 3651: 3647: 3643: 3639: 3635: 3631: 3627: 3623: 3616: 3613: 3609: 3604: 3600: 3596: 3592: 3588: 3584: 3580: 3576: 3572: 3565: 3562: 3557: 3553: 3548: 3543: 3539: 3535: 3531: 3527: 3523: 3516: 3513: 3509: 3504: 3500: 3495: 3490: 3486: 3482: 3478: 3471: 3468: 3464: 3459: 3455: 3450: 3445: 3441: 3437: 3433: 3429: 3425: 3418: 3415: 3410: 3406: 3401: 3396: 3392: 3388: 3384: 3380: 3376: 3372: 3368: 3360: 3357: 3351: 3346: 3342: 3338: 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2506: 2502: 2495: 2488: 2485: 2472: 2468: 2462: 2459: 2452: 2447: 2444: 2442: 2439: 2437: 2436:Polar see-saw 2434: 2432: 2429: 2427: 2424: 2422: 2419: 2417: 2414: 2412: 2409: 2407: 2404: 2402: 2399: 2397: 2394: 2392: 2389: 2387: 2384: 2383: 2378: 2376: 2374: 2373: 2368: 2360: 2336: 2333: 2318: 2302: 2299: 2286: 2283: 2268: 2261: 2251: 2248: 2233: 2218: 2198: 2191: 2186: 2183: 2164: 2157: 2152: 2149: 2143: 2139: 2136: 2131: 2128: 2118: 2112: 2107: 2104: 2097: 2096: 2095: 2080: 2077: 2062: 2047: 2043: 2041: 2033: 2030: 2029: 2025: 2022: 2021: 2017: 2014: 2013: 2009: 2006: 2005: 2001: 1998: 1997: 1993: 1990: 1989: 1985: 1982: 1981: 1977: 1974: 1973: 1946: 1935: 1932: 1931: 1925: 1923: 1909: 1906: 1891: 1867: 1858: 1840: 1836: 1832: 1821: 1814: 1799: 1786: 1782: 1766: 1761: 1737: 1734: 1729: 1705: 1702: 1697: 1687: 1683: 1679: 1676:In planetary 1671: 1669: 1655: 1635: 1615: 1595: 1590: 1585: 1580: 1574: 1570: 1566: 1563: 1559: 1555: 1552: 1546: 1541: 1538: 1530: 1525: 1523: 1519: 1515: 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