Alternative abiogenesis scenarios

282:, an amino acid precursor and ribose 5-phosphate, a nucleotide precursor. Pyrimidines are shown to be synthesized from the reaction between aspartate and carbamoyl phosphate at 60 °C and in the presence of metals, it is suggested that purines could be synthesized from the catalysis of metals. Adenosine monophosphate are also shown to be synthesized from adenine, monopotassium phosphate or pyrophosphate, and ribose at silica at 70 °C. Reductive amination and transamination reactions catalyzed by alkaline hydrothermal vent mineral and metal ions produce amino acids. Long chain fatty acids can be derived from formic acid or oxalic acid during Fischer-Tropsch-type synthesis. Carbohydrates containing an isoprene skeleton can be synthesized from the formose reaction. Isoprenoids incorporated into fatty acid vesicles can stabilize the vesicles, which are suggested to have driven the divergence of bacterial and archaeal lipids. 275:

adenosine monophosphate of up to 7 monomers which is considered energetically favored in water due to interactions between nucleobases. Acetyl phosphate can stabilize aggregation of nucleotides in the presence of Na and could possibly promote polymerization at mineral surfaces or lower water activity. An external proton gradient within a membrane would have been maintained between the acidic ocean and alkaline seawater. The descendants of the last universal common ancestor, bacteria and archaea, were probably methanogens and acetogens. The earliest microfossils, dated to be 4.28 to 3.77 Ga, were found at hydrothermal vent precipitates. These microfossils suggest that early cellular life began at deep sea hydrothermal vents. Exergonic reactions at these environments could have provided free energy that promoted chemical reactions conducive to prebiotic biomolecules.

719:. He discovered that the temperature was over 100 °C just 4 inches (100 mm) beneath the surface of the cinder cone, and suggested that this might have been the environment in which life was created—molecules could have formed and then been washed through the loose volcanic ash into the sea. He placed lumps of lava over amino acids derived from methane, ammonia and water, sterilized all materials, and baked the lava over the amino acids for a few hours in a glass oven. A brown, sticky substance formed over the surface, and when the lava was drenched in sterilized water, a thick, brown liquid leached out. He found that, as they dried, the amino acids formed long, often cross-linked, thread-like, submicroscopic polypeptides. 178:

tides, driven by a close moon, could have generated rapid cycles of dilution (high tide, low salt) and concentration (dry-down at low tide, high salt) that exclusively promoted the replication of nucleic acids through a process dubbed tidal chain reaction (TCR). This theory has been criticized on the grounds that early tides may not have been so rapid, although regression from current values requires an Earth–Moon juxtaposition at around two Ga, for which there is no evidence, and early tides may have been approximately every seven hours. Another critique is that only 2–3% of the Earth's crust may have been exposed above the sea until late in terrestrial evolution.

87: 112: 51: 100: 136: 63: 75: 995:, have weak affinity and form weaker duplex structures. This is advantageous in an abiotic scenario and these chimeras have been shown to replicate RNA and DNA – overcoming the "template-product" inhibition problem, where a pure RNA or pure DNA strand is unable to replicate non-enzymatically because it binds too strongly to its partners. This could lead to an abiotic cross-catalytic amplification of RNA and DNA. A continuous chemical reaction network in water and under high-energy radiation can generate precursors for early RNA. 124: 567:(MnS). ZnS and MnS have a unique ability to store radiation energy, e.g. from ultraviolet light. When replicating molecules were originating, the primordial atmospheric pressure was high enough (>100 bar) to precipitate near the Earth's surface, and ultraviolet irradiation was 10 to 100 times more intense than now; hence the photosynthetic properties mediated by ZnS provided the right energy conditions for the synthesis of informational and metabolic molecules and the selection of photostable nucleobases. 247:

condensation. Zinc sulfide and manganese sulfide in these ponds would have catalyzed organic compounds by abiotic photosynthesis. Experimental research at geothermal springs successfully synthesized polymers and were encapsulated in vesicles after exposure to UV light and multiple wet-dry cycles. At temperatures of 60 to 80 °C at geothermal fields, biochemical reactions can occur. These predecessors of true cells are assumed to have behaved more like a

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binding change mechanism resembles a physical adsorption process that yields free energy. The result would be convection which would bring a continual supply of reactants to the protoenzyme. The described first protein may be simple in the sense that it requires only a short sequence of conserved amino acid residues, a sequent sufficient for the appropriate catalytic cleft.

4434:...if life does emerge readily under terrestrial conditions, then perhaps it formed many times on our home planet. To pursue this possibility, deserts, lakes and other extreme or isolated environments have been searched for evidence of "alien" life-forms—organisms that would differ fundamentally from known organisms because they arose independently. 920:

between cellular organisms could favor the appearance of new viruses during evolution. Viruses retain a replication module inherited from the prebiotic stage since it is absent in cells. So this is evidence that viruses could originate from the RNA world and could also emerge several times in evolution through genetic escape in cells.

86: 784:, the formose reaction, yields numerous sugars without any selectivity". They conclude that "the backbone of the first genetic material could not have contained ribose or other sugars because of their instability", meaning that the ester linkage of ribose and phosphoric acid in RNA is prone to hydrolysis. 812:

ribose aminooxazoline if the enantiomeric excess of glyceraldehyde is 60% or greater. This can be viewed as a prebiotic purification step. Ribose aminooxazoline can then react with cyanoacetylene to give alpha cytidine ribonucleotide. Photoanomerization with UV light allows for inversion about the 1'

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within seawater. Porous rock might have promoted condensation reactions of biopolymers and act as a compartment of membranous structures, however it is unknown about how it could promote coding and metabolism. Acetyl phosphate, which is readily synthesized from thioacetate, can promote aggregation of

269:

Nick Lane believes that no known life forms could have utilized zinc-sulfide based photosynthesis, lightning, volcanic pyrite synthesis, or UV radiation as a source of energy. Rather, he instead suggests that deep sea alkaline vents is more likely to have been a source energy for early cellular life.

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suggested that geothermal activity provides greater opportunities for the origination of life in open lakes where there is a buildup of minerals. In 2010, based on spectral analysis of sea and hot mineral water, Ignat Ignatov and Oleg Mosin demonstrated that life may have predominantly originated in

907:

into modern viruses (identified by the complete loss of cellular makeup), meanwhile other coexisting cellular lineages diversified into modern cells." The data suggest that viruses originated from ancient cells that co-existed with the ancestors of modern cells. These ancient cells likely contained

755:

The thermosynthesis hypothesis considers chemiosmosis more basal than fermentation: the ATP synthase enzyme, which sustains chemiosmosis, is the currently extant enzyme most closely related to the first metabolic process. The thermosynthesis hypothesis does not even invoke a pathway: ATP synthase's

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for the evolution of pre-biotic chemical pathways. It traces today's biochemistry to primordial reactions which synthesize organic building blocks from gases. Wächtershäuser systems have a built-in source of energy: iron sulfides such as pyrite. The energy released by oxidising these metal sulfides

246:

and rainfall. Before the continents formed, the only dry land on Earth would be volcanic islands, where rainwater would form ponds where lipids could form the first stages towards cell membranes. During multiple wet-dry cycles, biopolymers would be synthesized and are encapsulated in vesicles after

31:

have been proposed by scientists in a variety of fields from the 1950s onwards in an attempt to explain how the complex mechanisms of life could have come into existence. These include hypothesized ancient environments that might have been favourable for the origin of life, and possible biochemical

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Tony Jia and Kuhan Chandru have proposed spontaneously-forming membraneless polyester droplets in early cellularization before the innovation of lipid vesicles. Protein function within and RNA function in the presence of certain polyester droplets was shown to be preserved within the droplets. The

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John Parnell has suggested that such a process could provide part of the "crucible of life" in the early stages of any early wet rocky planet, so long as the planet is large enough to have generated a system of plate tectonics which brings radioactive minerals to the surface. As the early Earth is

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at tectonic fault zones might have led to peptides integrating with and stabilizing lipid membranes. This is suggested to have driven membrane protein evolution, as it shown that a selected peptide (H-Lys-Ser-Pro-Phe-Pro-Phe-Ala-Ala-OH) causes the increase of membrane permeability to water. David

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6 of the 11 biochemical reactions of the rTCA cycle can occur in hot metal-rich acidic water which suggests metabolic reactions might have originated in this environment, this is consistent with the enhanced stability of RNA phosphodiester, aminoacyl-tRNA bonds, and peptides in acidic conditions.

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addresses the formation, but not the dissociation, of nucleic acid polymers and duplexes. However, nucleic acids are unusual because, in the absence of counterions (low salt) to neutralize the high charges on opposing phosphate groups, the nucleic acid duplex dissociates into single chains. Early

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between replicator communities. These communities could not survive if the number of gene parasites increased, with certain genes being responsible for the formation of these structures and those that favored the survival of self-replicating communities. The displacement of these ancestral genes

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are substances that catalyze the production of themselves and therefore are "molecular replicators." The simplest self-replicating chemical systems are autocatalytic, and typically contain three components: a product molecule and two precursor molecules. The product molecule joins the precursor

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The tidal chain reaction theory has mechanistic advantages over thermal association/dissociation at deep-sea vents because it requires that chain assembly (template-driven polymerization) takes place during the dry-down phase, when precursors are most concentrated, whereas thermal cycling needs

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Strunecký, Otakar; Kopejtka, Karel; Goecke, Franz; Tomasch, Juergen; Lukavský, Jaromir; Neori, Amir; Kahe, Silke; Pieper, Dietmar; Pilarski, Plamen; Kaftan, David; Koblížek, Michal (2019). "High diversity of thermophilic cyanobacteria in Rupite hot spring identified by microscopy, Cultivation,

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Pyrimidine ribonucleosides and nucleotides have been synthesized by reactions which by-pass the free sugars, and are assembled stepwise using nitrogenous or oxygenous chemistries. Sutherland has demonstrated high-yielding routes to cytidine and uridine ribonucleotides from small 2 and 3 carbon

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has argued that a complex nucleation event as the origin of life involving both polypeptides and nucleic acid is compatible with the time and space available in the primary oceans of Earth. Hoffmann suggests that volcanic ash may provide the many random shapes needed in the postulated complex

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and RNA-like molecules. However, the nature and properties of the Jeewanu remains to be clarified. Electrostatic interactions induced by short, positively charged, hydrophobic peptides containing 7 amino acids in length or fewer can attach RNA to a vesicle membrane, the basic cell membrane.

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Evidence for a "virus first" hypothesis, which may support theories of the RNA world, was suggested in 2015. One of the difficulties for the study of the origins of viruses is their high rate of mutation; this is particularly the case in RNA retroviruses like HIV. A 2015 study compared

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molecules, which in turn produce more product molecules from more precursor molecules. The product molecule catalyzes the reaction by providing a complementary template that binds to the precursors, thus bringing them together. Such systems have been demonstrated both in biological

413:

can support synthesis of organic molecules. Such systems may have evolved into autocatalytic sets constituting self-replicating, metabolically active entities predating modern life forms. Experiments with sulfides in an aqueous environment at 100 °C produced a small yield of

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proposed the theory that life first developed not on the surface of the Earth, but several kilometers below the surface. It is claimed that the discovery of microbial life below the surface of another body in our Solar System would lend significant credence to this theory.

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structures under plausibly early Earth conditions. In one of his experiments, he allowed amino acids to dry out as if puddled in a warm, dry spot in prebiotic conditions: In an experiment to set suitable conditions for life to form, Fox collected volcanic material from a

865:, in streams of water irradiated by UV light, could produce the chemical components of proteins and lipids, as well as those of RNA, while not producing a wide range of other compounds. The researchers used the term "cyanosulfidic" to describe this network of reactions. 487:

A multistep biochemical pathway like the Krebs cycle did not just self-organize on the surface of a mineral; it must have been preceded by simpler pathways. The Wood–Ljungdahl pathway is compatible with self-organization on a metal sulfide surface. Its key enzyme unit,

848:

with the autocatalyst amino adenosine triacid ester (AATE). One product was a variant of AATE which catalyzed its own synthesis. This demonstrated that autocatalysts could compete within a population of entities with heredity, a rudimentary form of natural selection.

444:. This provides further evidence for the central role of citric acid in primordial metabolism. Russell has proposed that "the purpose of life is to hydrogenate carbon dioxide" (as part of a "metabolism-first", rather than a "genetics-first", scenario). The 428:(citric acid cycle) to energy production in aerobic organisms, and in drawing in carbon dioxide and hydrogen ions in biosynthesis of complex organic chemicals, suggests that it was one of the first parts of the metabolism to evolve. Concordantly, 207:, certain reactions of condensation-dehydration of amino acids and nucleotides in individual blocks of peptides and nucleic acids can take place in the primary hydrosphere with pH 9–11 at a later evolutionary stage. Some of these compounds like 111: 6206: 451:

has argued from general thermodynamic considerations that life was inevitable. An early version of this idea was Oparin's 1924 proposal for self-replicating vesicles. In the 1980s and 1990s came Wächtershäuser's iron–sulfur world theory and

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material also has released soluble phosphate into the regions between sand-grains, making it biologically "accessible." Thus amino acids, sugars, and soluble phosphates might have been produced simultaneously, according to Adam. Radioactive

251:

rather than individual structures, where the porous membranes would house molecules which would leak out and enter other protocells. Only when true cells had evolved would they gradually adapt to saltier environments and enter the ocean.

202:

ions has the most optimal range. This case is similar to the origin of life in hydrothermal vents, but with hydrogen carbonate and calcium ions in hot water. At a pH of 9–11, the reactions can take place in seawater. According to

50: 598:

scrutiny of the inorganic ion requirements of modern cells. The authors conclude that ubiquitous, and by inference primordial, proteins and functional systems show affinity to and functional requirement for K, Zn, Mn, and

389:

capable of catalyzing their own chemical reactions. The hypercycle theory requires the existence of complex biochemicals, such as nucleotides, which do not form under the conditions proposed by the Miller–Urey experiment.

894:

code for those folds. They argue that protein folds are better markers of ancient events as their three-dimensional structures can be maintained even as the sequences that code for those begin to change. Thus, the viral

680:. Metabolism-like reactions could have occurred naturally in early oceans, before the first organisms evolved. Some of these reactions can produce RNA, and others resemble two essential reaction cascades of metabolism: 99: 92:

Nucleotides in a protocell in a hydrothermal vent can polymerise into random strings of RNA. Any that have even slight catalytic activity will favour the growth and replication of their protocells, a start to natural

135: 62: 74: 1002:

conditions. The RNA evolved to a "replicator network comprising five types of RNAs with diverse interactions" such as cooperation for replication of other members (multiple coexisting host and parasite lineages).

323:

at the high-water mark on primordial beaches, where they may have been responsible for generating life's building blocks. According to computer models, a deposit of such radioactive materials could show the same

751:

Convection cells in fluid placed in a gravity field are selforganizing and enable thermal cycling of the suspended contents in the fluid such as protocells containing protoenzymes that work on thermal cycling.

381:, which catalyzes the formation of another information system, in sequence until the product of the last aids in the formation of the first information system. Mathematically treated, hypercycles could create 261:

Deamer and Bruce Damer states that the prebiotic chemistry does not require ultraviolet irradiation as the chemistry could also have occurred under shaded areas that protected biomolecules from photolysis.

270:

Serpentinization at alkaline hydrothermal vents produce methane and ammonia. Mineral particles that have similar properties to enzymes at deep sea vents would catalyze organic compounds out of dissolved CO

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Different forms of life with variable origin processes may have appeared quasi-simultaneously in the early Earth. The other forms may be extinct, having left distinctive fossils through their

523:

It has been suggested that the iron-sulfur world hypothesis and RNA world hypothesis are not mutually exclusive as modern cellular processes do involve both metabolites and genetic molecules.

535:

S interacting with cold primordial ocean (or Darwin's "warm little pond") water precipitated metal sulfide particles. Oceanic hydrothermal systems have a zonal structure reflected in ancient

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Powner, Matthew W.; Sutherland, John D. (13 October 2008). "Potentially Prebiotic Synthesis of Pyrimidine β-D-Ribonucleotides by Photoanomerization/Hydrolysis of α-D-Cytidine-2'-Phosphate".

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Kurihara, Kensuke; Tamura, Mieko; Shohda, Koh-ichiroh; et al. (October 2011). "Self-Reproduction of supramolecular giant vesicles combined with the amplification of encapsulated DNA".

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Lankenau, Dirk-Henner (2011). "Two RNA Worlds: Toward the Origin of Replication, Genes, Recombination and Repair". In Egel, Richard; Lankenau, Dirk-Henner; Mulkidjanian, Armen Y. (eds.).

1365:

Derekova, Anna; Sjoholm, Carsten; Mandeva, Rossica; Kambourova, Margarita (2007). "Anoxybacillus rupiences sp. Nov. a novel thermophylic bacterium isolated from Rupi basin (Bulgaria)".

727:

An origin-of-life theory based on self-replicating beta-sheet structures has been put forward by Maury in 2009. The theory suggest that self-replicating and self-assembling catalytic

123: 958:

stated in 1967 that "laboratories will be creating a living cell within ten years", a remark that reflected the typical contemporary naivety about the complexity of cell structures.

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monomers, and the formation of membranes from lipids. In 1998, Hyman Hartman proposed that "the first organisms were self-replicating iron-rich clays which fixed carbon dioxide into

633:

in 1985. It postulates that complex organic molecules arose gradually on pre-existing, non-organic replication surfaces of silicate crystals in contact with an aqueous solution. The

817:. In 2009 they showed that the same simple building blocks allow access, via phosphate controlled nucleobase elaboration, to 2',3'-cyclic pyrimidine nucleotides directly, which can 735:

is based on the structural stability, autocatalytic and catalytic properties, and evolvability of beta-sheet based informational systems. Such systems are also error correcting and

3112:

Popper, being 'too old to work alone,' as he told us during our July visit, is collaborating with a German biochemist, Günther Wächtershäuser, on the theory of the origin of life.

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Anastasi, Carole; Crowe, Michael A.; Powner, Matthew W.; Sutherland, John D. (18 September 2006). "Direct Assembly of Nucleoside Precursors from Two- and Three-Carbon Units".

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María, Colín-García; Alejandro, Heredia; Guadalupe, Cordero; Camprubí, Antoni; Negrón-Mendoza, Alicia; Ortega-Gutiérrez, Fernando; Beraldi, Hugo; Ramos-Bernal, Sergio (2016).

609:. Geochemical reconstruction shows that this ionic composition could not have existed in the ocean but is compatible with inland geothermal systems. In the oxygen-depleted, CO 3428: 3715: 2909: 2367:"On the origins of cells: a hypothesis for the evolutionary transitions from abiotic geochemistry to chemoautotrophic prokaryotes, and from prokaryotes to nucleated cells" 504:

and thioester compounds are thermodynamically and kinetically unlikely to accumulate in the presumed prebiotic conditions of hydrothermal vents. One possibility is that

2079: 5210:

Powner, Matthew W.; Gerland, Béatrice; Sutherland, John D. (14 May 2009). "Synthesis of activated pyrimidine ribonucleotides in prebiotically plausible conditions".

970:. First synthesized in 1963 from simple minerals and basic organics while exposed to sunlight, it is reported to have some metabolic capabilities, the presence of a 1346:

Ignatov, Ignat (2021). "Origin of Life and Living Matter in Hot Mineral Water and Properties of Polar Molecules in the Primary Hydrosphere and Hydrothermal Ponds".

5568: 44:

has proposed a possible scenario for the origin of life that integrates much of the available evidence from biochemistry, geology, phylogeny, and experimentation:

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differ from that of modern seawater, which led Mulkidjanian and colleagues to reconstruct the "hatcheries" of the first cells combining geochemical analysis with

531:

Armen Mulkidjanian's zinc world (Zn-world) hypothesis extends Wächtershäuser's pyrite hypothesis. The Zn-world theory proposes that hydrothermal fluids rich in H

468:'s collectively autocatalytic sets in the 1980s. Kauffman's work has been criticized for ignoring the role of energy in driving biochemical reactions in cells. 3710: 890:

structures across different branches of the tree of life, where researchers can reconstruct the evolutionary histories of the folds and of the organisms whose

3833:"On the origin of life in the zinc world: 1. Photosynthesizing, porous edifices built of hydrothermally precipitated zinc sulfide as cradles of life on Earth" 4332: 1292:

Flament, Nicolas; Coltice, Nicolas; Rey, Patrice F. (2008). "A case for late-Archaean continental emergence from thermal evolution models and hypsometry".

570:

The Zn-world theory has been filled out with evidence for the ionic constitution of the interior of the first protocells. In 1926, the Canadian biochemist

1947:"Coupled Phases and Combinatorial Selection in Fluctuating Hydrothermal Pools: A Scenario to Guide Experimental Approaches to the Origin of Cellular Life" 1878:

Mayer, Christian; Schreiber, Ulrich; Dávila, María J.; Schmitz, Oliver J.; Bronja, Amela; Meyer, Martin; Klein, Julia; Meckelmann, Sven W. (24 May 2018).

1707:"Coupled Phases and Combinatorial Selection in Fluctuating Hydrothermal Pools: A Scenario to Guide Experimental Approaches to the Origin of Cellular Life" 3386: 2422:

Dodd, Matthew S; Papineau, Dominic; Grenne, Tor; Slack, John F; Rittner, Martin; Pirajno, Franco; O'Neil, Jonathan; Little, Crispin T S (2017-03-01).

1474: 617:

would resemble the internal milieu of modern cells. Therefore, precellular evolution may have taken place in shallow "Darwin ponds" lined with porous

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Huang, Wenhua; Ferris, James P. (12 July 2006). "One-Step, Regioselective Synthesis of up to 50-mers of RNA Oligomers by Montmorillonite Catalysis".

3938:"On the origin of life in the zinc world. 2. Validation of the hypothesis on the photosynthesizing zinc sulfide edifices as cradles of life on Earth" 5397: 4240: 946:". The amino acids had combined to form proteinoids, which formed small globules. These were not cells; their clumps and chains were reminiscent of 536: 117:

Ferredoxin catalyses the splitting of hydrogen sulphide, its earliest repeating amino acid sequence perhaps coded for by an incomplete genetic code.

4865:. Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology. Vol. 52. Cold Spring Harbor, NY: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press. pp. 9–16. 278:

Nonenzymatic reactions of glycolysis and the pentose phosphate pathway can occur in the presence of ferrous iron at 70 °C, the reactions produce

3521: 6730: 6688: 6099: 5359: 5312: 4878: 4455: 4214: 4098: 3709:

Vallee, Yannick; Shalayel, Ibrahim; Ly, Kieu-Dung; Rao, K. V. Raghavendra; Paëpe, Gael De; Märker, Katharina; Milet, Anne (8 November 2017).

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Yi, Jing; Kaur, Harpreet; Kazöne, Wahnyalo; Rauscher, Sophia A.; Gravillier, Louis-Albin; Muchowska, Kamila B.; Moran, Joseph (2022-06-07).

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polymerization to take place during the cold phase, when the rate of chain assembly is lowest and precursors are likely to be more dilute.

6195:"Histochemical localisation of RNA-like material in photochemically formed self-sustaining, abiogenic supramolecular assemblies 'Jeewanu'" 5862: 1821:

Muchowska, Kamila B.; Varma, Sreejith J.; Chevallot-Beroux, Elodie; Lethuillier-Karl, Lucas; Li, Guang; Moran, Joseph (2 October 2017).

336:. Such radioactive beach sand might have provided sufficient energy to generate organic molecules, such as amino acids and sugars from 4560:"Origin of Life. Primordial genetics: Information transfer in a pre-RNA world based on self-replicating beta-sheet amyloid conformers" 677: 493: 476: 6537:

Yi, Ruiqin; Tran, Quoc Phuong; Ali, Sarfaraz; Yoda, Isao; Adam, Zachary R.; Cleaves, H. James; Fahrenbach, Albert C. (16 June 2020).

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Subramaniam, Anand Bala; Wan, Jiandi; Gopinath, Arvind; Stone, Howard A. (2011). "Semi-permeable vesicles composed of natural clay".

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droplets have scaffolding ability, by allowing lipids to assemble around them; this may have prevented leakage of genetic materials.

56:

Iron-Sulphur minerals like Greigite catalyse the reduction of carbon dioxide in hydrothermal vents to make Krebs cycle intermediates.

4176: 409: 399: 315:

Zachary Adam claims that tidal processes that occurred during a time when the Moon was much closer may have concentrated grains of

24: 3046: 2973:

Parnell, John (December 2004). "Mineral Radioactivity in Sands as a Mechanism for Fixation of Organic Carbon on the Early Earth".

2901: 2765:"Isoprenoids enhance the stability of fatty acid membranes at the emergence of life potentially leading to an early lipid divide" 6337:

Gibard, Clémentine; Gorrell, Ian B.; Jiménez, Eddy I.; Kee, Terence P.; Pasek, Matthew A.; Krishnamurthy, Ramanarayanan (2019).

4515:

Maury, C. P. (2009). "Self-proagating beta-sheet polypeptide structures as prebiotic informational entities:The amyloid world".

385:, which through natural selection entered into a form of Darwinian evolution. A boost to hypercycle theory was the discovery of 1222:

Varga, P.; Rybicki, K.; Denis, C. (2006). "Comment on the paper "Fast tidal cycling and the origin of life" by Richard Lathe".

1017: 325: 5911:

Jia, Tony Z.; Chandru, Kuhan; Hongo, Yayoi; Afrin, Rehana; Usui, Tomohiro; Myojo, Kunihiro; Cleaves, H. James (22 July 2019).

5572: 4715: 668:. Finally phosphate was incorporated into the evolving system which allowed the synthesis of nucleotides and phospholipids." 6091: 5799:"Chasing the Origin of Viruses: Capsid-Forming Genes as a Life-Saving Preadaptation within a Community of Early Replicators" 3882: 3235: 5746:"Annotation of Protein Domains Reveals Remarkable Conservation in the Functional Make up of Proteomes Across Superkingdoms" 4760:"Were the first organisms heat engines? A new model for biogenesis and the early evolution of biological energy conversion" 3238:(31 July 1998). "Peptides by Activation of Amino Acids with CO on (Ni,Fe)S Surfaces: Implications for the Origin of Life". 903:

approaches. Those researchers think that "the prolonged pressure of genome and particle size reduction eventually reduced

517: 489: 105:

A protocell away from a hydrothermal vent must create its own proton-motive force, such as by splitting hydrogen sulphide.

6169: 4713:

Muller, Anthonie W. J. (7 August 1985). "Thermosynthesis by biomembranes: Energy gain from cyclic temperature changes".

436:

demonstrated that non-enzymatic RNA replication in primitive protocells is only possible in the presence of weak cation

141:

Early heterotrophs used Krebs cycle respiration; then oxygenic photosynthesis gave full independence of volcanic energy.

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In 2022, evolution experiments of self-replicating RNA showed how RNA may have evolved to diverse complex molecules in

68:

Protocells in contact with a thin rock barrier in a hydrothermal vent get a free supply of energy from the pH gradient.

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Mulkidjanian, Armen Y.; Bychkov, Andrew Yu.; Dibrova, Daria V.; Galperin, Michael Y.; Koonin, Eugene V. (2012-04-03).

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Mulkidjanian, Armen Y.; Bychkov, Andrew Yu.; Dibrova, Daria V.; Galperin, Michael Y.; Koonin, Eugene V. (2012-04-03).

992: 80:

Protocells in a hydrothermal vent can grow by adding fatty acids to their membrane, other organics to their cytoplasm.

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Gibard, Clémentine; Bhowmik, Subhendu; Karki, Megha; Kim, Eun-Kyong; Krishnamurthy, Ramanarayanan (February 2018).

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Baaske, Philipp; Weinert, Franz M.; Duhr, Stefan; Lemke, Kono H.; Russell, Michael J.; Braun, Dieter (2007-05-29).

797: 5428: 5351: 3189: 2661:

Akouche, Mariame; Jaber, Maguy; Maurel, Marie-Christine; Lambert, Jean-Francois; Georgelin, Thomas (2017-06-26).

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Several models postulate a primitive metabolism, allowing RNA replication to emerge later. The centrality of the

216: 174: 3650:

Chandru, Kuhan; Gilbert, Alexis; Butch, Christopher; Aono, Masashi; Cleaves, Henderson James II (21 July 2016).

845: 350: 3107: 6749: 6680: 6029:

Guttenberg, Nicholas; Virgo, Nathaniel; Chandru, Kuhan; Scharf, Caleb; Mamajanov, Irena (13 November 2017).

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thought to have had many smaller plates, it might have provided a suitable environment for such processes.

242:, and must therefore have originated in freshwater environments like pools replenished by a combination of 6136: 5345: 4387: 2990: 971: 370: 4489: 4277: 3994: 1469: 279: 6675:

Chemical Evolution: Molecular Evolution Towards the Origin of Living Systems on the Earth and Elsewhere

5972:"Polyesters as a Model System for Building Primitive Biologies from Non-Biological Prebiotic Chemistry" 776:, could have been the first to emerge as a self-reproducing molecule, later replaced by RNA. Larralde 6617: 6550: 6485: 6042: 5983: 5924: 5810: 5700: 5602: 5593:

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have been created. David Ward described the formation of stromatolites in hot mineral water at the

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Anoxygenic photosynthesis, using hydrogen sulphide, ended the need for scarce hydrogen.

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chains spontaneously form duplex structures, then there is no way to dissociate them.

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A computational model (2015) has shown that virus capsids may have originated in the

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models. More abstract and theoretical arguments for metabolism without genes include

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into RNA. Similar photo-sanitization can create pyrimidine-2',3'-cyclic phosphates.

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retain traces of ancient evolutionary history that can be recovered using advanced

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It has been proposed that life initially arose as autocatalytic chemical networks.

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and others found that a network of reactions beginning with hydrogen cyanide and

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In trying to uncover the intermediate stages of abiogenesis mentioned by Bernal,

369:

examined the transient stages between the molecular chaos and a self-replicating

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First protein that condenses substrates during thermal cycling: thermosynthesis

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nucleation event. This aspect of the theory can be tested experimentally.

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(1969). 4458:from the original on 17 June 2015 4424:from the original on 4 March 2016 4415:10.1038/scientificamerican1207-62 3527:from the original on 4 June 2015. 3431:from the original on 14 July 2015 3397:from the original on 17 June 2015 2912:from the original on 27 June 2015 1477:from the original on 14 July 2015 966:A further protocell model is the 837:and in small organic molecules. 404:In the 1980s, Wächtershäuser and 29:alternative abiogenesis scenarios 5567:(Press release). Champaign, IL: 5391:Tjivikua, T.; Ballester, Pablo; 3538:Fox, Ronald F. (December 1993). 1348:Uttar Pradesh Journal of Zoology 924:Encapsulation without a membrane 644:of RNA in aqueous solution from 326:self-sustaining nuclear reaction 134: 122: 110: 98: 85: 73: 61: 49: 4863:Evolution of Catalytic Function 4758:Muller, Anthonie W. J. (1995). 3129:"Pyrite and the origin of life" 1018:First universal common ancestor 640:has been shown to catalyze the 543:. Most abundant are pyrite (FeS 4716:Journal of Theoretical Biology 4564:Journal of Theoretical Biology 3905:10.1128/MMBR.52.4.452-484.1988 1827:Nature Ecology & Evolution 974:, amino acids, phospholipids, 954:or other encoded information. 1: 6129:, or the 'particles of life'" 4925:10.1126/science.290.5495.1306 4737:10.1016/S0022-5193(85)80202-2 4488:(Lecture notes). Tucson, AZ: 3566:10.1016/s0006-3495(93)81321-3 490:carbon monoxide dehydrogenase 5870:Nature Reviews. Microbiology 5824:10.1371/journal.pone.0126094 4777:10.1016/0079-6107(95)00004-7 4138:10.1016/j.resmic.2009.07.004 4008:10.1152/physrev.1926.6.2.316 3262:10.1126/science.281.5377.670 2623:10.1016/j.bbabio.2022.148597 1279:10.1016/j.icarus.2005.08.019 1244:10.1016/j.icarus.2005.04.022 1166:10.1016/j.icarus.2003.10.018 1075:, pp. 147–148, 152–153. 410:iron–sulfur world hypothesis 400:Iron–sulfur world hypothesis 311:Radioactive beach hypothesis 6092:Reader's Digest Association 4871:10.1101/SQB.1987.052.01.004 4837:10.1016/j.physa.2005.12.003 3463:Journal of Chemical Physics 1666:10.1101/cshperspect.a004929 869:Simulated chemical pathways 23:(abiogenesis), such as the 6766: 6630:10.1038/s41467-022-29113-x 5275:10.1016/j.cbpa.2004.09.005 4682:10.1038/s41467-017-02742-3 4633:10.1038/s41467-017-00463-1 4585:10.1016/j.jtbi.2015.07.008 4169:Cambridge University Press 2268:10.1016/j.cell.2012.11.050 1314:10.1016/j.epsl.2008.08.029 798:glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate 695: 464:'s mathematical model and 397: 238:cannot be formed in salty 6498:10.1038/s41557-019-0322-x 6150:10.1007/s12038-011-9087-0 5882:10.1038/s41579-019-0205-6 5344:Dawkins, Richard (2004). 4529:10.1007/s11084-009-9165-6 4091:10.1007/978-3-642-21625-1 3190:Molecular Systems Biology 2843:"The Deep, Hot Biosphere" 2493:Molecular Systems Biology 2210:10.1007/s11084-018-9555-8 2014:"Energy at life's origin" 1839:10.1038/s41559-017-0311-7 1423:10.1007/s00792-018-1058-z 1379:10.1007/s00792-007-0071-4 1201:10.1017/S1473550405002314 915:and served as a means of 686:pentose phosphate pathway 574:noted the resemblance of 559:(ZnS), with additions of 298:Gold's deep-hot biosphere 286:Volcanic ash in the ocean 217:Yellowstone National Park 175:Oparin-Haldane hypothesis 5636:Katzourakis, A. (2013). 4799:Muller, Anthonie W. J.; 4480:Walsh, J. Bruce (1995). 4125:Research in Microbiology 846:pentafluorophenyl esters 351:organometallic complexes 6564:10.1073/pnas.1922139117 5938:10.1073/pnas.1902336116 5522:10.1126/science.aaw1955 5305:Oxford University Press 5044:10.1073/pnas.92.18.8158 4354:10.1023/A:1006548904157 4048:10.1073/pnas.1117774109 3892:Microbiological Reviews 3351:10.1126/science.1241888 2868:10.1073/pnas.89.13.6045 2726:10.1023/A:1006592502746 2325:10.1073/pnas.0609592104 2038:10.1126/science.1251653 1557:10.1073/pnas.1117774109 1306:2008E&PSL.275..326F 944:proteinoid microspheres 938:Proteinoid microspheres 908:segmented RNA genomes. 475:The active site of the 265:Deep sea alkaline vents 6451:10.1002/anie.201607919 6404:10.1002/anie.202015910 6355:10.1002/anie.201903808 6249:10.1002/anie.201505742 6137:Journal of Biosciences 6055:10.1098/rsta.2016.0347 5713:10.1126/sciadv.1500527 5654:10.1098/rstb.2012.0493 5181:10.1002/cbic.200800391 5144:10.1002/anie.200601267 4983:10.1073/pnas.97.8.3868 4388:"Are Aliens Among Us?" 3957:10.1186/1745-6150-4-27 3883:Wächtershäuser, Günter 3850:10.1186/1745-6150-4-26 3618:10.1073/pnas.220406697 3236:Wächtershäuser, Günter 2781:10.1098/rsfs.2019.0067 2679:10.1002/anie.201702633 2562:10.1002/anie.202117211 2383:10.1098/rstb.2002.1183 2145:10.1098/rstb.2016.0419 972:semipermeable membrane 752: 678:different biochemistry 660:then evolved into the 512:may have reacted with 484: 340:in water. Radioactive 6610:Nature Communications 6090:. Pleasantville, NY: 5615:10.1089/ast.2018.1851 4670:Nature Communications 4613:Nature Communications 4490:University of Arizona 3995:Physiological Reviews 3730:10.1387/ijdb.170028yv 3453:(28 September 2013). 3385:(23 September 2011). 2952:10.1089/ast.2006.0066 2841:Gold, Thomas (1992). 1790:10.1089/ast.2019.2045 1470:Astrobiology Magazine 750: 500:. However, prebiotic 474: 328:as that found in the 280:erythrose 4-phosphate 5997:10.3390/life10010006 5765:10.3390/genes2040869 4801:Schulze-Makuch, Dirk 4206:The Blind Watchmaker 4163:(2 September 1982). 4161:Cairns-Smith, Graham 3791:10.3390/life10030020 3203:10.1002/msb.20145228 3045:. Berlin; New York: 2505:10.1002/msb.20145228 1616:10.3390/life11020134 875:complex biochemicals 770:threose nucleic acid 766:peptide nucleic acid 479:enzyme, part of the 332:uranium ore seam in 321:radioactive elements 291:Geoffrey W. Hoffmann 186:Hot freshwater lakes 6622:2022NatCo..13.1460M 6555:2020PNAS..11713267Y 6549:(24): 13267–13274. 6490:2019NatCh..11.1009B 6445:(42): 13204–13209. 6398:(19): 10775–10783. 6243:(40): 11735–11739. 6047:2017RSPTA.37560347G 5988:2020Life...10....6C 5929:2019PNAS..11615830J 5923:(32): 15830–15835. 5815:2015PLoSO..1026094J 5705:2015SciA....1E0527N 5607:2018AsBio..18.1611J 5451:2015NatCh...7..301P 5429:Sutherland, John D. 5411:10.1021/ja00159a057 5232:10.1038/nature08013 5224:2009Natur.459..239P 5093:1993Natur.362..709L 5035:1995PNAS...92.8158L 4974:2000PNAS...97.3868N 4919:(5495): 1306–1307. 4829:2006PhyA..362..369M 4729:1985JThBi.115..429M 4625:2017NatCo...8..434N 4576:2015JThBi.382..292M 4407:2007SciAm.297f..62D 4395:Scientific American 4346:1998OLEB...28..515H 4301:2011SMat....7.2600S 4039:2012PNAS..109E.821M 3782:2020Life...10...20P 3670:2016NatSR...629883C 3609:2000PNAS...9712503O 3603:(23): 12503–12507. 3558:1993BpJ....65.2698F 3545:Biophysical Journal 3486:2013JChPh.139l1923E 3343:2013Sci...342.1098A 3337:(6162): 1098–1100. 3254:1998Sci...281..670H 3147:1990Natur.344..387P 2987:2004OLEB...34..533P 2944:2007AsBio...7..852A 2859:1992PNAS...89.6045G 2718:1999OLEB...29..153M 2449:10.1038/nature21377 2440:2017Natur.543...60D 2202:2018OLEB...48..159W 2030:2014Sci...344.1092M 2024:(6188): 1092–1093. 1972:10.3390/life5010872 1963:2015Life....5..872D 1905:10.3390/life8020016 1896:2018Life....8...16M 1782:2020AsBio..20..429D 1732:10.3390/life5010872 1723:2015Life....5..872D 1607:2021Life...11..134D 1509:2011NatCh...3..775K 1271:2006Icar..180..277L 1236:2006Icar..180..274V 1193:2005IJAsB...4...19L 1158:2004Icar..168...18L 1116:, pp. 166–167. 1099:, pp. 148–150. 1063:, pp. 147–148. 1051:, pp. 121–123. 917:horizontal transfer 774:glycol nucleic acid 631:Graham Cairns-Smith 494:acetyl-CoA synthase 477:acetyl-CoA synthase 6298:10.1038/nchem.2878 6041:(2109): 20160347. 5648:(1626): 20120493. 5516:(6511): eaaw1955. 5459:10.1038/nchem.2202 4558:Maury, CP (2015). 4309:10.1039/c0sm01354d 4119:(September 2009). 3657:Scientific Reports 3451:England, Jeremy L. 3427:(Blog). Discover. 2556:(23): e202117211. 2139:(1735): 20160419. 1517:10.1038/nchem.1127 929:Polyester droplets 897:protein repertoire 788:fragments such as 753: 733:amyloid hypothesis 654:dicarboxylic acids 572:Archibald Macallum 485: 244:geothermal springs 223:Geothermal springs 196:hydrogen carbonate 6732:978-1-7881-6055-1 6690:978-0-19-855342-7 6484:(11): 1009–1018. 6391:Angewandte Chemie 6349:(24): 8151–8155. 6101:978-0-340-13000-1 5601:(12): 1611–1614. 5490:Patel et al. 2015 5393:Rebek, Julius Jr. 5361:978-0-618-00583-3 5314:978-0-19-507951-7 5218:(7244): 239–242. 5175:(15): 2386–2387. 5138:(37): 6176–6179. 5087:(6422): 709–715. 5029:(18): 8158–8160. 4880:978-0-87969-054-0 4450:(Press release). 4386:(December 2007). 4254:10.1021/ja061782k 4248:(27): 8914–8919. 4216:978-0-393-31570-7 4100:978-3-642-21624-4 3885:(December 1988). 3678:10.1038/srep29883 3494:10.1063/1.4818538 3419:(10 March 2010). 3301:978-0-393-06596-1 3248:(5377): 670–672. 3127:(29 March 1990). 3056:978-0-387-09293-5 2853:(13): 6045–6049. 2673:(27): 7920–7923. 2318:(22): 9346–9351. 1833:(11): 1716–1721. 1329:Archiv Euromedica 962:Jeewanu protocell 956:Colin Pittendrigh 619:silicate minerals 615:geothermal fields 518:Strecker reaction 454:Christian de Duve 394:Iron–sulfur world 25:iron-sulfur world 6757: 6736: 6710: 6678: 6652: 6651: 6641: 6601: 6595: 6594: 6584: 6566: 6534: 6528: 6527: 6517: 6478:Nature Chemistry 6469: 6463: 6462: 6430: 6424: 6423: 6381: 6375: 6374: 6334: 6328: 6327: 6317: 6286:Nature Chemistry 6277: 6271: 6270: 6260: 6231:(29 July 2015). 6229:Szostak, Jack W. 6224: 6218: 6217: 6215: 6214: 6190: 6184: 6183: 6181: 6180: 6174: 6133: 6120: 6114: 6113: 6083: 6077: 6076: 6066: 6026: 6020: 6019: 6009: 5999: 5967: 5961: 5960: 5950: 5940: 5908: 5902: 5901: 5867: 5858: 5847: 5846: 5836: 5826: 5794: 5788: 5787: 5777: 5767: 5741: 5735: 5734: 5724: 5692:Science Advances 5682: 5676: 5675: 5665: 5633: 5627: 5626: 5590: 5584: 5583: 5581: 5580: 5560: 5549: 5548: 5546: 5544: 5499: 5493: 5487: 5481: 5480: 5470: 5438:Nature Chemistry 5424: 5415: 5414: 5405:(3): 1249–1250. 5388: 5382: 5381: 5352:Houghton Mifflin 5341: 5335: 5334: 5297:Kauffman, Stuart 5293: 5287: 5286: 5258: 5252: 5251: 5207: 5201: 5200: 5162: 5156: 5155: 5127: 5121: 5120: 5101:10.1038/362709a0 5073: 5067: 5066: 5056: 5046: 5012: 5006: 5005: 4995: 4985: 4968:(8): 3868–3871. 4951: 4945: 4944: 4908: 4902: 4900: 4859:Orgel, Leslie E. 4855: 4849: 4848: 4822: 4796: 4790: 4789: 4779: 4755: 4749: 4748: 4710: 4704: 4703: 4693: 4661: 4655: 4654: 4644: 4604: 4598: 4597: 4587: 4555: 4549: 4548: 4512: 4506: 4505: 4503: 4501: 4492:. Archived from 4477: 4468: 4467: 4465: 4463: 4443: 4437: 4436: 4431: 4429: 4423: 4392: 4380: 4374: 4373: 4340:(4–6): 515–521. 4327: 4321: 4320: 4294: 4285:(6): 2600–2612. 4272: 4266: 4265: 4235: 4229: 4228: 4201:Dawkins, Richard 4197: 4191: 4190: 4157: 4151: 4150: 4140: 4112: 4077: 4071: 4070: 4060: 4050: 4018: 4012: 4011: 3986: 3980: 3979: 3969: 3959: 3933: 3927: 3926: 3916: 3879: 3873: 3872: 3862: 3852: 3828: 3822: 3821: 3811: 3793: 3761: 3755: 3754: 3752: 3750: 3732: 3723:(8–9): 471–478. 3706: 3700: 3699: 3689: 3664:(29883): 29883. 3647: 3641: 3640: 3630: 3620: 3586: 3580: 3579: 3577: 3552:(6): 2698–2699. 3535: 3529: 3528: 3526: 3479: 3459: 3447: 3441: 3440: 3438: 3436: 3413: 3407: 3406: 3404: 3402: 3379: 3373: 3372: 3362: 3320: 3314: 3313: 3293: 3280: 3274: 3273: 3234:Huber, Claudia; 3231: 3225: 3224: 3214: 3180: 3169: 3168: 3158: 3156:10.1038/344387a0 3121: 3115: 3114: 3083: 3077: 3076: 3031: 3025: 3024: 2998: 2970: 2964: 2963: 2927: 2921: 2920: 2918: 2917: 2897: 2891: 2890: 2880: 2870: 2838: 2832: 2831: 2829: 2817: 2811: 2810: 2800: 2760: 2754: 2753: 2697: 2691: 2690: 2658: 2652: 2651: 2625: 2601: 2592: 2591: 2581: 2541: 2535: 2534: 2524: 2484: 2478: 2477: 2451: 2419: 2413: 2412: 2402: 2362: 2356: 2355: 2345: 2327: 2303: 2297: 2296: 2270: 2261:(7): 1406–1416. 2246: 2240: 2239: 2229: 2181: 2175: 2174: 2164: 2124: 2118: 2117: 2115: 2114: 2100: 2094: 2093: 2091: 2090: 2075: 2066: 2065: 2009: 2003: 2002: 1992: 1974: 1942: 1936: 1935: 1925: 1907: 1875: 1869: 1868: 1858: 1818: 1812: 1811: 1801: 1761: 1755: 1754: 1744: 1734: 1702: 1696: 1695: 1685: 1645: 1639: 1638: 1628: 1618: 1586: 1580: 1579: 1569: 1559: 1535: 1529: 1528: 1497:Nature Chemistry 1492: 1486: 1485: 1483: 1482: 1460: 1454: 1449: 1443: 1442: 1405: 1399: 1398: 1362: 1356: 1355: 1343: 1337: 1336: 1324: 1318: 1317: 1300:(3–4): 326–336. 1289: 1283: 1282: 1254: 1248: 1247: 1219: 1213: 1212: 1176: 1170: 1169: 1141: 1132: 1131: 1123: 1117: 1111: 1100: 1094: 1088: 1082: 1076: 1070: 1064: 1058: 1052: 1046: 1040: 1034: 989:diamidophosphate 863:hydrogen sulfide 608: 607: 606: 209:hydrocyanic acid 138: 126: 114: 102: 89: 77: 65: 53: 6765: 6764: 6760: 6759: 6758: 6756: 6755: 6754: 6740: 6739: 6733: 6713: 6691: 6681:Clarendon Press 6667: 6664: 6658: 6656: 6655: 6603: 6602: 6598: 6536: 6535: 6531: 6471: 6470: 6466: 6432: 6431: 6427: 6383: 6382: 6378: 6336: 6335: 6331: 6279: 6278: 6274: 6226: 6225: 6221: 6212: 6210: 6192: 6191: 6187: 6178: 6176: 6172: 6131: 6122: 6121: 6117: 6102: 6094:. p. 287. 6085: 6084: 6080: 6028: 6027: 6023: 5969: 5968: 5964: 5910: 5909: 5905: 5865: 5860: 5859: 5850: 5809:(5): e0126094. 5796: 5795: 5791: 5743: 5742: 5738: 5699:(8): e1500527. 5684: 5683: 5679: 5635: 5634: 5630: 5592: 5591: 5587: 5578: 5576: 5562: 5561: 5552: 5542: 5540: 5501: 5500: 5496: 5488: 5484: 5426: 5425: 5418: 5390: 5389: 5385: 5362: 5343: 5342: 5338: 5315: 5295: 5294: 5290: 5260: 5259: 5255: 5209: 5208: 5204: 5164: 5163: 5159: 5129: 5128: 5124: 5075: 5074: 5070: 5014: 5013: 5009: 4953: 4952: 4948: 4910: 4909: 4905: 4881: 4857: 4856: 4852: 4820:physics/0507173 4798: 4797: 4793: 4757: 4756: 4752: 4712: 4711: 4707: 4663: 4662: 4658: 4606: 4605: 4601: 4557: 4556: 4552: 4514: 4513: 4509: 4499: 4497: 4486:Origins of life 4479: 4478: 4471: 4461: 4459: 4445: 4444: 4440: 4427: 4425: 4421: 4390: 4382: 4381: 4377: 4329: 4328: 4324: 4274: 4273: 4269: 4237: 4236: 4232: 4217: 4199: 4198: 4194: 4179: 4159: 4158: 4154: 4114: 4101: 4080: 4078: 4074: 4033:(14): E821-30. 4020: 4019: 4015: 3990:Macallum, A. B. 3988: 3987: 3983: 3935: 3934: 3930: 3881: 3880: 3876: 3830: 3829: 3825: 3763: 3762: 3758: 3748: 3746: 3708: 3707: 3703: 3649: 3648: 3644: 3588: 3587: 3583: 3537: 3536: 3532: 3524: 3457: 3449: 3448: 3444: 3434: 3432: 3425:Cosmic Variance 3415: 3414: 3410: 3400: 3398: 3381: 3380: 3376: 3322: 3321: 3317: 3302: 3282: 3281: 3277: 3233: 3232: 3228: 3182: 3181: 3172: 3125:Popper, Karl R. 3123: 3122: 3118: 3085: 3084: 3080: 3057: 3047:Springer-Verlag 3033: 3032: 3028: 2996:10.1.1.456.8955 2972: 2971: 2967: 2929: 2928: 2924: 2915: 2913: 2899: 2898: 2894: 2840: 2839: 2835: 2819: 2818: 2814: 2775:(6): 20190067. 2769:Interface Focus 2762: 2761: 2757: 2699: 2698: 2694: 2660: 2659: 2655: 2603: 2602: 2595: 2543: 2542: 2538: 2486: 2485: 2481: 2434:(7643): 60–64. 2421: 2420: 2416: 2377:(1429): 59–85. 2364: 2363: 2359: 2305: 2304: 2300: 2248: 2247: 2243: 2183: 2182: 2178: 2126: 2125: 2121: 2112: 2110: 2102: 2101: 2097: 2088: 2086: 2077: 2076: 2069: 2011: 2010: 2006: 1944: 1943: 1939: 1877: 1876: 1872: 1820: 1819: 1815: 1763: 1762: 1758: 1704: 1703: 1699: 1647: 1646: 1642: 1588: 1587: 1583: 1550:(14): E821-30. 1537: 1536: 1532: 1503:(10): 775–781. 1494: 1493: 1489: 1480: 1478: 1462: 1461: 1457: 1450: 1446: 1407: 1406: 1402: 1364: 1363: 1359: 1345: 1344: 1340: 1326: 1325: 1321: 1291: 1290: 1286: 1256: 1255: 1251: 1221: 1220: 1216: 1178: 1177: 1173: 1143: 1142: 1135: 1125: 1124: 1120: 1112: 1103: 1095: 1091: 1083: 1079: 1071: 1067: 1059: 1055: 1047: 1043: 1035: 1031: 1026: 1009: 985: 964: 940: 931: 926: 883: 871: 859:John Sutherland 855: 827: 815:stereochemistry 762: 745: 725: 723:Protein amyloid 700: 694: 692:Fox proteinoids 674: 638:montmorillonite 627: 612: 605: 603: 602: 601: 600: 554: 546: 534: 529: 466:Stuart Kauffman 408:postulated the 402: 396: 363: 313: 300: 288: 273: 267: 259: 225: 191:Jack W. Szostak 188: 164: 152: 146: 142: 139: 130: 127: 118: 115: 106: 103: 94: 90: 81: 78: 69: 66: 57: 54: 40:The biochemist 38: 17: 12: 11: 5: 6763: 6761: 6753: 6752: 6750:Origin of life 6742: 6741: 6738: 6737: 6731: 6711: 6689: 6679:. Oxford, UK: 6669:Calvin, Melvin 6663: 6660: 6654: 6653: 6596: 6529: 6464: 6425: 6376: 6329: 6292:(2): 212–217. 6272: 6219: 6185: 6144:(4): 563–570. 6115: 6100: 6078: 6021: 5962: 5903: 5876:(7): 449–458. 5848: 5789: 5758:(4): 869–911. 5736: 5677: 5628: 5585: 5550: 5494: 5482: 5445:(4): 301–307. 5431:(April 2015). 5416: 5383: 5360: 5336: 5313: 5288: 5269:(6): 634–639. 5253: 5202: 5157: 5122: 5077:Lindahl, Tomas 5068: 5007: 4946: 4903: 4879: 4850: 4813:(2): 369–381. 4791: 4770:(2): 193–231. 4750: 4723:(3): 429–453. 4705: 4676:(1): 234–242. 4656: 4599: 4550: 4523:(2): 141–150. 4507: 4469: 4452:Wellcome Trust 4438: 4375: 4322: 4267: 4230: 4215: 4192: 4177: 4152: 4131:(7): 487–492. 4099: 4072: 4013: 4002:(2): 316–357. 3981: 3943:Biology Direct 3928: 3899:(4): 452–484. 3874: 3837:Biology Direct 3823: 3756: 3701: 3642: 3581: 3530: 3470:(12): 121923. 3442: 3408: 3383:Musser, George 3374: 3315: 3300: 3275: 3226: 3170: 3116: 3078: 3055: 3026: 2981:(6): 533–547. 2965: 2938:(6): 852–872. 2922: 2892: 2833: 2827:10.1101/096701 2812: 2755: 2712:(2): 153–166. 2692: 2653: 2593: 2536: 2479: 2414: 2357: 2298: 2241: 2196:(2): 159–179. 2176: 2119: 2095: 2067: 2004: 1957:(1): 872–887. 1937: 1870: 1813: 1776:(4): 429–452. 1756: 1717:(1): 872–887. 1697: 1660:(2): a004929. 1640: 1581: 1530: 1487: 1455: 1444: 1400: 1373:(4): 577–583. 1357: 1338: 1319: 1284: 1265:(1): 277–280. 1249: 1230:(1): 274–276. 1214: 1171: 1133: 1118: 1101: 1089: 1087:, p. 148. 1077: 1065: 1053: 1041: 1028: 1027: 1025: 1022: 1021: 1020: 1015: 1008: 1005: 984: 981: 963: 960: 939: 936: 930: 927: 925: 922: 901:bioinformatics 882: 879: 870: 867: 854: 851: 835:macromolecules 826: 823: 806:cyanoacetylene 794:glyceraldehyde 790:glycolaldehyde 761: 758: 744: 741: 737:chiroselective 724: 721: 696:Main article: 693: 690: 673: 670: 642:polymerization 626: 623: 610: 604: 552: 544: 532: 528: 525: 449:Jeremy England 398:Main article: 395: 392: 367:Peter Schuster 362: 361:The hypercycle 359: 312: 309: 302:In the 1970s, 299: 296: 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